Psych Midterm Review (Ch. 1-8)
Desensitization therapy
A conditioning technique designed to gradually reduce anxiety about a particular object or situation.
Extinction
A decrease in the strength or frequency of a learned response because of failure to continue pairing the US and CS (classical conditioning) or withholding of reinforcement (operant conditioning).
Language
A flexible system of communication that uses sounds, rules, gestures, or symbols to convey information.
Cognitive revolution
A general shift away from a limited focus on behavior toward a broad interest in mental processes.
Intelligence
A general term referring to the ability or abilities involved in learning and adaptive behavior.
Koko
A gorilla taught by Francine Patterson that was able to appropriately express time and emotions through sign language.
Availability
A heuristic by which a judgement or decision is based on information that is most easily retrieved from memory.
Representativeness
A heuristic by which a new situation is judged on the basis of its resemblance to a stereotypical model.
Hill climbing
A heuristic problem-solving strategy in which each step moves you progressively closer to the final goal.
Working backward
A heuristic strategy in which one works backward from the desired goal to the given condition.
Means-end analysis
A heuristic strategy that aims to reduce the discrepancy between the current situation and the desired goal at a number of intermediate points.
Cognitive map
A learned mental image of a spatial environment that may be called on to solve problems when stimuli in the environment change.
Concept
A mental category for classifying objects, people, or experiences.
Split-half reliability
A method of determining test reliability by dividing the test into two parts and checking the agreement of scores on both parts.
Image
A nonverbal mental representation of a sensory experience.
Intelligence quotient (IQ)
A numerical value given to intelligence that is determined from the scores on an intelligence test; the average IQ is arbitrarily set at 100.
Trial and error
A problem-solving strategy based on the successive elimination of incorrect solutions until the correct one is found.
Brainstorming
A problem-solving strategy in which an individual or a group produces numerous ideas and evaluates them only after all ideas have been collected.
Visualizing
A problem-solving strategy in which principles or concepts are drawn, diagrammed, or charted so that they can be better understood.
Blocking
A process whereby prior conditioning prevents conditioning to a second stimulus even when the two stimuli are presented simultaneously.
Compensatory model
A rational decision-making model in which choices are systematically evaluated on various criteria.
Variable-ratio schedule
A reinforcement schedule in which a varying number of correct responses must occur before reinforcement is presented.
Fixed-interval schedule
A reinforcement schedule in which the correct response is reinforced after a fixed length of time since the last reinforcement.
Fixed-ratio schedule
A reinforcement schedule in which the correct response is reinforced after a fixed number of correct responses.
Variable-interval schedule
A reinforcement schedule in which the correct response is reinforced after varying lengths of time following the last reinforcement.
Primary reinforcer
A reinforcer that is rewarding in itself, such as food, water, and sex.
Secondary reinforcer
A reinforcer whose value is acquired through association with other primary or secondary reinforcers.
Contingency
A reliable "if-then" relationship between two events such as a CS and a US.
Unconditioned response (UR)
A response that takes place in an organism whenever an unconditioned stimulus occurs.
Representative sample
A sample carefully chosen so that the characteristics of the participants correspond closely to the characteristics of the larger population.
Sample
A selection of cases from a larger population.
Algorithm
A step-by-step method of problem solving that guarantees a correct solution.
Punisher
A stimulus that follows a behavior and decreases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated.
Reinforcer
A stimulus that follows a behavior and increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated.
Unconditioned stimulus (US)
A stimulus that invariably causes an organism to respond in a specific way.
Biofeedback
A technique that uses monitoring devices to provide precise information about internal physiological processes, such as heart rate or blood pressure, to teach people to gain voluntary control over these functions.
Social learning theory
A type of learning that emphasizes the ability to learn by observing a model of receiving instructions, without firsthand experience by the learner.
Validity
Ability of a test to measure what it has been designed to measure.
Reliability
Ability of a test to produce consistent and stable scores.
Emotional intelligence
According to Goleman, a form of intelligence that refers to how effectively people perceive and understand their own emotions and the emotions of others, and can manage their emotional behavior.
Prototype
According to Rosch, a mental model containing the most typical features of a concept.
B.F. Skinner
Added the ideas of reinforcement and conditioning to behaviorism. Interested in changing behavior through conditioning and natural laws of behaviorism.
Interference
Additional stimuli presented simultaneously with the material to be learned may make learning more difficult.
Howard Gardner
Advanced the theory of multiple intelligences, which has 9 different intelligences.
Debriefing
After a study, the researcher explains any deception, and makes sure the participant is okay.
Conditioned response (CR)
After conditioning, the response an organism produces when only a conditioned stimulus is presented.
Scientific method
An approach to knowledge that relies on collecting data, generating a theory to explain the data, producing testable hypotheses based on the theory, and testing those hypotheses empirically.
Evolutionary Psychology
An approach to, and subfield of, psychology that is concerned with the evolutionary origins of behaviors and mental processes, their adaptive value, and the purposes they continue to serve.
Telegraphic speech
An early speech of 1 and 2 year olds that omits words that are not essential to the meaning of a phrase.
Positive Psychology
An emerging field of psychology that focuses on positive experiences, including subjective well-being, self-determination, the relationship between positive emotions and physical health, and the factors that allow individuals, communities, and societies to flourish.
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Third Edition (WAIS-III)
An individual intelligence test developed especially for adults; it yields verbal, performance, and full scale IQ scores.
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition (WISC-III)
An individual intelligence test developed especially for school-aged children; it yields verbal, performance, and full scale IQ scores.
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
An originally neutral stimulus that is paired with an unconditioned stimulus and eventually produces the desired response in an organism when presented alone.
Componential intelligence
Analytical intelligence. Sternberg's term for the ability to acquire new knowledge and solve problems effectively.
Statistical significance
Analyzing the data when the p-value is less than the significance level. A result that is not likely to occur randomly, but is likely to be attributable to a specific value.
Punishment
Any event whose presence decreases the likelihood that ongoing behavior will recur.
