Psych 280

In the absence of a lab test, health researchers tested whether they could use a series of questions asking people about their symptoms in order to classify them as either Covid-positive or negative. They found that the test-retest reliability of people reporting their symptoms was .70. What is the maximum validity that the researchers can claim from this test?

.49

Which of the following is the strongest correlation? .74, .66. 1.2

.74

Define illusion

A cognitive process in which a person genuinely perceives that something is one way when it actually is not

Define attribution theory

A description of the way in which people explain the causes of their own and other people's behavior

Fritze Heider

Fritz Heider is referred to as the father of attribution theory, Defined the field of social perception

Hazel Markus

Hazel Markus and colleagues found that more individualistic content is in sports commentary in the corresponding countries

Primary thesis of social psychology

Human social thought and social behavior is governed heavily by the situation in which the thoughts and behaviors occur

The norm-exception rule

If only he took the usual route he wouldn't have been killed in an accident

Define impression management

A process in which people deliberately try to present themselves to others in a good light. Trying to make oneself look good or superior to others while knowing that it is not true.

Kelly's Attribution Theory

A theory of how people make causal attributions, Kelly's Attribution theory does a poor job of describing how people actually make attributions

2 psychological rules of counterfactual thinking

Any given juncture could be construed as being a norm or an exception, any given juncture could be construed as an action or an inaction

Reasons for FAE (4)

Behavior is more salient than the situation People are mentally lazy (cognitive misers) People don't understand situations/circumstances affect behavior Language is rich and extensive in disposition (trait) terms but lacks richness and extensiveness in situational/external terms

Cindel White

Cindel White and colleagues argued that one more way to explore cross-cultural variability in just-world beliefs is to consider endorsement of the religious concept of karma

Jones and Harris

Coin flip in full view of everyone randomly assigns people to take pro or anti-Castro positions and give a short speech. Afterward observers are asked to guess the true attitude/beliefs of the speaker Results: observers perceived the true position of the speaker to be consistent with the assigned speech

3 kinds of covariation information

Consensus information: information about the extent to which other people behave the same way toward the same stimulus as the actor does Distinctiveness information: information about the extent to which one particular actor behaves in the same way to different stimuli Consistency information: Information about the extent to which the behavior between one actor and one stimulus is the same across time and circumstances

The Implied Counterfactual Rule

Counterfactual as a consoling thought

Define operational definiton

Defining a concept according to some "operations" or concrete ways to measure it

______________ is the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and to other people

External validity

How are internal and external reliability established?

External validity is established by replication and internal validity is established by random assignment (randomly assigning those people to a condition)

Define base rate information

information about the relative frequency of members of different categories in the population, people don't use this often

Joshua Sussking

into encoding and decoding, nonverbal communication

Define judgmental heuristics

mental shortcuts people use to make judgments quickly and efficiently, sometimes aren't accurate

Define schemas

mental structures influence the information we notice, think about, and remember

Define counterfactual thinking

mentally changing some aspect of the past as a way of imagining what might have been

Korsakov's syndrome

neurological disorder in which the people lose the ability to form new memories and must approach every situation as if they were encountering it for the first time

Define emblems

nonverbal gestures that have well-understood definitions within a given culture; they usually have direct verbal translations, such as the okay sign

Define salience

people notice or remember only a subset of possible things

Internal validity

refers to the degree that we can make a causal conclusion

According to lecture, counterfactual thinking is related to what heuristic?

simulation heuristic

Limits on the Over-Justification Effect (3)

Never withdraw the extrinsic inducement The extrinsic reward comes as a surprise The extrinsic reward sends a message of competence to the person

According to Chapter 2, which of the following research methods focuses on description (rather than prediction or causality) and tries to answer the question "what is the nature of the phenomenon?"

Observational method

Ross

Participants were randomly assigned to questioner, contestant (answerer), or observer. Questioners assigned to come up with difficult trivia questions Questioner asked the questions of the contestant Contestants and observers were then asked to rate how knowledgeable the questioner is and how knowledgeable the contestant is Results: both the contestants and the observers consistently thought the questioner was more knowledgeable than the contestant

Which of the following is a correct distinction between controlled and automatic cognitive processes?

People are more aware of their controlled cognitive processes

Actor-Observer Differences in Attribution

People often attribute their own actions to external factors even though as observers of other people they attribute those same behaviors to internal factors NOT self-serving biases

How are reliability and validity related?

Reliability and validity are related because something can't be valid if it's not reliable, reliability sets an upper limit on validity, reliability is necessary for validity

Ultimate test of an experiment's external validity

Replication

In many parts of the world people assume that eating the testicles of a bull (or other strong animal) will make them more virile. This type of thinking is related to ___________ . (application from text)

Representativeness heuristic

Define social psychology

Social psychology is the scientific study of the way in which people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the real or imagined presence of other people

Something can become accessible for three reasons:

Some schemas are chronically accessible because of past experience, Because it's related to a current goal Because of recent experiences

What is the primary reason why the availability heuristic sometimes leads to an incorrect estimation of the frequency of a past event?

The ease with which past events come to mind can be influenced by many things that are unrelated to the actual frequencies of those events.

Define fundamental attribution error

The fundamental attribution error is the tendency to explain our own and other people's behavior entirely in terms of personality traits and to underestimate the power of social influence and the immediate situation

Four Secondary Theses

The power of situational forces is far greater than people tend to think it is, Social thought and social behavior often don't fit into "rational" or "logical" theories, People's perceptions are more important (in affecting social behavior and thought) than are the objective features of the situation, Social thought and social behavior are a function of both the person and the situation

The overjustification effect

The tendency for people's intrinsic interest to be undermined by giving them extrinsic reasons for engaging in the behavior

The action-inaction rule

Vincent held stock in Company A. In January he considered switching to Company B, but kept Company A's stock. Company A's stock took a dive and Company B's stock rose dramatically.

