psych 206 study questions
sequential designs
A research design in which several similar cross-sectional or longitudinal studies (called sequences) are conducted at varying times. may permit both longitudinal and cross-sectional comparisons. reveals cohort effects. permits tracking of age-related changes more efficiently than longitudinal design.May have the same problems as longitudinal and cross-sectional strategies
What is meant by a "stage" of development?
A stage of development is an age period when certain needs, behaviors, experiences, and capabilities, are common and different from other age periods.
Describe each of the recent theoretical approaches to child development dynamic systems perspective and explain how each regards children as active contributors to their own development.
A view that regards the child's mind, body, and physical and social worlds as a dynamic, integrated system. A change in any part of the system leads the child to reorganize his or her behavior so the various components of the system work together again but in a more complex, effective way.
Piaget's Sensorimotor Stage, and give an example of behavior typical of each substage:. Secondary circular reactions (4-8 months)
Actions aimed at repeating interesting effects in the surrounding world; imitation of familiar behaviors
How do heredity, nutrition, and parental affection/stimulation contribute to physical growth?
Also, malnutrition may disrupt appetite control centers in the brain, causing the child to overeat when food becomes plentiful. Learning and behavior are also seriously affected. Animal evidence reveals that a deficient diet permanently reduces brain weight and alters the production of neurotransmitters in the brain—an effect that can disrupt all aspects of development
What is behaviorism?
An approach that regards directly observable events—stimuli and responses—as the appropriate focus of study and views the development of behavior as taking place through classical and operant conditioning.
What are some strengths and weaknesses of infant intelligence tests? When would you recommend parents to use these assessments?
As a result, most infant tests emphasize perceptual and motor responses. Infants and toddlers easily become distracted, fatigued, or bored during testing, so their scores often do not reflect their true abilities. And infant perceptual and motor items differ from the tasks given to older children, which increasingly emphasize verbal, conceptual, and problem-solving skills. Infant tests are somewhat better at making long-term predictions for extremely low-scoring babies.
How is brain development related to fetal capacities and behavior? How is fetal behavior related to temperament after birth?
As an infant matures, there is a rapid increase in the interconnections between neurons. In addition, there are periods in which some of the neurons lose their connections and die. some death and pruning of unused connections is part of normal and healthy brain development. This helps improve the efficiency of brain resources.) Exposure to new and varied experiences further increases the number of connections between neurons
Compare and contrast how stress hormones affect an unborn fetus vs. their role in birth.
As pregnancy advances, the placenta releases increasing amounts of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), a hormone involved in the stress response. High levels of CRH trigger additional placental hormone adjustments that induce uterine contractions. And as CRH rises in the fetal bloodstream in the final prenatal weeks, it stimulates fetal production of the stress hormone cortisol, which promotes development of the lungs in preparation for breathing.
What implications do their weak self-regulatory skills have for their response to cognitive and social challenges?
Because of these inconsistent, ambivalent reactions, children have a hard time knowing what to express themselves (and how to do this appropriately) and may lose control in challenging situations.
Why are males more vulnerable than females to miscarriage, infant death, genetic disorders, and other problems?
Because they only have one X chromosome. Females have XX so they have another X chromosome to turn to. If something goes wrong on that one X chromosome, the embryo can be terminated
low birth weight
Brain abnormalities, frequent illness, inattention, overactivity, sensory impairments, poor motor coordination, language delays, low intelligence test scores, deficits in school learning, and emotional and behavior problems are some of the problems that persist through childhood and adolescence and into adulthood.
Describe each of the recent theoretical approaches to child development ecological systems theory and explain how each regards children as active contributors to their own development.
Bronfenbrenner's approach, which views the child as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment, from immediate settings of family and school to broad cultural values, laws, customs, and resources.
How does "nature..adjust" for male vulnerability to these problems?