Positive reinforcer
Any event whose presence increases the likelihood that ongoing behavior will recur.
Negative reinforcer
Any event whose reduction or termination increases the likelihood that ongoing behavior will recur.
Applied psychology
Application of research conducted by academic psychologists.
Correlational research
Based on naturally occurring relationships between two or more individuals. Does not involve cause and effect.
Operant behavior
Behavior designed to operate on the environment in a way that will gain something desired or avoid something unpleasant.
Gender roles
Behaviors that we expect each gender to behave in.
Recognition
Being able to identify what has been learned (multiple choice or matching).
Recall
Being able to reproduce material from memory with few clues.
L. L. Thurstone
Believed that intelligence has 7 distinct mental abilities.
Double blind study
Both the researcher and the participants are clueless to who is in the experimental and control groups.
Semantic Network Theory
Brain forms new memories by connecting with those already stored.
Subgoals
Intermediate, more manageable goals used in one heuristic strategy to make it easier to reach the final goal.
Storage
Keeping information over time.
Tacit knowledge
Knowledge one needs for success in completing particular practical tasks; this knowledge may not be explicit.
Avoidance training
Learning a desirable behavior to prevent the occurrence of something unpleasant such as punishment.
Distributed practice
Learning broken-up into sessions and is effective with motor skills and memorization.
State-dependent memory
Learning in one chemical or physical state is best produced when the same state occurs again (location.)
Cognitive learning
Learning that depends on mental processes that are not directly observable.
Latent learning
Learning that is not immediately reflected in a behavior change.
Insight
Learning that occurs rapidly as a result of understanding all the elements of a problem.
Stimulus discrimination
Learning to respond to only one stimulus and to inhibit the response to all other stimuli.
Massed practice
Long, non-stop session of learning.
Introspection
Looking within, which is often used in insight therapy and involves physical sensation, images, and feelings.
Belief perseverance
Maintaining a belief even when factual information is shown to prove otherwise.
Belief bias
Making illogical conclusions in order to support a belief.
Psychiatrists
Medical Drs. (M.D.s) who, in addition to 4 years of medical school, have completed 3 years of residency training in psychiatry. They specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of abnormal behavior. They are currently the only mental health professionals who are licensed to prescribe medication.
Photographic/eidetic memory
Memory keeps image "in front of person" after image is taken away. Research done by Alexander Luria.
Levels of Processing Model
Memory storage based on how deeply it was thought about.
Alzheimer's disease
Neurological disorder causing severe memory loss.
Long-term potentiation
Neurons can strengthen connections between each other by repeated firings, and is used when reflecting and reviewing information.
Replacement theory
New information can wipe out old unused information.
Retroactive interference
New information interferes with information already in memory.
Intermittent pairing
Pairing the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus on only a portion of the learning trials.
Decay theory
Passage of time causes forgetting.
Behavioral geneticists
People who investigate the impact of heredity on both normal and abnormal traits and behavior.
Psychodynamic theory
Personality theory contending that behavior results from psychological forces that interact within the individual, often outside conscious awareness.
Deep/elaborate processing
Processing information in a meaningful way by attaching associations to a concept.
Shallow processing
Processing information through maintenance and rote rehearsal, is often used for largely meaningless information, and is easily forgotten.
Daniel Goleman
Proposed the theory of emotional intelligence.
Psychoanalysts
Psychiatrists or clinical psychologists who have received additional training in psychoanalytic theory and practice.
Charles Spearman
Psychologist who believed that intelligence is natural. Created the idea of g factors (general intelligence).
School psychologists
Psychologists who work in school settings with students.
Survey research
Questionnaires or interview that are administered to a selected group of people.
Mood-congruent memory
Recall is improved if mood is the same as when information was learned.
Autobiographical memory
Recollection of events that happened in our lifetime. 80% of memories are from ages 18-35.
Content validity
Refers to a test's having an adequate sample of questions measuring the skills or knowledge it is supposed to measure.
Continuous reinforcement
Reinforcement every time the response is made.
Vicarious reinforcement/punishment
Reinforcement or punishment experienced by models that affects the willingness of others to perform the behaviors they learned by observing those models.
Shaping
Reinforcing successive approximations to a desired behavior.
Academic psychology
Research on why we are the way we are.
Experimental method
Research technique in which an investigator deliberately manipulates selected events or circumstances and then measures the effects of those manipulations on subsequent behavior. -participants, hypothesis, independent variable, dependent variable, experimental group, control group, and experimenter bias.
Placebo effect
Researchers look at the effects of the groups receiving the placebo vs. the group getting the actual medication. It is used to make sure nothing is wrong with the study.
Remembering
Retrieval process that brings information from long-term to short-term memory.
Heuristics
Rules of thumb that help in simplifying and solving problems, although they do not guarantee a correct solution.
Feminist psychology
Says that much of the research supporting key psychological theories was based on all-male samples, gender differences tend to focus on extreme differences rather than similarities, and the questions psychologists ask and the topics they study reflect what they consider to be important.
Cognitive Psychology
School of psychology devoted to the study of mental processes in the broadest sense.
Humanistic Psychology
School of psychology that emphasizes nonverbal experience and altered states of consciousness as a means of realizing one's full human potential and self-actualization. Known as the "third force".
Structuralism
School of psychology that stressed the basic units of experience and the combinations in which they occur.
Statistical inference
Seeing if evidence from an experiment is valid and able to be applied to real life.
Attention
Selection of certain information for further processing.
Hypotheses
Specific, testable predictions derived from a theory.
Correlation coefficients
Statistical measures of the degree of associations between two variables.
Signs
Stereotyped communications about an animal's current state.
Triarchic theory of intelligence
Sternberg's theory that intelligence involves mental skills (componential aspect), insight and creative adaptability (experiential aspect), and environmental responsiveness (contextual aspect).
Long-term memory
Stores unlimited information for relatively permanent amounts of time.
John B. Watson
Studied behaviorism and conducted the experiment on baby Albert. He believed that people cannot see, define, or measure consciousness.
