PSYC 326 Ch 8 Unit 3 Exam

Selective attention

The ability to concentrate exclusively on relevant stimuli and ignore task-irrelevant stimuli in the environment.

Sustained attention

The ability to maintain a persistent focus of attention over time on unchallenging, uninteresting tasks or activities or when fatigued.

Attentional capacity

The amount of information in short-term memory to which one can attend.

Stimulant medication increase sustained attention, impulse control, and persistent of work effort in __________ of children with ADHD. a. 80% b. 12% c. 60% d. 50%

a. 80%

________ of children with ADHD also meet criteria for having a specific learning disorders by late childhood when learning disorders are assessed as performing below grade level. a. 80% b. 15% c. 75% d. 50%

a. 80%

Which of the following disorders is most likely associated with ADHD that reflects problems with motor coordinating and delays in achieving motor milestones? a. Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) b. Asperger's Disorder c. Tic Disorders d. Reactive Attachment Disorder

a. Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD)

Which of the following health issues are NOT associated with ADHD? a. Diabetes b. Enuresis c. Encopresis d. Sleep disturbances

a. Diabetes

What are the cognitive processes in the brain that underlie a child's capacity for self-regulation functions? a. Executive function (EFs) b. Regulatory controls (RCs) c. Cognitive Distortions (CDs) d. Cognitive Deficits (CDs)

a. Executive function (EFs)

cognitive impulsivity

disorganization, hurried thinking, and need for supervision

Ways to diagnose ADHD

interviews observations rating scales (conners') continuous performance test IQ, achievements, & adaptive behaviors

Impaired academic functioning ADHD

lower grades (50% need tutoring) failure to advance in grade (30% fail or repeat class) special education classes 10-35% fail to graduate high school

IQ in children with ADHD

normal overall intelligence

long term effects are

not well documented

Speech and language impairments

occurs in 30-60% of children ADHD-HI have poor language skills ADHD-PI have weaker receptive and expressive vocab skills problems with pragmatics

Who does the conners' scale

parent teacher child

family characteristics

parents more negative, direct, intrusive stress lower sense of parenting competence increased alcohol increased marital conflict mothers tend to suffer from depression

cognitive processes

working memory hold info in mind can't benefit from hindsight diminished sense of time limited self awareness

genetic factors explain as much as what % of the variance in ADHD symptoms

75%

What % worldwide have ADHD

5%

ADHD is the

most heritable disorder

DZ concordance

.33

MZ concordance

.73

what presentation shows positive/illusory bias

ADHD-C

what % don't respond to medication

10-20%

what % with ADHD also have bipolar

20%

Mood disorders

20-30% experience depression

anxiety disorders

25% with ADHD will experience excessive anxiety display social and academic difficulties experience greater long-term impairments and mental health problems

For older individuals (17+) need how many symptoms to be diagnosed

5 or more

Summer treatment program

6 week program work on social and academic skills evidence based treatment developed in 1980's involve child in real activities provides a foundation learn to control behaviors organization skills learned stepping stone for families

What % of school age children and adolescents in north america

6-7%

what % respond to the medications

60-70% but most continue to have symptoms

what % with bipolar also have ADHD

80%

sluggish cognitive tempo (SCT)

A cluster of symptoms that includes daydreams, sleepy/drowsy, underactive/slow moving, tired/lethargic, easily confused, stares blankly, lost in thoughts, in a fog, slow thinking and responding, spacey/alertness changes from moment to moment, apathetic, unmotivated, or low initiative and persistence.

Hyperactivity-impulsivity

A core feature of ADHD that involves the undercontrol of motor behavior, poor sustained inhibition of behavior, the inability to delay a response or defer gratification, or an inability to inhibit dominant responses in relation to ongoing situational demands.

developmental coordination disorder (DCD)

A disorder characterized by marked motor incoordination (e.g., clumsiness) and delays in achieving motor milestones.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

A disorder in which the individual consistently and repeatedly shows age-inappropriate behaviors in two general categories of inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity, resulting in significant impairment in life functioning.

positive bias or positive illusory bias

A person's report of higher self-esteem than is warranted by his or her behavior. This exaggeration of one's competence may, for example, cause a child with ADHD to perceive their relationships with their parents no differently than do control children, even though their parents see things in a more negative light.

quality of life

A person's subjective perception of their position in life as evidenced by their physical, psychological, and social functioning.