By making more male sperm to begin with
cesarean delivery
Cesareans have always been warranted by medical emergencies, such as Rh incompatibility, premature separation of the placenta from the uterus, or serious maternal illness or infectio
What are the four stages of attachment, and what are the four types of attachment? Anxious-avoident
Children showing anxious avoident attachment easily separate from the caregiver and then actively avoid contact with her after brief periods of separation.
induced labor
Contractions are longer, harder, and closer together, increasing the possibility of inadequate oxygen supply to the baby. In addition, mothers often find it more difficult to stay in control of an induced labor, even when they have been coached in natural childbirth techniques. As a result, labor and delivery medication is likely to be used in larger amounts, and the chances of instrument delivery are slightly greater
What kind of information can a twin study provide, and what are some of the limitations?
Currently, most kinship findings support a moderate role for heredity. When many twin studies are examined, correlations between the scores of identical twins are consistently higher than those of fraternal twins. Because the environments of most twin pairs are less diverse than those of the general population, heritability estimates are likely to exaggerate the role of heredity
nature vs nurture controversy: Lock
Debate among theorists about whether genetic or environmental factors are more important influences on development. Locke- regarded development as continuous: Adultlike behaviors are gradually built up through the warm, consistent teachings of parents. His view of the child as a tabula rasa led him to champion nurture—the power of the environment to shape the child. And his faith in nurture suggests the possibility of many courses of development and of high plasticity at later ages due to new experiences
pain medication
Epidural analgesia, for example, weakens uterine contractions. As a result, labor is prolonged, and the chances of instrument delivery or cesarean (surgical) birth increase. And because drugs rapidly cross the placenta, exposed newborns are at risk for respiratory distress
ex of stagewise change
Ex: For example, as young children begin to represent their world through language and make-believe play, they are entering a new stage of development.
Piaget's Sensorimotor Stage, and give an example of behavior typical of each substage:. Tertiary circular reactions (12-18 months)
Exploration of the properties of objects by acting on them in novel ways; imitation of novel behaviors; ability to search in several locations for a hidden object (accurate A-B search)
What is temperament and what are some ways to measure it? Rothbart's Model of Temperament
Fearful distress Wariness and distress in response to intense or novel stimuli, including time to adjust to new situations Irritable distress Extent of fussing, crying, and distress when desires are frustrated Positive affect Frequency of expression of happiness and pleasure Effortful control Capacity to voluntarily suppress a dominant, reactive response in order to plan and execute a more adaptive response In the first two years, called orienting/regulation, which refers to the capacity to engage in self-soothing, shift attention from unpleasant events, and sustain interest for an extended time
Describe patterns of brain development over the lifespan, focusing on neuron production, glial cell production and myelination, and synaptic pruning: myelination
Gains in neural fibers and myelination account for the overall increase in size of the brain, from nearly 30 percent of its adult weight at birth to 70 percent by age 2
How are changes in perceptual abilities and motor development interrelated?
Gross-motor development refers to control over actions that help infants get around in the environment, such as crawling, standing, and walking. Fine-motor development has to do with smaller movements, such as reaching and grasping. Recall from our discussion of perceptual development in Chapter 5 that around 2 to 3 months of age, infants shift from focusing on single, high-contrast features to exploring objects and patterns more thoroughly.
habituation and recovery : alternative infant test
Habituation and recovery seem to be an especially effective early index of intelligence because they assess memory as well as quickness and flexibility of thinking, which underlie intelligent behavior at all ages
List psychological factors during pregnancy that predict parenting effectiveness after childbirth.
Knowing right from wrong when pregnant. Not doing anything to affect the baby's growth and making sure you have check ups when needed.
Why do developmental psychologists study twins?
Heritability estimates are obtained from kinship studies, which compare the characteristics of family members. The most common type of kinship study compares identical twins, who share all their genes, with fraternal twins, who share only some. If people who are genetically more alike are also more similar in intelligence and personality, then the researcher assumes that heredity plays an important role
Describe the causes of PKU and Down syndrome. Explain how heredity and environment contribute to the development of each of these disorders. : Down Syndrome
In 95 percent of cases, it results from a failure of the twenty-first pair of chromosomes to separate during meiosis, so the new individual receives three of these chromosomes rather than the normal two.The consequences of Down syndrome include intellectual disability, memory and speech problems, limited vocabulary, and slow motor development.
What is meant by the "zone of proximal development", and how is it important for cognitive growth?