Mary Cover Jones
Studied behaviorism and life span/developmental psychology. Used desensitization on baby Albert.
M. Wertheimer, W. Köhler, K. Koffka
Studied gestalt psychology and were interested in structuralism and perception.
Carl Rogers
Studied humanism. Believed that people should strive to match their true selves with their ideal selves.
Abraham Maslow
Studied humanistic psychology and referred to it as the "third force" beyond Freudian theory and behaviorism. Made the hierarchy of needs.
Single blind study
Study in which the participants are not aware of which group they have been assigned.
Longitudinal study
Study of the same group over a long period of time. Pros: no cohort issues. Cons: Higher attrition, longer time.
Cross sectional study
Studying different groups at the same time for comparison purposes. Pros: shorter time, lower attrition Cons: cohort issues
Race
Subpopulation whose members have reproduced exclusively among themselves and are generally similar and distinct from other members of the same species.
Giftedness
Superior IQ combined with demonstrated or potential ability in such areas as academic aptitude, creativity, and leadership.
Theory
Systematic explanation of a phenomenon; it organizes known facts, allows people to predict new facts, and permits people to exercise a degree of control over the phenomenon.
Serial position effect
Tendency to recall the first items and last items on a list.
Primacy effect
Tendency to recall the first items on a list.
Recency effect
Tendency to recall the last items on a list.
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
Terman's adaptation of the Binet-Simon Scale.
Intelligence tests
Tests designed to measure a person's general mental abilities.
Response acquisition
The "building phase" of conditioning during which the likelihood or strength of the desired response increases.
Learning set
The ability to become increasingly more effective in solving problems as more problems are solved.
Creativity
The ability to produce novel and socially valued ideas or objects.
Memory
The ability to remember the things we have experienced, imagined, and learned. or The capacity to retain and retrieve information.
Retention
The ability to remember what is learned.
Conditioning
The acquisition of specific patterns of behavior in the presence of well-defined stimuli.
Phonemes
The basic sound units of a language that indicate changes in meaning.
Semantics
The criteria for assigning meaning to the morphemes in a language.
Sexual orientation
The direction of one's sexual interest toward members of the same sex, the opposite sex, or both sexes.
Binet-Simon Scale
The first test of intelligence, developed for testing children.
Margaret Floy Washburn
The first woman in America to receive a Ph.D. in psychology, was an editor of the American Journal of Psychology, and elected president of the APA in 1921.
Mary Whiton Calkins
The first woman to be elected president of the American Psychological Association. Developed an influential theory of self-psychology.
Grammar
The language rules that determine how sounds and words can be combined and used to communicate meaning within a language.
Sigmund Freud
The most controversial pioneer of psychology. Developed the psychodynamic theory. He believed that humans are motivated by unconscious instincts, are not aware of their true motives, and are not entirely in control of thoughts and behavior.
Surface structure
The particular words and phrases used to make up a sentence.
Framing
The perspective or phrasing of information that is used to make a decision.
Learning
The process by which experience or practice results in a relatively permanent change in behavior or potential behavior.
Critical thinking
The process of examining the information already given, then making judgements and decisions.
Cognition
The process whereby we acquire and use knowledge.
Gender
The psychological and social meanings attached to being biologically male or female. Often used interchangeable with one's biological makeup or sex.
Spontaneous recovery
The reappearance of an extinguished response after the passage of time, without further training.
Syntax
The rules for arranging words into grammatical phrases and sentences.
Gestalt Psychology
The school of psychology that studies how people perceive and experience objects as whole patterns.
Behaviorism
The school of psychology that studies only observable and measurable behavior.
Psychology
The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
Morphemes
The smallest meaningful units of speech, such as simple words, prefixes, and suffixes.
Naturalistic observation
The study of human/animal behavior in a natural setting.
Anthropomorphism
The tendency to attribute human characteristics to other animals.
Confirmation bias
The tendency to look for evidence in support of a belief and to ignore evidence that would disprove a belief.
Mental set
The tendency to perceive and approach problems in certain ways.
Functional fixedness
The tendency to perceive only a limited number of uses for an object, thus interfering with the process of problem solving.
Anthropocentrism
The tendency to view humans as unique, and overlook evolutionary heritage as well as abilities in other species.
Hindsight bias
The tendency to view outcomes as inevitable and predictable after we know the outcome.
Stimulus generalization
The transfer of a learned response to different but similar stimuli.
Deep structure
The underlying meaning of a sentence.
Functionalist theory
Theory of mental life and behavior that is concerned with how an organism uses its perceptual abilities to function in its environment.
Counterfactual thinking
Thinking about alternative realities and things that never happened.
Convergent thinking
Thinking that is directed toward one correct solution to a problem.
Divergent thinking
Thinking that meets the criteria of originality, inventiveness, and flexibility.
Law of effect
Thorndike's theory that behavior consistently rewarded will be "stamped in" as learned behavior, and behavior that brings about discomfort will be "stamped out" (also known as the principle of reinforcement).
Stanley Milgram
Thought he was researching and studying the effects of punishment on learning. In his experiment he asked the subject a question and they were shocked by the other participant when they were incorrect. He was actually studying obedience.
Visual/iconic codes
Type of encoding researched by George Sperling.
Emotional memory
Type of long-term memory. Learned emotional responses to stimuli.
Episodic memory
Type of long-term memory. Personally experienced events.
Semantic memory
Type of long-term memory. Stores general facts and information.
Procedural memory
Type of long-term memory. Stores information on skills, habits, and how to do things.
Loci method
Type of mnemonic device that relates items to be learned to a list of familiar locations.
Loci method, rhymes, non-sense phrases, acronyms
Types of mnemonic devices.
Mnemonic devices
Unusual associations made with material to aid memory.
Schema
Used in long-term memory. Set of beliefs of expectations about something that is based on past experience. Mental presentations are stored in memory.
Chunking
Used in short-term memory. Aids in making the most of limited capacity and grouping information into related units.
Criterion-related validity
Validity of a test as measured by a comparison of the test score and independent measures of what the test is designed to measure.