Combined presentation (ADHD-C)

A presentation of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder characterized by a combination of inattentive symptoms and hyperactive-impulsive symptoms.

Predominantly hyperactive-impulsive presentation (ADHD-HI)

A presentation of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder characterized by predominantly hyperactive-impulsive symptoms.

Predominantly inattentive presentation (ADHD-PI)

A presentation of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder characterized by predominantly inattentive symptoms.

Parent management training (PMT)

A program aimed at teaching parents to cope effectively with their child's difficult behavior and their own reactions to it.

frontostriatal circuitry of the brain

A structure of the brain consisting of the prefrontal cortex and the basal ganglia; associated with attention, executive functions, delayed response, and response organization. Abnormalities within this structure have been linked to ADHD.

response-cost procedures

A technique for managing a subject's behavior that involves the loss of reinforcers such as privileges, activities, points, or tokens in response to inappropriate behavior.

Presentation type

A term used to describe a group of individuals with something in common—symptoms, etiology, problem severity, or likely outcome—that makes them distinct from other groups.

Distractibility

A term used to describe deficits in selective attention.

differences in ADHD and Bipolar disorder

ADHD not agitated when moving ADHD talk a lot, BD not making associations ADHD doesn't suffer mood disorders

Inattention

An inability to sustain attention or stick to tasks or play activities, to remember and follow through on instructions or rules, and to resist distractions.

tic disorders

Disorders characterized by sudden, repetitive, nonrhythmic motor movements or sounds, such as eye blinking, facial grimacing, throat clearing, and grunting or other sounds.

hyperactive

Displaying an unusually high level of energy and an inability to remain still or quiet.

Stimulant medications

Drugs that alter the activity in the frontostriatal region of the brain by impacting three or more neurotransmitters important to the functioning of this region—dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine, and possibly serotonin. Stimulant medications are commonly used for the management of symptoms of ADHD and its associated impairments.

Executive functions (EFs)

Higher-order mental processes that enable a child to maintain a problem-solving orientation in order to attain a future goal. Examples of executive functions include working memory, mental computation, flexibility of thinking, internalization of speech, response inhibition, motor coordination, self-regulation of arousal level, and mature moral reasoning, among others.

inattentive

Lacking the ability to focus or sustain one's attention. Children who are inattentive find it difficult to sustain mental effort during work or play and behave carelessly, as if they are not listening.

impulsive

Prone to acting with little or no consideration of possible consequences. This term is frequently used to describe children who suffer from attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

Alerting

Refers to an initial reaction to a stimulus, and involves the ability to prepare for what is about to happen.

goodness of fit

The extent to which two things are suited. For instance, with respect to child psychopathology, one might use the term to refer to the extent to which the child's early temperament and the parent's style of interaction are suited to each other.

methylphenidate

The stimulant medication most commonly used in treating children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

In addition to individual suffering and stigmatizing attitudes by others, the societal costs of ADHD are estimated at _________________a year and at least ____________________ per individual in the U.S. a. $40 to 70 billion; $14,000 b. $5 to 15 million; $500,000 c. $10 to 20 million; $250,000 d. $100 to 150 million; $50,000

a. $40 to 70 billion; $14,000

Although ADHD is not associated with an intellectual deficit, children with this disorder score ________ lower on IQ tests than control children or siblings. a. 5 to 9 points b. 10 to 15 points c. 15 to 20 points d. 20 to 30 points

a. 5 to 9 points

During the 1940s and 1950s, it was not uncommon for children with behavioral issues to be incorrectly labeled as a person with ____________________, even though they displayed no intellectual disability. a. Minimal Brain Damage and Minimal Brain Dysfunction (MBD) b. Down Syndrome c. Traumatic Brain Injury d. Intellectual disability

a. Minimal Brain Damage and Minimal Brain Dysfunction (MBD)

__________________________ is a treatment that focuses on teaching both effective parenting practices and strategies for coping with challenges of parenting a child with ADHD. a. Parent Management training (PMT) b. Parental Boot camp Training (PBT) c. Parental Educational exchange (PEE) d. Anger management

a. Parent Management training (PMT)