In Vygotsky's theory, a range of tasks too difficult for a child to do alone but that the child can do with the help of more skilled partners.Takes a sociocultural approach- Vygotsky's perspective, which focuses on how children acquire the ways of thinking and behaving that make up a community's culture through social interaction, especially cooperative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society.
What are the four stages of attachment, and what are the four types of attachment? secure attachment
Infants and toddlers should use the parent as a secure base in unfamiliar surroundings, and a stranger should be less comforting than a parent.
Describe the major milestones of language development in the first 2 years. What are some individual and cultural differences in how language is learned?
Infants begin cooing at 2 months and babbling around 6 months. At 10 to 11 months, babies' skill at establishing joint attention improves, and by 12 months they actively engage in turn-taking games and use preverbal gestures. Around 12 months, toddlers say their first word. Young children often make errors of underextension and overextension. Rate of word learning increases steadily, and once vocabulary reaches about 200 words, two-word utterances called telegraphic speech, appear. At all ages, language comprehension develops ahead of production.
What are the four stages of attachment, and what are the four types of attachment? Anxious resistent
Infants exhibiting the anxious-resistent pattern hesitate to leave the caregiver to explore and play, become easily upset, and then mix bids for maternal comfort with resistance to the caregiver's efforts to respond.
Piaget's Sensorimotor Stage, and give an example of behavior typical of each substage:. Coordination of secondary circular reactions (8-12 months)
Intentional, or goal-directed, behavior; ability to find a hidden object in the first location in which it is hidden (object permanence); improved anticipation of events; imitation of behaviors slightly different from those the infant usually performs
Piaget's Sensorimotor Stage, and give an example of behavior typical of each substage: Mental representation (18 months-2 years)
Internal depictions of objects and events, as indicated by sudden solutions to problems; ability to find an object that has been moved while out of sight (invisible displacement); deferred imitation; and make-believe play
synaptic pruning
Loss of synapses by seldom-stimulated neurons, a process that returns neurons not needed at the moment to an uncommitted state so they can support future development.
Instrument Delivery
Low-forceps delivery is associated with injury to the baby's head and the mother's tissues. Vacuum extractors, which have rapidly replaced forceps as the dominant instrument, are less likely to tear the mother's tissues. Nevertheless, cup suction doubles the risk of bleeding beneath the baby's skin and on the outside of the skull compared with nonassisted deliveries.
Describe some of the evidence that contradicts Piaget's theory, and briefly describe one or more alternative explanations for infant development at this time.
Many studies suggest that infants display a wide array of understandings earlier than Piaget believed.
How do the relative influences of genes and environment explain the stability of temperament from infancy on?
Most neurobiological research has focused on children who fall at opposite extremes of the positive-affect and fearful-distress dimensions of temperament: inhibited, or shy, children , who react negatively to and withdraw from novel stimuli, and uninhibited, or sociable, children , who display positive emotion and approach novel stimuli.
Describe the causes of PKU and Down syndrome. Explain how heredity and environment contribute to the development of each of these disorders. : PKU
One of the most frequently occurring recessive disorders is phenylketonuria, or PKU, which affects the way the body breaks down proteins contained in many foods. Infants born with two recessive alleles lack an enzyme that converts one of the basic amino acids that make up proteins (phenylalanine) into a byproduct essential for body functioning (tyrosine).
Anna, a high school counselor, has devised a program that integrates classroom learning with vocational training to help adolescents stay in school and transition smoothly to work life. What is Anna's position on "stability" vs. "Plasticity" in development?
Plasticity: Openness of human development to change in response to influential experiences. She agrees that a person never stops changing, especially when new experiences are in play. stability: would say that skills & knowledge you have will not change as you get older. If anna believed in that she would worry about making a new program bc studetns are unable to change and adapt.
What are some adaptations and abilities that help a newborn infant survive? (This could include appearance, senses, and reflexes).