Environmental bias
Virtually every aspect of human behavior is attributed to learning and experience.
Flashbulb memory
Vivid memory of a certain event and the incidents surrounding it long after the event has passed. Often unusual, tragic, or events with strong emotional connection. Can have errors and fade over time.
Encoding
Ways to make mental presentations of information.
Linguistic relativity hypothesis
Whorf's idea that patterns of thinking are determined by the specific language one speaks.
Short-term memory
Working memory. Holds about 7 items that can last for a few seconds to a day. Research by George Miler.
receptor site
a location on a receptor neuron into which a specific neurotransmitter fits
marijuana
a mild hallucinogen that produces a "high" often characterized by feelings of euphoria, a sense of well-being, and swings in mood from gaiety to relaxation; may also cause feelings of anxiety and paranoia
substance dependence
a pattern of compulsive drug taking that results in tolerance, withdrawal symptoms, or other specific symptoms for at least a year
substance abuse
a pattern of drug use that diminishes the ability to fulfill responsibilities at home or at work or school, that results in repeated use of a drug in dangerous situations, or that leads to legal difficulties related to drug use
relative refractory period
a period after firing when a neuron is returning to its normal polarized state and will fire again only if the incoming message is much stronger than usual
absolute refractory period
a period after firing when a neuron will not fire again no matter how strong the incoming messages may be
sound
a psychological experience created by the brain in response to changes in air pressure that are received by the auditory system
graded potential
a shift in the electrical charge in a tiny area of a neuron
pupil
a small opening in the iris through which light enters the eye
receptor cell
a specialized cell that responds to a particular type of energy
perceptual constancy
a tendency to perceive objects as stable and unchanging despite changes in sensory stimulation
shape constancy
a tendency to see an object as the same shape no matter what angle it is viewed from
convergence
a visual depth cue that comes from muscles controlling eye movement as the eyes turn inward to view a nearby stimulus
6
absolute threshold for hearing: the tick of a watch from ___ meters in very quiet conditions
1, 3
absolute threshold for smell: ___ drop of perfume in a ___ room apartment
1, 500
absolute threshold for taste: ___ gram of salt in ___ liters of water
1
absolute threshold for touch: the wing of a bee falling on your cheek from a height of ___ centimeter
30
absolute threshold for vision: a candle flame seen from ___ miles on a clear, dark night
negative daydreamers
achievement oriented people, fear failure, often frustrated, guilty, or hostile
hypnosis
altered state. trancelike state which a person responds readily to suggestions. person must be open to suggestion
color constancy
an inclination to perceive familiar objects as retaining their color despite changes in sensory stimulation
meditation
any of the various methods of concentration, reflection, or focusing of thoughts undertaken to suppress the activity of the sympathetic nervous system
phi phenomenon
apparent movement caused by flashing lights in sequence, as on theater marquees
stroboscopic motion
apparent movement that results from flashing a series of still pictures in rapid succession, as in motion picture
daydreams
apparently effortless shifts in a attention away from the here-and-now into a private world of make-believe. occur every 90 minutes
synapse
area composed of the axon terminal of one neuron, the synaptic space, and the dendrite or cell body of the next neuron
hindbrain
area containing the medulla, pons, and cerebellum
primary somatosensory cortex
area of the parietal lobe where messages from the sense receptors are registered
association areas
areas of the cerebral cortex where incoming messages from the separate senses are combined into meaningful impressions and outgoing messages from the motor areas are integrated
pitch
auditory experience corresponding primarily to frequency of sound vibrations, resulting in a higher or lower tone
consciousness
awareness of various cognitive processes, such as sleeping, dreaming, concentrating, and making decisions
ground
background against which a figure appears
retinal disparity
binocular distance cue based on the difference between the images cast on the two retinas when both eyes are focused on the same object
circadian cycle
body's natural adaptation to 24-hour cycles, the hypothalamus releases melatonin
parasympathetic division
branch of the autonomic nervous system; it calms and relaxes the body
sympathetic division
branch of the autonomic nervous system; it prepares the body for quick action in an emergency
glial cells (glia)
cells that form the myelin sheath; they insulate and support neurons by holding them together, removing waste products, and preventing harmful substances from passing from the bloodstream into the brain
sound waves
changes in pressure caused when molecules of air or fluid collide with tone another and then move apart again
pheromones
chemical molecules that communicate information to other members of a species, and influence their behavior
hormones
chemical substances released by the endocrine glands; they help regulate bodily activities
psychoactive drugs
chemical substances that change moods and perceptions
neurotransmitters
chemicals released by the synaptic vesicles that travel across the synaptic space and affect adjacent neurons
depressants
chemicals that slow down behavior or cognitive processes. increase activity of inhibiting neurotransmitters. includes alcohol, barbiturates, valium, and tranquilizers
stereoscopic vision
combination of two retinal images to form a three-dimensional perceptual experience
spinal cord
complex cable of neurons that runs down the spine, connecting the brain to most of the rest of the body
DNA
complex molecule in a double-helix configuration that is the main ingredient of chromosomes and genes and forms the code for all genetic information
reverse rebound
compounded effects if 2nd dose of a hallucinogen is taken while the 1st dose is still in the body
medulla
controls breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure
binaural cue
cue to sound location that involves both ears working together
monaural cue
cue to sound location that requires just one ear
hertz (Hz)
cycles per second; unit of measurement for the frequency of sound waves
light adaptation
decreased sensitivity of rods and cones in bright light
alcohol
depressant that is the intoxicating ingredient in whiskey beer, wine, and other fermented or distilled liquors
peripheral nervous system
division of the nervous system that connects the central nervous system to the rest of the body
central nervous system
division of the nervous system that consist of the brain and spinal cord
unconscious wishes
dream theory created by Freud. dreams have manifest (surface meaning) or latent (hidden meaning) and symbolism
dreams of waking life
dream theory that is an extension of daily life in an altered form. Reflects conceptions, interests, concerns, and pre-sleep activities
information processing
dream theory that reprocesses information from the day, can allow problem solving
activation synthesis theory
dream theory that the neurons are misfiring. dreams are pointless. the limbic system is active but the frontal lobe is not
cocaine
drug derived from the coca plant that, while producing a sense of euphoria by simulating the sympathetic nervous system, also leads to anxiety, depression, and addictive cravings
opiates
drugs such as opium, morphine and heroin, derived from the opium poppy, that dull the sense and induce feelings of euphoria, well-being, and relaxation. Synthetic drugs resembling opium derivatives are also classified as this.
