Psych Midterm Review (Ch. 1-8)

Desensitization therapy

A conditioning technique designed to gradually reduce anxiety about a particular object or situation.

Extinction

A decrease in the strength or frequency of a learned response because of failure to continue pairing the US and CS (classical conditioning) or withholding of reinforcement (operant conditioning).

Language

A flexible system of communication that uses sounds, rules, gestures, or symbols to convey information.

Cognitive revolution

A general shift away from a limited focus on behavior toward a broad interest in mental processes.

Intelligence

A general term referring to the ability or abilities involved in learning and adaptive behavior.

Koko

A gorilla taught by Francine Patterson that was able to appropriately express time and emotions through sign language.

Availability

A heuristic by which a judgement or decision is based on information that is most easily retrieved from memory.

Representativeness

A heuristic by which a new situation is judged on the basis of its resemblance to a stereotypical model.

Hill climbing

A heuristic problem-solving strategy in which each step moves you progressively closer to the final goal.

Working backward

A heuristic strategy in which one works backward from the desired goal to the given condition.

Means-end analysis

A heuristic strategy that aims to reduce the discrepancy between the current situation and the desired goal at a number of intermediate points.

Cognitive map

A learned mental image of a spatial environment that may be called on to solve problems when stimuli in the environment change.

Concept

A mental category for classifying objects, people, or experiences.

Split-half reliability

A method of determining test reliability by dividing the test into two parts and checking the agreement of scores on both parts.

Image

A nonverbal mental representation of a sensory experience.

Intelligence quotient (IQ)

A numerical value given to intelligence that is determined from the scores on an intelligence test; the average IQ is arbitrarily set at 100.

Trial and error

A problem-solving strategy based on the successive elimination of incorrect solutions until the correct one is found.

Brainstorming

A problem-solving strategy in which an individual or a group produces numerous ideas and evaluates them only after all ideas have been collected.

Visualizing

A problem-solving strategy in which principles or concepts are drawn, diagrammed, or charted so that they can be better understood.

Blocking

A process whereby prior conditioning prevents conditioning to a second stimulus even when the two stimuli are presented simultaneously.

Compensatory model

A rational decision-making model in which choices are systematically evaluated on various criteria.

Variable-ratio schedule

A reinforcement schedule in which a varying number of correct responses must occur before reinforcement is presented.

Fixed-interval schedule

A reinforcement schedule in which the correct response is reinforced after a fixed length of time since the last reinforcement.

Fixed-ratio schedule

A reinforcement schedule in which the correct response is reinforced after a fixed number of correct responses.

Variable-interval schedule

A reinforcement schedule in which the correct response is reinforced after varying lengths of time following the last reinforcement.

Primary reinforcer

A reinforcer that is rewarding in itself, such as food, water, and sex.

Secondary reinforcer

A reinforcer whose value is acquired through association with other primary or secondary reinforcers.

Contingency

A reliable "if-then" relationship between two events such as a CS and a US.

Unconditioned response (UR)

A response that takes place in an organism whenever an unconditioned stimulus occurs.

Representative sample

A sample carefully chosen so that the characteristics of the participants correspond closely to the characteristics of the larger population.

Sample

A selection of cases from a larger population.

Algorithm

A step-by-step method of problem solving that guarantees a correct solution.

Punisher

A stimulus that follows a behavior and decreases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated.

Reinforcer

A stimulus that follows a behavior and increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated.

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

A stimulus that invariably causes an organism to respond in a specific way.

Biofeedback

A technique that uses monitoring devices to provide precise information about internal physiological processes, such as heart rate or blood pressure, to teach people to gain voluntary control over these functions.

Social learning theory

A type of learning that emphasizes the ability to learn by observing a model of receiving instructions, without firsthand experience by the learner.

Validity

Ability of a test to measure what it has been designed to measure.

Reliability

Ability of a test to produce consistent and stable scores.

Emotional intelligence

According to Goleman, a form of intelligence that refers to how effectively people perceive and understand their own emotions and the emotions of others, and can manage their emotional behavior.

Prototype

According to Rosch, a mental model containing the most typical features of a concept.

B.F. Skinner

Added the ideas of reinforcement and conditioning to behaviorism. Interested in changing behavior through conditioning and natural laws of behaviorism.

Interference

Additional stimuli presented simultaneously with the material to be learned may make learning more difficult.

Howard Gardner

Advanced the theory of multiple intelligences, which has 9 different intelligences.

Debriefing

After a study, the researcher explains any deception, and makes sure the participant is okay.

Conditioned response (CR)

After conditioning, the response an organism produces when only a conditioned stimulus is presented.