Reflexes are the newborn baby's most obvious organized patterns of behavior. Some have survival value, others help parents and infants establish gratifying interaction, and still others provide the foundation for voluntary motor skills. Although newborns move in and out of five states of arousal, they spend most of their time asleep. Sleep includes at least two states: rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep and non-rapid-eye-movement (NREM) sleep. Newborns spend about 50 percent of their sleep time in REM sleep, far more than they ever will again. REM sleep provides young infants with stimulation essential for central nervous system development. Rapid eye movements also ensure that structures if the eye remain oxygenated during sleep. A crying baby stimulates strong feelings of discomfort in nearby adults. The intensity of the cry and the experiences that led up to it help parents identify what is wrong.
How can the effects of low birth weight be tempered after birth?
Research reveals that distressed, emotionally reactive preterm infants are particularly susceptible to the effects of parenting quality: Among a sample of preterm 9-month-olds, the combination of infant negativity and angry or intrusive parenting yielded the highest rates of behavior problems at 2 years of age. But with warm, sensitive parenting, distressed preterm babies' rates of behavior problems were the lowest
nature vs nurture controversy: Rousseau
Rousseau believed that children's built-in moral sense and unique ways of thinking and feeling would only be harmed by adult training. His was a child-centered philosophy in which the adult should be receptive to the child's needs at each of four stages: infancy, childhood, late childhood, and adolescence. sees development as a discontinuous, stagewise process that follows a single, unified course mapped out by nature.
How old were you in your first memory? Is this consistent with research on infant amnesia? What is infantile amnesia, and what are some explanations for it? What do we know about typical infant recall memory abilities?
Several explanations of infantile amnesia exist. One theory credits brain development, pointing to the hippocampus (located just under the temporal lobes), which plays a vital role in the formation of new memories. Though its overall structure is formed prenatally, the hippocampus continues to add new neurons well after birth. Integrating those neurons into existing neural circuits is believed to disrupt already stored early memories Another conjecture is that older children and adults often use verbal means for storing information, whereas infants' and toddlers' memory processing is largely nonverbal—an incompatibility that may prevent long-term retention of early experience
Briefly describe the substages of Piaget's Sensorimotor Stage, and give an example of behavior typical of each substage:Primary circular reactions (1-4 months)
Simple motor habits centered around the infant's own body; limited anticipation of events
How do the links between family and community affect children's well-being
Socioeconomic status, health, well being, social life.
How do the capacities of newborn babies contribute to their first social relationships? Provide some examples.
Some reflexes have survival value. The rooting reflex helps a breastfed baby find the mother's nipple. the Moro, or "embracing," reflex is believed to have helped infants cling to their mothers when they were carried about all day. sucking, swimming, eyeblink, rooting.
Name and briefly describe the three stages of labor
Stage 1: Dilation and effacement of the cervix take place—that is, as uterine contractions gradually become more frequent and powerful, they cause the cervix to open (dilate) and thin (efface), forming a clear channel from the uterus into the birth canal, or vagina Stage 2: delivery of baby, which lasts about 50 minutes for a first baby and 20 minutes in later births, the infant is born. Strong contractions of the uterus continue, but the mother also feels a natural urge to squeeze and push with her abdominal muscles stage 3: Birth of the Placenta Stage 3 brings labor to an end. A few final contractions and pushes cause the placenta to separate from the wall of the uterus and be delivered in about 5 to 10 minutes
What stand do stage theorists take on the issue of continuous vs. discontinuous development?
Stage theorists believe that development is discontinuous— a process in which new ways of understanding and responding to the world emerge at specific times.
Describe patterns of brain development over the lifespan, focusing on neuron production, glial cell production and myelination, and synaptic pruning: Neuron Production
neuron production: In the prenatal period, neurons are produced in the embryo's primitive neural tube. From there, they migrate to form the major parts of the brain. Once neurons are in place, they differentiate, establishing their unique functions by extending their fibers to form synaptic connections with neighboring cells.
How is fetal behavior related to temperament after birth?
Temperament can be affected by prenatal maternal stress
Measuring Temperament
Temperament is often assessed through interviews or questionnaires given to parents. Behavior ratings by pediatricians, teachers, and others familiar with the child and laboratory observations by researchers have also been used. Parental reports are convenient and take advantage of parents' depth of knowledge about their child across many situations
What is a teratogen? During what period of fetal development would you expect the effects of this factor to be most harmful, and why?