stimulants
drugs, including amphetamines, cocaine, caffeine, methamphetamine, and nicotine that stimulate the sympathetic nervous system and produce feelings of optimism and boundless energy
resting potential
electrical charge across a neuron membrane due to excess positive ions concentrated on the outside and negative ions on the inside
ions
electrically charged particles found both inside and outside the neuron
genes
elements that control the transmission of traits; found on the chromosomes
thyroid gland
endocrine gland located below the voice box; produces the hormone thyroxin
figure
entity perceived to stand apart from the background
thalamus, cerebral cortex
explaining waking consciousness: stream of information resulting from activity between the ______ and _______ _______
hypothalamus
forebrain region that governs motivation and emotional responses
thalamus
forebrain region that relays and translates incoming messages from the sense receptors, except for smell
parathyroids
four tiny glands embedded in the thyroid; they secrete parathormone
human genome
full complement of genes within human cell
pineal gland
gland located in the center of the brain that regulates activity levels. Releases melatonin
pituitary gland
gland located on the underside of the brain; produces the largest number of the body's hormones
endocrine glands
glands of the endocrine system that release hormones into the bloodstream
nerve (tract)
group of axons bundled together
lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)
hallucinogens or "psychedelic" drug that produces hallucinations and delusions similar to those occurring in a psychotic state
psychedelics
hallucinogens. any of a number of drugs, such as LSD, marijuana, PCP, shrooms, peyote and mescaline, that distort visual and auditory perception
positive daydreamers
happy, pleasant, entertaining, uncomplicated people
narcolepsy
hereditary sleep disorder characterized by sudden nodding off during the day and sudden loss of muscle tone following moments of emotional excitement
perceptual illusion
illusion due to misleading cues in stimuli that give rise to inaccurate or impossible perceptions
dark adaptation
increased sensitivity of rods and cones in darkness
neurons
individual cells that are the smallest units of the nervous system; receive and transmit information
unconscious
information we are not aware of
nonconscious
level of consciousness. body is controlled by mind, we are not aware of it
preconscious
level of consciousness. not currently aware of but can be if we choose (ex. what is 6x3?)
vomeronasal organ (VNO)
location of receptors for pheromones in the roof of the nasal cavity
recessive gene
member of a gene pair that can control the appearance of a certain trait only if it is paired with another recessive gene
dominant gene
member of a gene pair that controls the appearance of a certain trait
oval window
membrane across the opening between the middle ear and inner ear that conducts vibrations to the cochlea
altered states of consciousness
mental state that differs noticeably from normal waking consciousness. examples are sleeping, dreaming, drugs, and meditation
waking consciousness
mental state that encompasses the thoughts, feelings, and perceptions that occur when we are awake and reasonably alert
aerial perspective
monocular cue to distance and depth based on the fact that more distant objects are likely to appear hazy and blurred
texture gradient
monocular cue to distance and depth based on the fact that objects seen at greater distances appear to be smoother and less textured
linear perspective
monocular cue to distance and depth based on the fact that two parallel lines seem to come together at the horizon
motion parallax
monocular distance cue to which objects closer than the point of visual focus seem to move in the direction opposite to the viewer's moving head, and objects beyond the focus point appear to move in the same direction as the viewer's head
olfactory epithelium
nasal membranes containing receptor cells sensitive to odors
reticular formation (RF)
network of neurons; vital for attention, sleep, and arousal, sends alert signals, can result in coma if damaged
interneurons (association neurons)
neurons that carry messages from one neuron to another
sensory neurons (afferent)
neurons that carry messages from sense organs to the spinal cord or brain
motor neurons (efferent)
neurons that carry messages from the spinal cord or brain to the muscles and glands
ganglion cells
neurons that connect the bipolar cells in the eyes to the brain. It's axons join to form the optic nerve
bipolar cells
neurons that have only one axon and one dendrite; in the eye, these neurons connect the receptors on the retina to the ganglion cells
glutamate
neurotransmitter. excitatory. involved in long-term memory
acetylcholine (ACh)
neurotransmitter. excitatory. plays a role in arousal, attention, memory, and motivation
histamine
neurotransmitter. has been implicated in severe depression
GABA
neurotransmitter. inhibitory distributed through central nervous system. Implicated in sleep and eating disorders. Low levels have been linked to anxiety
norepinephrine
neurotransmitter. inhibitory in brain. affects arousal, wakefulness, learning, memory, and mood
glycene
neurotransmitter. inhibitory responsible for inhibition in the spinal cord and lower brain centers
dopamine
neurotransmitter. inhibitory. affects neurons association with voluntary movement, learning, memory, and emotions. Implicated in schizophrenia and Parkinson's disease
endorphins
neurotransmitter. inhibitory. involved in the inhibition of pain. Released during exercise and may be responsible for "runner's high"
serotonin
neurotransmitter. inhibitory. regulates sleep, dreaming, mood, eating, pain, and aggressive behavior. Implicated in depression
non-REM (NREM) sleep
non-rapid-eye-movement stages of sleep that alternate with REM stages during the sleep cycle
pancreas
organ lying between the stomach and small intestine; secretes insulin and glucagon to regulate blood-sugar levels
placebo effect
pain relief that occurs when a person believes a pill or procedure will reduce pain. The actual cause of the relief seems to come from endorphins
chromosomes
pairs of threadlike bodies within the cell nucleus that contain the genes
frontal lobe
part of the cerebral cortex that is responsible for voluntary movement, attention, goal-directed behavior, emotional control, and temperament
parietal lobe
part of the cerebral cortex that receives sensory information from throughout the body
temporal lobe
part of the cerebral hemisphere that helps regulate hearing, balance and equilibrium, and certain emotions and motivations
occipital lobe
part of the cerebral hemisphere that receives and interprets visual information
cochlea
part of the inner ear containing fluid that vibrates, which in turn causes the basilar membrane to vibrate
autonomic nervous system
part of the peripheral nervous system that carries messages between the central nervous system and the internal organs
somatic nervous system
part of the peripheral nervous system that carries messages from the senses to the central nervous system and between the central nervous system and the skeletal muscles
color blindness
partial or total inability to perceive hues
posthypnotic amnesia
people forget what they were told during hypnosis
dichromats
people who are blind to either red-green or yellow-blue
monochromats
people who are totally color-blind
trichromats
people who have normal color vision
scattered daydreamers
people with high anxiety, often fleeting, loosely connected, or worrisome
purposeful daydreamers
people with high levels of curiosity, like to solve problems, think ahead, and have insight
posthypnotic suggestion
person responds to suggestions after hypnosis
tolerance
phenomenon whereby higher doses of a drug are required to produce its original effects or to prevent withdrawal symptoms
barbiturates
potentially deadly depressants, first used for their sedative and anticonvulsant properties, now only used to treat such conditions as epilepsy and arthritis