The risk of a child developing ADHD who also has a parent with the same disorder is approximately 60% which strongly suggests that the disorder _____________________. a. Runs in families b. Is related to the mother's side of the family, only. c. Must be related to generations of poor parenting styles. d. Is the result of environmental factors such as low SES.

a. Runs in families

ADHD is more commonly diagnosed among _____ than ________. a. boys; girls b. adults; children c. children; adolescents d. girls; boys

a. boys; girls

selective attention/distractibility

ability to concentrate and ignore irrelevant stimuli more likely to be distracted by highly salient and appealing stimuli no deficits in attentional capacity

What is ADHD-C associated with

aggressiveness defiance peer rejection school suspension placement in sped classes often referred for treatment

psychostimulants

amphetamines methylphenidates SNRIs

psychosocial treatments usually recommended for the following reasons:

are as effective as medication as long as actively used many youths don't respond to medication

Which of the following statements about ADHD is TRUE? a. Symptoms of ADHD are relatively unseen in children before the age of 15 b. Children with overactive and unrestrained behaviors have been documented for more than 200 years. c. Typically children with symptoms of ADHD are untreatable due to their high levels of agitation d. ADHD is a disorder that is rarely seen among children in clinical settings

b. Children with overactive and unrestrained behaviors have been documented for more than 200 years.

Approximately 20% to 30% of children and adolescents with ADHD also experience ___________. a. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder b. Depression c. Tic Disorder d. Delusional Disorder

b. Depression

Dan is often very restless and can be found running around the classroom, bouncing on his chair, and talking excessively. These behaviors best represent which aspect of ADHD? a. Impulsivity b. Hyperactivity c. Distractibility d. Inattention

b. Hyperactivity

Which of the following refers to an inability to sustain attention, to remember and follow through on instructions, and resist distraction? a. Distractible b. Inattention c. Defiance d. Flakey

b. Inattention

Symptoms of ADHD were first described by ________________ in 1775 a. Alexander Crichton b. Melchior Adam Weikard c. Jason Spiegelman d. Thomas Paine

b. Melchior Adam Weikard

Attention-deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is categorized in the DSM-5 as a(n)_______________ disorder. a. Mood b. Neurodevelopmental c. Psychotic d. Impulse control

b. Neurodevelopmental

Twin studies have found that ________________ in the family account for only a small amount of the variation in ADHD symptoms. a. Levels of parental education b. Psychosocial factors c. Dysfunction d. Genetic markers

b. Psychosocial factors

___________________ have been used since the 1930s to treat the symptoms of ADHD. a. Lobotomies b. Stimulant medications c. Vegetarian diets d. Anti-depressants

b. Stimulant medications

Which of the following statements best reflects the current view of ADHD treatments? a. There are few treatment options available for children with ADHD which is why the prognosis for them long-term is devastating. b. There's no cure for ADHD, but a wide-variety of effective treatments are available to help children cope with the symptoms and lead productive lives. c. Children with ADHD should only be treated with stimulant medications or dietary management. d. Treatments options for children with ADHD are primarily long-term care facilities similar to institutions.

b. There's no cure for ADHD, but a wide-variety of effective treatments are available to help children cope with the symptoms and lead productive lives.

According to physician, George Sill, symptoms of overactivity and poor attention in the early 1900s were the result of a. problems with prefrontal regulation b. defective moral control c. poor parenting skills d. lack of structured nutrition

b. defective moral control

When is age of onset for ADHD

before age 12

what puts children with ADHD at risk for academic problems?

behavioral impulsivity and cognitive impulsivity

medications that reduce symptoms

block dopamine receptors involved in the reuptake increasing dopamine

What gender is ADHD more common in

boys

______________ are the most effective and most commonly used to treat the symptoms of ADHD. a. Anti-psychotics b. Gluten-free diet c. Stimulant medications d. SSRIs

c. Stimulant medications

Which of the following statements best represents the most current explanation of ADHD? a. Current models focus on the importance of increased physical agitation associated with hyperactivity, as a singular explanation. b. The most accepted models for understanding ADHD focus on inattention and problems with impulse control as the primary symptoms of ADHD c. ADHD is viewed with a multi-pathway model that includes both attention-related and motivation-related theories. d. More focus is currently given to understanding the environmental causes, such as nutrition, that contribute to the development of ADHD.

c. ADHD is viewed with a multi-pathway model that includes both attention-related and motivation-related theories.