Scientific method

An approach to knowledge that relies on collecting data, generating a theory to explain the data, producing testable hypotheses based on the theory, and testing those hypotheses empirically.

Evolutionary Psychology

An approach to, and subfield of, psychology that is concerned with the evolutionary origins of behaviors and mental processes, their adaptive value, and the purposes they continue to serve.

Telegraphic speech

An early speech of 1 and 2 year olds that omits words that are not essential to the meaning of a phrase.

Positive Psychology

An emerging field of psychology that focuses on positive experiences, including subjective well-being, self-determination, the relationship between positive emotions and physical health, and the factors that allow individuals, communities, and societies to flourish.

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Third Edition (WAIS-III)

An individual intelligence test developed especially for adults; it yields verbal, performance, and full scale IQ scores.

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition (WISC-III)

An individual intelligence test developed especially for school-aged children; it yields verbal, performance, and full scale IQ scores.

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

An originally neutral stimulus that is paired with an unconditioned stimulus and eventually produces the desired response in an organism when presented alone.

Componential intelligence

Analytical intelligence. Sternberg's term for the ability to acquire new knowledge and solve problems effectively.

Statistical significance

Analyzing the data when the p-value is less than the significance level. A result that is not likely to occur randomly, but is likely to be attributable to a specific value.

Punishment

Any event whose presence decreases the likelihood that ongoing behavior will recur.

Positive reinforcer

Any event whose presence increases the likelihood that ongoing behavior will recur.

Negative reinforcer

Any event whose reduction or termination increases the likelihood that ongoing behavior will recur.

Applied psychology

Application of research conducted by academic psychologists.

Correlational research

Based on naturally occurring relationships between two or more individuals. Does not involve cause and effect.

Operant behavior

Behavior designed to operate on the environment in a way that will gain something desired or avoid something unpleasant.

Gender roles

Behaviors that we expect each gender to behave in.

Recognition

Being able to identify what has been learned (multiple choice or matching).

Recall

Being able to reproduce material from memory with few clues.

L. L. Thurstone

Believed that intelligence has 7 distinct mental abilities.

Double blind study

Both the researcher and the participants are clueless to who is in the experimental and control groups.

Semantic Network Theory

Brain forms new memories by connecting with those already stored.

Subgoals

Intermediate, more manageable goals used in one heuristic strategy to make it easier to reach the final goal.

Storage

Keeping information over time.

Tacit knowledge

Knowledge one needs for success in completing particular practical tasks; this knowledge may not be explicit.

Avoidance training

Learning a desirable behavior to prevent the occurrence of something unpleasant such as punishment.

Distributed practice

Learning broken-up into sessions and is effective with motor skills and memorization.

State-dependent memory

Learning in one chemical or physical state is best produced when the same state occurs again (location.)

Cognitive learning

Learning that depends on mental processes that are not directly observable.

Latent learning

Learning that is not immediately reflected in a behavior change.

Insight

Learning that occurs rapidly as a result of understanding all the elements of a problem.

Stimulus discrimination

Learning to respond to only one stimulus and to inhibit the response to all other stimuli.

Massed practice

Long, non-stop session of learning.

Introspection

Looking within, which is often used in insight therapy and involves physical sensation, images, and feelings.

Belief perseverance

Maintaining a belief even when factual information is shown to prove otherwise.

Belief bias

Making illogical conclusions in order to support a belief.

Psychiatrists

Medical Drs. (M.D.s) who, in addition to 4 years of medical school, have completed 3 years of residency training in psychiatry. They specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of abnormal behavior. They are currently the only mental health professionals who are licensed to prescribe medication.

Photographic/eidetic memory

Memory keeps image "in front of person" after image is taken away. Research done by Alexander Luria.

Levels of Processing Model

Memory storage based on how deeply it was thought about.

Alzheimer's disease

Neurological disorder causing severe memory loss.

Long-term potentiation

Neurons can strengthen connections between each other by repeated firings, and is used when reflecting and reviewing information.

Replacement theory

New information can wipe out old unused information.

Retroactive interference

New information interferes with information already in memory.

Intermittent pairing

Pairing the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus on only a portion of the learning trials.

Decay theory

Passage of time causes forgetting.

Behavioral geneticists

People who investigate the impact of heredity on both normal and abnormal traits and behavior.

Psychodynamic theory

Personality theory contending that behavior results from psychological forces that interact within the individual, often outside conscious awareness.

Deep/elaborate processing

Processing information in a meaningful way by attaching associations to a concept.

Shallow processing

Processing information through maintenance and rote rehearsal, is often used for largely meaningless information, and is easily forgotten.

Daniel Goleman

Proposed the theory of emotional intelligence.

Psychoanalysts

Psychiatrists or clinical psychologists who have received additional training in psychoanalytic theory and practice.