all-or-none law
principle that the action potential in a neuron does not vary in strength; the neuron either fires at full strength or does not fire at all
polygenic inheritance
process by which several genes interact to produce a certain trait; responsible for out most important traits
agonists
psychoactive drug that acts like a neurotransmitter
antagonists
psychoactive drug that blocks receptor sites
REM
rapid eye movement, paradoxical sleep, increased vivid dreaming, body is paralyzed
cones
receptor cells in the retina responsible for color vision
rods
receptor cells in the retina responsible for night vision and perception of brightness
golgi tendon organs
receptors that sense movement of the tendons, which connect muscle to bone
stretch receptors
receptors that sense muscle stretch and contraction
volley principle
refinement of the frequency theory; it suggests that receptors in the ear fire in sequence, with one group responding, then a second, then a third, and so on, so that the complete pattern of firing corresponds to the frequency of the sound wave
midbrain
region between the hindbrain and the forebrain; it is important for hearing and sight, registers pain
pons
regulates sleep-wake cycle
hemispherectomy
removal of the left or right half of the brain
adoption studies
research carried out on children, adopted at birth by parents not related to them, to determine the relative influence on heredity and environment on human behavior
sleep onset/twilight
rhythm of sleep. irregular, low alpha waves. see flashing lights, colors, and geometric shapes. right before you fall asleep
limbic system
ring of structures that play a role in learning and emotional behavior
vestibular sacs
sacs in the inner ear that sense gravitation and forward, backward, and vertical movement
identical twins
twins developed from a single fertilized ovum and therefore identical in genetic makeup at the time of conception
fraternal twins
twins developed from two separate fertilized ova and therefore different in genetic makeup
adrenal glands
two endocrine glands located just above the kidneys
decibel
unit of measurement for the loudness of sounds
withdrawal symptoms
unpleasant physical or psychological effects that follow the discontinuance of a dependence-producing substance
macroelectrode techniques
used to obtain a picture of the activity in a particular region of the brain (EEG)
microelectrode techniques
used to study the functions of individual neurons
basilar membrane
vibrating membrane in the cochlea of the inner ear; it contains sense receptors for sound
binocular cues
visual cues requiring the use of both eyes
monocular cues
visual cues requiring the use of one eye
dreams
vivid visual and auditory experiences that occur primarily during REM periods of sleep. 4-5 times per night
sleep deprivation
weakened immune system, impaired concentration and creativity, slowed performance, misperceptions on monotonous tasks
myelin sheath
white fatty covering found on some axons; provides insulation and increases speed at which signals are transmitted
sleep cycles
4-6 times a night, 90 minutes per cycle, NREM/REM alternate
Skinner box
A box often used in operant conditioning of animals, which limits the available response and thus increases the likelihood that the desired response will occur.
Washoe
A chimpanzee taught by Gardner and Gardner that learned to communicate through sign language.
Information Processing Model
A computer like model used to describe the ways humans encode, store, and retrieve information.
neural impulse (action potential)
the firing of a nerve cell
neurogenesis
the growth of new neurons
absolute threshold
the least amount of energy that can be detected as a stimulation 50% of the time
threshold of excitation
the level an impulse must exceed to cause a neuron to fire
retina
the lining of the eye containing receptor cells that are sensitive to light
amplitude
the magnitude of a wave; in sound, the primary determinant of loudness
natural selection
the mechanism proposed by Darwin in his theory of evolution, which states that organisms bested adapted to their environment tend to survive, transmitting their genetic characteristics to succeeding generations, whereas organisms with less adaptive characteristics tend of vanish from the earth
brightness
the nearness of a color to white as opposed to black
frequency
the number of cycles per second in a wave; in sound, the primary determinant of pitch
cerebral cortex
the outer surface of the two cerebral hemispheres that regulates most complex behavior
size constancy
the perception of an object as the same size regardless of the distance from which it is viewed
autokinetic illusion
the perception that a stationary object is actually moving
blind spot
the place on the retina where the axons of all the ganglion cells leave the eye and where there are no receptors
optic chiasm
the point near the base of the brain where some fibers in the optic nerve from each eye cross to the other side of the brain
Weber's law
the principle that the just noticeable difference for any given sense is a constant fraction or proportion of the stimulation being judged
perception
the process of creating meaningful patterns from raw sensory information
additive color mixing
the process of mixing lights of different wavelengths to create new hues
subtractive color mixing
the process of mixing pigments, each of which absorbs some wavelengths of light and reflects others
timbre
the quality or texture of sound; caused by overtones
primary motor cortex
the section of the frontal lobe responsible for voluntary movement
vestibular senses
the senses of equilibrium and body position
light
the small segment of the electromagnetic spectrum to which the eyes are sensitive
difference threshold (just noticeable difference)
the smallest change in stimulation that can be detected 50% of the time
olfactory bulb
the smell center in the brain
genetics
the study of how traits are transmitted from one generation to the next
trichromatic theory
the theory of color vision that holds that all color perception derives from three different color receptors in the retina (usually red, green, and blue receptors)
gate control theory
the theory that a "neurological gate" in the spinal cord controls the transmission of pain messages to the brain
biopsychosocial theory
the theory that the interaction of biological, psychological, and cultural factors influence the intensity and duration of pain
hammer, anvil, stirrup
the three small bones in the middle ear that relay vibrations of the eardrum to the inner ear
lens
the transparent part of the eye inside the pupil that focuses light onto the retina
cornea
the transparent protective coating over the front part of the eye
saturation
the vividness or richness of a hue
opponent-process theory
theory of color vision that holds that three sets of color receptors (yellow-blue, red-green, or black-white) respond to determine the color you experience
role theory of hypnosis
theory of hypnosis that people who are easily hypnotized have richer fantasy lives and follow directions well. it is not an altered state of consciousness
state theory of hypnosis
theory of hypnosis that someone is more or less aware of the environment. meets some requirements of an altered state
frequency theory
theory that pitch is determined by the frequency with which hair cells in the cochlea fire
place theory
theory that pitch is determined by the location of greatest vibration on the basilar membrane
corpus callosum
thick band of nerve fibers connecting the left and right hemispheres
synaptic space
tiny gap between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrites or cell body of the next neuron
synaptic vesicles
tiny sacs in a terminal button that release chemicals into the synapse
overtones
tones that result from sound waves that are multiple of the basic tone; primary determinant of timbre
Taste aversion
(Conditioned food). Conditioned avoidance of certain foods even if there is only one pairing of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli.