Due to the problems with impulsivity, motor inhibition and lack of planning children with ADHD are often described by their parents as _______________. a. Insincere b. Combative c. Accident-prone d. Self-centered

c. Accident-prone

Which of the following children are demonstrating problems with Executive Function (EF)? a. Jesse can get irritated when he doesn't understand a concept in math b. Enrique feels sleepy in class when he is bored with an assignment that he has no interest in learning. c. Gregory often calls out answers without raising his hand despite remarks from his peers or reprimands from the teacher. d. Helen sometimes forgets to write down her homework, but can recall most of the information while she begins working at home.

c. Gregory often calls out answers without raising his hand despite remarks from his peers or reprimands from the teacher.

Dan is often very restless and can be found running around the classroom, bouncing on his chair, and talking excessively. These behaviors best represent which aspect of ADHD? a. Distractibility b. Inattention c. Hyperactivity d. Impulsivity

c. Hyperactivity

Which of the following task would represent the impulsivity associated with ADHD? a. Cristian will often be the last child in the classroom because he will hold the door open for all of his classmates. b. Mark is often "left behind" on classroom instructions because he will stare out the classroom window daydreaming. c. John is often reprimanded by his teacher for blurting out the answers in class without raising his hand. d. Marco will endlessly fidget and squirm in his seat in class which makes him annoying to the students around him.

c. John is often reprimanded by his teacher for blurting out the answers in class without raising his hand.

Symptoms of ADHD were first described by ________________ in 1775 a. Thomas Paine b. Alexander Crichton c. Melchior Adam Weikard d. Jason Spiegelman

c. Melchior Adam Weikard

Which of the following statements about the cause of ADHD is most accurate? a. ADHD is caused by excessive sugar intake that worsens around Halloween. b. The most significant factor associated with the development of ADHD is bad parents who typically overindulge their children which promotes poor impulse control. c. Numerous causes for ADHD have been proposed but none of have been unanimously accepted as fact due to lack adequate testing or support. d. Children develop ADHD after watching more than 200 hours of television.

c. Numerous causes for ADHD have been proposed but none of have been unanimously accepted as fact due to lack adequate testing or support.

Which of the following are NOT correct ADHD presentation-types? a. Predominantly hyperactive (ADHD-HI) b. Combined (ADHD-C) c. Predominately Impulsive (ADHD-I) d. Predominantly inattentive (ADHD-PI)

c. Predominately Impulsive (ADHD-I)

Nearly _________of parents report _______________behaviors other than the core symptoms of ADHD as be the most concerning. a. one-half; defiance b. three-fourths; compulsive c. two-thirds; aggression d. one-sixths; neuro-cognitive

c. two-thirds; aggression

ADHD-C

children who have symptoms of both inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity

mothers use of _________ during pregnancy are associated with ADHD

cigarettes, alcohol, or other drugs (contributing factors)

EF includes

cognitive processes language processes motor processes emotional processes

those who misuse alcohol and other drugs tend to have comorbid...

conduct disorder

boys often show...

conduct problems 50% who meet criteria for ADHD also meet criteria for ODD 30% with ODD will meet criteria for conduct disorders

Although symptoms can improve as a child ages ADHD continues into adolescence for at least ____ or more of elementary school children. a. 70% b. 95% c. 88% d. 50%

d. 50%

ADHD is a difficult disorder to treat because _____ of children with ADHD have a co-occuring psychological disorder. a. 50% b. 10% c. 30% d. 80%

d. 80%

Which of the following statements about ADHD is TRUE? a. ADHD can be easily identified with markers found in the DNA b. ADHD is not a real disorder and is the result of poor parenting and too much sugar in the diet c. ADHD can be easily diagnosed with a simple blood test d. ADHD has no distinct physical symptoms that can be identified on an x-ray or blood test

d. ADHD has no distinct physical symptoms that can be identified on an x-ray or blood test