Paul Ekman

studied the influence of culture on the facial display of emotions. Concluded that display rules: culturally determined rules about which nonverbal behaviors are appropriate to display, are particular to each culture

Richard Nisbett

suggests differences in holistic vs analytic thinking are rooted in the different philosophical traditions of the East vs West

Define observational method

technique whereby a researcher observes people and records measurements or impression of their behavior

Define planning fallacy

tendency for people to be overly optimistic about how soon they will complete a project, even when they have failed in the past

Define accessibility

the extent to which schemas and concepts are at the forefront of the mind and are therefore likely to be used when making judgments about the social world

Define statistical significance

the observed difference between conditions is greater than what would be expected by chance

Define perceptual salience

the seeming importance of information that is the focus of people's attention, Plays a role in how we view higher-stakes conversations

Define belief perserverance

the tendency to stick with an initial judgment even in the face of new info that should prompt us to reconsider

Define bias blind spot

the tendency to think that others are more susceptible to attributional biases than we are

According to Chapter 2, the basic dilemma of a social psychologist is:

the tradeoff between internal and external validity

Define controlled thinking

thinking that is conscious, intentional, voluntary, and effortful

Define automatic thinking

thought that is nonconscious, unintentional, involuntary, and effortless

Define encode

to express or emit nonverbal behavior, such as smiling or patting someone on the back

Define decode

to interpret the meaning of the nonverbal behavior other people express, such as deciding that a pat on the back was an expression of condescension and not kindness

High consensus, high distinctiveness, high consistency=external attribution

true

Low consensus, low distinctiveness, high consistency=internal attribution

true

Define correlational method

two variables are systematically measured, and the relationship between them is assessed

Define holistic thinking style

type of thinking in which people focus on the overall context, particularly the ways in which objects relate to each other

Define analytic thinking style

type of thinking in which people focus on the properties of objects without considering their surrounding context

Trey Hadden

used functional magnetic resonance imaging to examine where in the brain cultural experience predicts perceptual processing East Asians and Americans went through a brain scan while making a judgment

From Chapter 3, analytic thinking is ___________?

when when people focus on properties of objects without their surrounding context.

Interjudge reliability

whether you get consistent answers when different administrators give the test

A researcher conducted an experiment to see of she could get more people to wear masks in public by conspicuously displaying a poster of an attractive couple holding hands while wearing masks. She randomly placed the posters outside some stores and not other stores and then observed the percentages of people who donned their masks before going into the stores. In this experiment, the independent variable is (from this week's lecture segments): ______________

Whether the poster was displayed outside the store or not

Define belief in a just world

a form of defensive attribution wherein people assume that bad things happen to bad people and that good things happen to good people

Define representativeness heuristic

a mental shortcut whereby people classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case

Define behaviorism

a school of psychology maintaining that to understand human behavior, one need only consider the reinforcing properties of the environment

Define correlation

a single statistic that reflects the degree of relation between two or more variables

Define covariation model

a theory that states that to form an attribution about what caused a person's behavior, we systematically note the pattern between the presence or absence of possible causal factors and whether the behavior occurs

Define self-fulfilling prophecy

an expectation of one's own or another person's behavior that comes true because of the tendency of the person holding it to act in ways that bring it about

Define two-step attribution process

analyzing another person's behavior first by making an automatic internal attribution and only then thinking about possible situational reasons for the behavior, after which one may adjust the original internal attribution

Define availability heuristic

basing a judgment on the ease with which you can bring something to mind

Takahiko Masuda

conducted a study where they presented participants with cartoon people in US and Japan They were supposed to judge the emotion on a 10 point scale Japanese spent more time looking at the cartoon characters

The explanation for why someone who comes in second place in a race might be less happy than someone who comes in third place revolves around ___________

counterfactual thinking

Daniel Wegner

demonstrated that there is an illusion of free will that is very much like the correlation doesn't equal causation

Solomon Asch

did a study where he described individuals and compared them. Demonstrated that there's a primacy effect: when it comes to forming impressions, the first traits we perceive in others influence how we view information that we learn about them later

Define Intuitive

easily apprehended by mere thought or reflection, obvious, not in need of proof, already known by reasonable people, common sense

Lee Ross

established naive realism, the conviction that we perceive things "as they really are" underestimating how much we are interpreting or "spinning" what we see

Define self-serving attribution

explanations for one's successes that credit internal, dispositional factors and explanations for one's failures that blame external, situational factors

Define psychological realism

extent to which the psychological processes triggered in an experiment are similar to psychological processes that occur in everyday life

Define blends

facial expressions in which one part of the face registers one emotion while another part of the face registers a different emotion

Amy Mezulis

found that the self-serving bias is strongest in the US and some other Western countries

Kurt Kewin

founding father of experimental social psychology

Nalini Ambady

have referred to such social perception based on extremely brief snippets of behavior as thin slicing: drawing a meaningful conclusions about another person's personality or skills based on an extremely brief sample of behavior. One study, examined an instance of social perception familiar to most readers of a book, The thin-sliced impressions were quite similar

Two attributions explaining why people behave the way they do

Internal attribution: the inference that a person is behaving in a certain way because of something about the person, such as attitude, character, or personality External attribution: the inference that a person is behaving a certain way because of something about the situation he or she is in; the assumption is that most people would respond the same way in that situation