Operant conditioning
(Instrumental). The type of learning in which behaviors are emitted (in the presence of specific stimuli) to earn rewards or avoid punishments.
Classical conditioning
(Pavlovian). The type of learning in which a response naturally elicited by one stimulus comes to be elicited by a different, formerly neutral stimulus.
Observational learning
(Vicarious). Learning by observing other people's behavior.
Psychotherapists
Can work in clinical settings and do not need a degree. Includes clinical methods from psychological principles.
Ethnic group
Category of people who have migrated to another country but see themselves and are perceived as by others as distinctive because of a common homeland and language.
Selective attention or Cocktail-party phenomenon
Concentration on one sensation but not completely blocking out others
Intellectual disability
Condition of significantly subaverage intelligence combined with deficiencies in adaptive behavior.
Higher-order conditioning
Conditioning based on previous learning; the conditioned stimulus serves as an unconditioned stimulus for further training.
Philip Zambardo
Conducted the prison experiment to see how easily college students could lose their morals when in bad situations.
Experiential intelligence
Creative intelligence. Sternberg's term for the ability to adapt creatively in new situations, to use insight.
George Gallup
Developed a mirror test of self-recognition for animals.
William James
Developed the functionalist theory and earned degrees in physiology and philosophy. He was greatly influenced by Charles Darwin's theory of evolution and that anatomy and behavior are a result of natural selection.
Edward Bradford Titchener
Developed the structuralist theory. His ideas revolved around chemistry and physics, and reasoned that psychologists should analyze complex experiences in terms of their simplest forms. He broke consciousness down into physical sensations, feelings, and images.
Child psychology
Developmental psychology that focuses on infants and children. It is mainly concerned with whether babies are born with distinct personalities, how infants become attached to their parents, and how they acquire language and develop morals.
Life-span psychology
Developmental psychology that focuses on the adult years, and the different ways individuals adjust to partnership and parenting, middle age, retirement, and the prospect of death.
Adolescent psychology
Developmental psychology that focuses on the teenage years, and how puberty, changes in relationships with peers and parents, and the search for identity can make it a difficult time.
Childhood amnesia
Difficulty remembering experiences from birth-2 years of age because the brain is not fully developed.
Explicit memory
Information that can readily be expressed in words and is intentionally retrieved from memory.
Random sample
Each potential participant has an equal chance of being selected.
Semantic codes
Encoding by giving personal meaning to information for memory.
Acoustic/echoic codes
Encoding through sounds and saying things out loud.
Contextual intelligence
Environmental intelligence. Sternberg's term for the ability to select contexts in which you can excel, to shape the environment to fit your strengths.
dissociation theory of hypnosis
Ernest Hilgards theory of a split in consciousness. one part of the mind operates independently and is conscious. other part of the mind is subject to hypnotic suggestion
G. Stanley Hall
Established the first American psychology laboratory at Johns Hopkins University in 1883. The founder and first president of the APA. Studied child and educational psychology
Observer bias
Expectation or biases of the observer that might distort or influence his/her interpretation of what is actually being observed.
The forgetting curve
Experiment by Hermann Ebbinghaus that showed that the greatest memory loss occurs immediately following learning.
Episodic/semantic
Explicit/declarative memory.
Learned helplessness
Failure to take steps to avoid or escape from an unpleasant or aversive stimulus that occurs as a result of previous exposure to unavoidable painful stimuli.
(Re)Constructed memory
False details of real events or recollection of events that never happened that are created by misleading questions or overhearing a story.
Experimental Psychology
Field of psychology that conducts research on basic psychological processes, including learning, memory, sensation, perception, cognition, motivation, and emotion.
Clinical Psychology
Field of psychology that focuses primarily on the diagnosis, cause, and treatment of psychological disorders.
Physiological/Biological Psychology
Field of psychology that investigates the biological basis of human behavior, thoughts, and emotions.
Industrial and Organizational Psychology
Field of psychology that is concerned with issues such as selecting and training personnel, improving productivity and working conditions, and the impact of computerization and automation on workers.
Counseling Psychology
Field of psychology that is primarily concerned with normal problems of adjustment that many people face at some point.
Social Psychology
Field of psychology that studies how people influence one another.
Developmental Psychology
Field of psychology that studies human mental and physical growth from the prenatal period through childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age.