________________ are used to test neurobiological theories and have revealed a consistent set of neural circuits associated with ADHD. a. Behavioral assessments b. Blood tests c. Intelligence (IQ) tests d. Brain-imaging studies

d. Brain-imaging studies

Children with ADHD often display problems with impulse control and organization. In what way(s) could these behaviors affect the life of the child? a. Children appreciate other children who don't do well in school which increases the number of positive peer relationships they acquire. b. Children with poor organizational skills may receive special services to help with this issue which could help the child succeed tin the long-run. c. Children with ADHD are often the class clown due to their high levels of energy which makes them popular amongst their peers and results in many friendships. d. Children with ADHD may experience frustration for not fitting in with their peers which can impact the child's self-esteem

d. Children with ADHD may experience frustration for not fitting in with their peers which can impact the child's self-esteem

Which of the following behaviors best reflects the features of excessive anxiety in children with ADHD? a. Children with ADHD have poor social awareness which leads to peer problems. b. Children with ADHD report bad dreams. c. Children with ADHD exhibit aggressive behavior. d. Children with ADHD worry about being separated from their parents.

d. Children with ADHD worry about being separated from their parents.

Some children with ADHD may outgrow the disorder or learn to effectively cope with the symptoms if they did not display problems with ______________. a. Depression b. Intelligence c. Hyperactivity d. Conduct

d. Conduct

The economic impact for people with ADHD across the lifespan is: a. Insignificant b. There is no economic impact for people with ADHD c. Marginal d. Considerable

d. Considerable

______________ focus(es) on managing inattentive and hyperactive-impulsive behaviors that interfere with learning. a. Parental management therapy b. Multimodal treatment c. ADHD support groups d. Educational interventions

d. Educational interventions

In an attempt to understand the cause of ADHD, researchers are studying ___________ influences, such as adoption and twin studies. a. Environmental b. Educational c. Nutritional d. Genetic

d. Genetic

_______________ by the age of 7 is the most consistent and strongest predictors of poor academic outcomes by the age of 16. a. Specific Learning Disorder b. Combative behavior c. Distorted self-perceptions d. Inattention

d. Inattention

Which of the following children are LEAST likely to be diagnosed with ADHD due to gender differences? a. Dan is often argumentative with his teachers which results in meetings with his parents. b. Raul cannot sit still for more than 10 seconds and can be found running around the room during class time. c. Albert cannot stop talking during class time even when the teacher reminds her to be quiet and her peers get annoyed with her chatter. d. Jillian is frequently inattentive and distracted in class, but she's not disruptive and doesn't cause trouble.

d. Jillian is frequently inattentive and distracted in class, but she's not disruptive and doesn't cause trouble.

Which of the following psychological disorders is positively correlated with ADHD and likely to co-occur? a. Anxiety disorders like Body Dysmorphic Disorder b. Dissociative disorders like Dissociative amnesia c. Psychotic disorder like Schizophrenia d. Mood disorders like Major Depressive Disorder

d. Mood disorders like Major Depressive Disorder

There is strong evidence that ADHD is a __________________ disorder, but biological and environmental risk factors shape the expression of the symptoms. a. Cognitive b. Genetic c. Biopsychosocial d. Neurodevelopmental

d. Neurodevelopmental

Which of the following statements about the developmental course of ADHD is correct? a. There is no evidence to suggest that temperament in infancy relates to ADHD b. There are no changes in the presentation of the symptoms associated with ADHD as the child gets older. c. Early markers of ADHD in infancy will remain the same as the child ages. d. Symptoms of ADHD change with development of the child across the lifespan.

d. Symptoms of ADHD change with development of the child across the lifespan.

short term effects of medications

decrease classroom disruption improvement in teacher and parent rating behaviors improvement in rule following improvement in peer interactions increase sustained attention persistency of work effort modest effects on academic achievement

blood flow to prefrontal regions and pathways connecting them to the limbic system

decreased blood flow to these regions

psychological measures

diminished arousal and arousability

examples of problems with sustained attention

doesn't stick to tasks or play activities does not remember and follow through has poor planning and organization problems in alerting- preparing for what is about to happen

psychostimulants affects the neurotransmitters

dopamine (DA) and norepinephrine (NE)

tolerable outcomes

have mild problems but constantly work to adapt to their difficulties

Executive functioning

higher order cognitive processes that enable problem-solving to attain future goals occurs in only about half of the children with ADHD

emotional impulsivity

impatience, low frustration tolerance, hot temper, quickness to anger, and irritability

impulsivity

inability to control immediate reactions or to think before acting

Core features in ADHD

inability to sustain attention problems focusing overtime on uninteresting tasks, activities, or when fatigued

hyperactive

inability to voluntarily inhibit dominant or ongoing behavior

What is ADHD characterized by

inattention (6+ for at least 6 months) and/or hyperactivity and impulsivity (6+ or at least 6 months)