Teratogens are substances such as alcohol and drugs, and can adversely affect the developing fetus ex: cocaine embryo - the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month
What aspect of behaviorism made it attractive to critics of psychoanalytic theory?
The early behaviorists rejected the psychoanalytic concern with the unseen workings of the mind. They sought, instead, to create an objective science of psychology that would study directly observable events—stimuli and responses. As psychologists wondered whether behaviorism might offer a more direct and effective explanation of the development of children's social behavior than the less precise concepts of psychoanalytic theory, several kinds of social learning theory emerged. The most influential emphasizes modeling, also known as imitation or observational learning, as a powerful source of development.
What is the difference between fraternal and identical twins? fraternal
Twins resulting from the release and fertilization of two ova. Genetically, they are no more alike than ordinary siblings. Distinguished from identical, or monozygotic, twins.
What is the difference between fraternal and identical twins? identical
Twins that result when a zygote, during early cell duplication, separates into two clusters of cells that have the same genetic makeup. Distinguished from fraternal, or dizygotic, twins.
How did Piaget's theory respond to a major limitation of behaviorism?
Two important themes of behaviorism, modeling and reinforcement, were criticized for offering too narrow a view of important environmental influences and also for underestimating children's contributions to their own development. Piaget maintained that children's learning does not depend on reinforcers, such as rewards. Rather, according to Piaget's cognitive-developmental theory, children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world.
Give some examples of how genes and environment affect temperament.
When exposed to new sights and sounds, such as a moving mobile decorated with colorful toys, Larry tensed his muscles, moved his arms and legs with agitation, and began to cry. In contrast, Mitch remained relaxed and quiet, smiling and cooing at the excitement around him. When exposed to new sights and sounds, such as a moving mobile decorated with colorful toys, Larry tensed his muscles, moved his arms and legs with agitation, and began to cry. In contrast, Mitch remained relaxed and quiet, smiling and cooing at the excitement around him.
Give a timeline for the development of basic and self-conscious emotions over the first two years.
babies' earliest emotional life consists of little more than two global arousal states: attraction to pleasant stimulation and withdrawal from unpleasant stimulation the dynamic systems perspective helps us understand how this happens: Children coordinate separate skills into more effective, emotionally expressive systems as the central nervous system develops and the child's goals and experiences change. between 6 and 10 weeks, the parent's communication evokes a broad grin called the social smile fear/anger 4 to 6 months- 1/1.5 Laughter, which typically appears around 3 to 4 months
Which area of the brain is the slowest to develop?
cerebral cortex; It is the largest brain structure—accounting for 85 percent of the brain's weight and containing the greatest number of neurons and synapses.
Provide an example of classical conditioning?
classical conditioning- A form of learning that involves associating a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that leads to a reflexive response. Once the nervous system makes the connection between the two stimuli, the neutral stimulus produces the behavior by itself. EX-As Carolyn settled down in the rocking chair to nurse Caitlin, she often stroked Caitlin's forehead. Soon Carolyn noticed that each time she did this, Caitlin made active sucking movements.
What might lead the researcher to opt for clinical interviewing over systematic observation?
clinical interview- An interview method in which the researcher uses a flexible, conversational style to probe for the participant's point of view. Distinguished from structured interview. systematic observation- An interview method in which each participant is asked the same questions in the same way.
researcher compares children who went to summer leadership camps with children who attended athletic camps. She finds that those who attended leadership camps are friendlier. Should the investigator tell parents that sending children to leadership camps will cause them to be more sociable? Why or why not?
correlation does not = causation. Using a correlational design- A research design in which the investigator gathers information on individuals without altering their experiences and then examines relationships between participants' characteristics and their behavior or development. Does not permit inferences about cause and effect.
How does evolutionary developmental psychology?
development psychology- An approach introduced by Piaget that views children as actively constructing knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world, and in which cognitive development takes place in stages.
Describe cultural variations in an aspect of infant care (such as co-sleeping, breast-feeding, and attitudes towards motor-development), and explain how each of these variants affects development, in infancy and beyond.: breastfeeding
even breastfeeding for just a few weeks offers some protection against respiratory and intestinal infections, which are devastating to young children in developing countries. Also, because a nursing mother is less likely to get pregnant, breastfeeding helps increase spacing among siblings, a major factor in reducing infant and childhood deaths in nations with widespread poverty.