Personality Psychology
Field of psychology that studies the differences among individuals in such traits as anxiety, sociability, self-esteem, the need for achievement, and aggressiveness.
Sensory registers/memory
First stage in the memory process. They are entry points for raw information from the senses and store information momentarily. Can hold a lot of information and uses pattern recognition.
Feature extraction
Focusing on significant characteristics of the information selected for attention.
Implicit Memory
Information that cannot be readily expressed in words and someone may not be aware of having.
Group tests
Intelligence tests administered by one examiner to many people at one time.
Culture-fair tests
Intelligence tests designed to reduce cultural bias minimizing skills and values that vary from one culture to another.
Performance tests
Intelligence tests that minimize the use of language.
Case study
Intensive description and analysis of an individual or a few individuals. Includes the scores on psychological tests. Ex: Phineas Cage- brain damage and memory loss.
Wilhelm Wundt
Founded the first psychological laboratory at the University of Leipzig in Germany. Studied voluntarism.
Repression
Freud's theory that painful memories are purposely pushed deep into the unconscious mind.
Gender stereotypes
General beliefs about characteristics that are presumed to be typical of each sex.
Retrieval
Getting information from memory to conscious.
Response generalization
Giving a response that is somewhat different from the response originally learned to that stimulus.
Culture
Goods, values, attitudes, behaviors, and vocal that are passed from one generation to the next.
Subculture
Groups whose values and behaviors distinguish them from the cultural mainstream.
American Psychological Association (APA)
Has 53 divisions which represent the major fields of psychological inquiry, as well as specialized research and professional interests. Guidelines: 1. Informed consent 2. Aware of possible risks/limits on confidentiality 3. Informed of nature of the experiment 4. If a course credit, alternate assignments must be offered 5. No deception if it would impact someone's willingness to participate 6. Deception can be used only when necessary, and there must be debriefing after
Operational definition
How specifically the dependent variable is measured.
Theory of multiple intelligences
Howard Gardner's theory that there is not one intelligence, but rather many intelligences, each of which is relatively independent of the others. -logical-mathematical, linguistic, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic, and existentialism.
Procedural/emotional
Implicit/non-declarative memory.
Schedule of reinforcement
In operant conditioning, the rule for determining when and how often reinforcers will be delivered.
Positive transfer
In remembering, past learning aides in new learning.
Negative transfer
In remembering, previous learning interferes with new learning.
Transfer
In remembering, the effect of previous learning on later learning.
Anterograde amnesia
Inability to recall events after an accident or injury.
Retrograde amnesia
Inability to recall events preceding an accident or injury.
Tip of the tongue phenomenon
Inability to recall familiar words or memories.
Forgetting
Increase in errors during attempt to retrieve information from memory.
Proactive interference
Information already in memory interferes with new information.
Empirical evidence
Information derived from systematic, objective observation.
sensation
the experience of sensory stimulation
afterimage
sense experience that occurs after a visual stimulus has been removed, always seen in opposite color of original image
kinesthetic senses
senses of muscle movement, posture, and strain on muscles and joints
dendrites
short fibers that branch out from the cell body and pick up incoming messages
axon
single long fiber extending from the cell body; it carries outgoing messages
apnea
sleep disorder characterized by breathing difficulty during the night and feelings of exhaustion during the day
insomnia
sleep disorder characterized by difficulty in falling asleep or remaining asleep throughout the night. can be caused by stress, depression, medication, or an over aroused biological system
night terrors
sleep disorder. episodes of fright during stages 3 or 4 of sleep. person suddenly sits up screaming. most common from ages 4-12
sleep walking
sleep disorder. occurs during stage 4, difficult to wake sleeper, more common in children and boys, also called somnambulism
stage 3
sleep stage. delta waves, harder to wake during sleep, do not respond to light or noise
stage 4
sleep stage. low delta waves. heart rate, breathing, blood pressure, and temperature are low. restoration of the body
stage 2
sleep stage. short rhythmic bursts of activity called sleep spindles
stage 1
sleep stage. slowing pulse, muscle relaxation, rolling eyes, lasts about 10 minutes. theta waves have a high-frequency, low amplitude
papillae
small bumps on the tongue that contain taste buds
feature detectors
specialized brain cells that only respond to particular elements in the visual field such as movement or lines of specific orientation
amphetamines
stimulant drugs that initially produce "rushes" of euphoria and often followed by sudden "crashes" and, sometimes, severe depression
terminal button
structure at the end of an axon terminal branch
cerebellum
structure in the hindbrain that controls certain reflexes and coordinates the body's movements
organ of corti
structure on the surface of the basilar membrane that contains the receptor cells for hearing
taste buds
structures on the tongue that contain the receptor cells for taste
family studies
studies of heritability in humans based on the assumption that if genes influence a certain trait, close relatives should be more similar on that trait than distant relatives
twin studies
studies of identical and fraternal twins to determine the relative influence of heredity and environment on human behavior
strain studies
studies of the heritability of behavioral traits using animals that have been inbred to produce strains that are genetically similar to one another
selection studies
studies that estimate the heritability of a trait by breeding animals with other animals that have the same trait
behavior genetics
study of the relationship between heredity and behavior
evolutionary psychology
subfield of psychology concerned with the origins of behaviors and mental processes, their adaptive value, and the purposes they continue to serve
functional imaging
techniques that can image activity in the brain as it responds to various stimuli (MEG, PET, fMRI)
structural imaging
techniques used to map structures in a brain (CAT, MRI)
neural plasticity
the ability of the brain to change in response to experience
visual acuity
the ability to distinguish fine details visually
adaptation
the adjustment of the senses to the level of stimulation they are receiving
psychobiology
the area of psychology that focuses on the biological foundations of behavior and mental processes
fovea
the area of the retina that is the center of the visual field
hue
the aspect of color that corresponds to names such as red, green, and blue
optic nerve
the bundle of axons of ganglion cells that carries neural messages from each eye to the brain
iris
the colored part of the eye
polarization
the condition of a neuron when the inside is negatively charged relative to the outside; when the neuron is at rest