Girls are more likely to display what symptoms than boys

inattentive and disorganized symptoms

physical and medical concerns

increase for substance abuse (mainly those w conduct) unique predictor for nicotine use (those only w ADHD) accident-proneness & risky behaviors 30-50% show motor coordination problems 20% have tic disorder

diagnosis of childhood bipolar disorder.....

increases the risk for ADHD, but the diagnosis of ADHD does not increase the risk for BP

behavioral impulsivity

inhibiting responses when situations require it

common side effects of medication

insomnia appetite problems weight loss gastrointestinal problems headaches irritability

sleep problems

insufficient sleep or exercise doesn't cause ADHD symptoms reduction can occur if sleep or exercise levels are improved

emotional processes

lack of emotional control can't see others point of view view themselves as always doing great

ADHD-PI (sluggish cognitive tempo)

less common peer neglect comorbid with learning disorders slow processing speed difficulties with information retrieval anxiety and mood disorders more common in girls

what amount of children with ADHD receive treatment

less than half

summer treatment program (STP)

maximize opportunities to build effective peer relations in normal settings and provide continuity in academic work

combination of medication and psychosocial treatment is....

moderately more effective than medication alone

ADHD is..

neurodevelopmental disorder early age of onset chronic course lasting alterations to neural development

ADHD-I experiences

peer neglect

social problems

peer problems - often disliked & rejected by peers and have few friends unable to apply social understanding in social situations greater peer problems = more likely to drop out

ADHD-HI experiences

peer rejection

Language processes

poor problem solving skills reading comprehension problems problems with self reflection

central impairments in children with ADHD

poor self regulation difficulty inhibiting behaviors (controlling) reward and motivational deficits

what does cross-situational mean

presents in two or more settings

abnormalities in the brain

primarily in the frontostriatal circuitry (prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia) smaller right cerebral volumes (3-4%) smaller cerebellum delayed brain maturation thalamus

ADHD-HI

primarily includes preschoolers and may have limited validity for older children rarest group

moderately poor outcomes

problems in school vocational problems interpersonal problems problems with alcohol

why might some individuals have a lower IQ?

problems with sustaining attention inability to hold information in mind (working memory)

PMT facts

provide parents with variety of skills taught neurobiological basis of ADHD given set of guiding principles taught behavior management techniques do enjoyable activities with child taught how to reduce own levels of arousal

research shows differences on

psychological measures measures of brain activity during vigilance tests blood flow to prefrontal regions and pathways connecting them to the limbic system

dopamine plays a central role in the

psychomotor activity and reward seeking

bad outcome

psychopathology repeated criminal activity

low doses of stimulant medication _______

reduces impulsivity and increases attention in individuals with and without ADHD

similarities in ADHD and Bipolar disorder

repetitiveness sleep disturbances increased energy

limitations of medication therapy

some don't respond discontinuation leads to return of symptoms effectiveness w preschoolers and adolescents not well documented high doses can increase tic families reluctant to use it

hyperactive/impulsive symptoms may predispose

some to develop ODD in childhood

____________ increases blood flow to the brain to increase the efficiency of certain brain parts

stimulant medication

types of treatment

stimulant medication parental management training psychological treatment (contingency management, summer treatment program)

motor processes

stop engaging in activities that are irrelevant

what is observed in an interview for diagnosing ADHD

strengths and weaknesses history family stress and dysfunction school experiences parent-child interactions teacher interview

children with ADHD

suffer from insomnia and excessive motor activity

brain structure implicated in ADHD rich with dopamine activity....

suggesting dysregulation in brain structure

direct contingency management

systematic, reward and punishments to shape behaviors

1/3 have

tolerable outcomes, bad outcomes, and moderately poor outcomes

measures of brain activity during vigilance tests

under responsiveness to stimuli/deficits in response inhibition