Describe patterns of brain development over the lifespan, focusing on neuron production, glial cell production and myelination, and synaptic pruning: Glial cell
half the brain's volume is made up of glial cells, which are responsible for myelination, the coating of neural fibers with an insulating fatty sheath (called myelin) that improves the efficiency of message transfer. Certain types of glial cells also participate directly in neural communication, by picking up and passing on neuronal signals and releasing neurotransmitters
what are cohort effects?
individuals born in the same time period are influenced by a particular set of historical and cultural conditions. Results based on one group may not apply to people developing at other times.
Why do children of depressed parents have difficulty regulating emotion ?
lack of emotions and sensitive care over time seems to be what hampers a childs emotional/ social development, not the absence of bonding after birth. it is the concept of attatchment.
How are longitudinal and cross-sectional designs different? How does the sequential design reveal cohort effects?
longitudinal- A research design in which participants are studied repeatedly at different ages, and changes are noted as they get older. Distinguished from cross-sectional design.
How do cohort effects distort the findings of both longitudinal and cross-sectional studies?
longitudinal- A research design in which participants are studied repeatedly at different ages, and changes are noted as they get older. Distinguished from cross-sectional design. cross sectional- A research design in which groups of participants of different ages are studied at the same point in time. Distinguished from longitudinal design.
Describe the risks of fetal monitoring, pain medication, instrument delivery, induced labor, and Cesarean delivery. Compare and contrast these methods with natural birth.
most infants have some heartbeat irregularities during labor, so critics worry that fetal monitors identify many babies as in danger who, in fact, are not. Epidural analgesia, for example, weakens uterine contractions. As a result, labor is prolonged, and the chances of instrument delivery or cesarean (surgical) birth increase. And because drugs rapidly cross the placenta, exposed newborns are at risk for respiratory distress
What are the four stages of attachment, and what are the four types of attachment? disorganized
moved slowly and dazed not responsive with caregiver
operant conditioning,
operant conditioning- A form of learning in which a spontaneous behavior is followed by a stimulus that changes the probability that the behavior will occur again. Ex-A stimulus that increases the occurrence of a response is called a reinforcer. For example, sweet liquid reinforces the sucking response in newborns. Removing a desirable stimulus or presenting an unpleasant one to decrease the occurrence of a response is called punishment. A sour-tasting fluid punishes newborn babies' sucking response, causing them to purse their lips and stop sucking entirely.
Describe how birth order and family size affect intelligence. What characteristics of parents might affect this relationship?
parents' tendency to emphasize each child's unique qualitites affects their child-rearing practices. Less bonding time with children, creates less of an parent/child attachment. heritability estimates: A measure of the extent to which individual differences in complex traits, such as intelligence or personality, in a specific population are due to genetic factors.
What are some factors that increase the chances that an infant will be born underweight?
poverty and inadequate health care. stressors during pregnancy, eating inadequately.
Briefly describe the substages of Piaget's Sensorimotor Stage, and give an example of behavior typical of each substage:. Reflexive schemes (birth-1 month)
sensorimotor stage- Piaget's first stage, spanning the first two years of life, during which infants and toddlers "think" with their eyes, ears, hands, and other sensorimotor equipment. Newborn reflexes
What are some prenatal environmental factors that can compromise later academic performance and social adjustment? How would you recommend pregnant women avoid or deal with these factors?
severe emotional stress. providing emotional support helps.
Why might a researcher choose structured observation over naturalistic observation? How about the reverse? What might lead the researcher to opt for clinical interviewing over systematic observation?
structured observation-A research method in which the investigator sets up a laboratory situation that evokes the behavior of interest so that every participant has an equal opportunity to display the response. Distinguished from naturalistic observation. naturalistic observaton- A research method in which the researcher goes into the natural environment to observe the behavior of interest. Distinguished from structured observation.
Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of development?
vygotskys sociocultural theory- Vygotsky's perspective, which focuses on how children acquire the ways of thinking and behaving that make up a community's culture through social interaction, especially cooperative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society.