Charles Spearman

Psychologist who believed that intelligence is natural. Created the idea of g factors (general intelligence).

School psychologists

Psychologists who work in school settings with students.

Survey research

Questionnaires or interview that are administered to a selected group of people.

Mood-congruent memory

Recall is improved if mood is the same as when information was learned.

Autobiographical memory

Recollection of events that happened in our lifetime. 80% of memories are from ages 18-35.

Content validity

Refers to a test's having an adequate sample of questions measuring the skills or knowledge it is supposed to measure.

Continuous reinforcement

Reinforcement every time the response is made.

Vicarious reinforcement/punishment

Reinforcement or punishment experienced by models that affects the willingness of others to perform the behaviors they learned by observing those models.

Shaping

Reinforcing successive approximations to a desired behavior.

Academic psychology

Research on why we are the way we are.

Experimental method

Research technique in which an investigator deliberately manipulates selected events or circumstances and then measures the effects of those manipulations on subsequent behavior. -participants, hypothesis, independent variable, dependent variable, experimental group, control group, and experimenter bias.

Placebo effect

Researchers look at the effects of the groups receiving the placebo vs. the group getting the actual medication. It is used to make sure nothing is wrong with the study.

Remembering

Retrieval process that brings information from long-term to short-term memory.

Heuristics

Rules of thumb that help in simplifying and solving problems, although they do not guarantee a correct solution.

Feminist psychology

Says that much of the research supporting key psychological theories was based on all-male samples, gender differences tend to focus on extreme differences rather than similarities, and the questions psychologists ask and the topics they study reflect what they consider to be important.

Cognitive Psychology

School of psychology devoted to the study of mental processes in the broadest sense.

Humanistic Psychology

School of psychology that emphasizes nonverbal experience and altered states of consciousness as a means of realizing one's full human potential and self-actualization. Known as the "third force".

Structuralism

School of psychology that stressed the basic units of experience and the combinations in which they occur.

Statistical inference

Seeing if evidence from an experiment is valid and able to be applied to real life.

Attention

Selection of certain information for further processing.

Hypotheses

Specific, testable predictions derived from a theory.

Correlation coefficients

Statistical measures of the degree of associations between two variables.

Signs

Stereotyped communications about an animal's current state.

Triarchic theory of intelligence

Sternberg's theory that intelligence involves mental skills (componential aspect), insight and creative adaptability (experiential aspect), and environmental responsiveness (contextual aspect).

Long-term memory

Stores unlimited information for relatively permanent amounts of time.

John B. Watson

Studied behaviorism and conducted the experiment on baby Albert. He believed that people cannot see, define, or measure consciousness.

Mary Cover Jones

Studied behaviorism and life span/developmental psychology. Used desensitization on baby Albert.

M. Wertheimer, W. Köhler, K. Koffka

Studied gestalt psychology and were interested in structuralism and perception.

Carl Rogers

Studied humanism. Believed that people should strive to match their true selves with their ideal selves.

Abraham Maslow

Studied humanistic psychology and referred to it as the "third force" beyond Freudian theory and behaviorism. Made the hierarchy of needs.

Single blind study

Study in which the participants are not aware of which group they have been assigned.

Longitudinal study

Study of the same group over a long period of time. Pros: no cohort issues. Cons: Higher attrition, longer time.

Cross sectional study

Studying different groups at the same time for comparison purposes. Pros: shorter time, lower attrition Cons: cohort issues

Race

Subpopulation whose members have reproduced exclusively among themselves and are generally similar and distinct from other members of the same species.

Giftedness

Superior IQ combined with demonstrated or potential ability in such areas as academic aptitude, creativity, and leadership.

Theory

Systematic explanation of a phenomenon; it organizes known facts, allows people to predict new facts, and permits people to exercise a degree of control over the phenomenon.

Serial position effect

Tendency to recall the first items and last items on a list.

Primacy effect

Tendency to recall the first items on a list.

Recency effect

Tendency to recall the last items on a list.

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale

Terman's adaptation of the Binet-Simon Scale.

Intelligence tests

Tests designed to measure a person's general mental abilities.

Response acquisition

The "building phase" of conditioning during which the likelihood or strength of the desired response increases.

Learning set

The ability to become increasingly more effective in solving problems as more problems are solved.

Creativity

The ability to produce novel and socially valued ideas or objects.

Memory

The ability to remember the things we have experienced, imagined, and learned. or The capacity to retain and retrieve information.

Retention

The ability to remember what is learned.

Conditioning

The acquisition of specific patterns of behavior in the presence of well-defined stimuli.

Phonemes

The basic sound units of a language that indicate changes in meaning.

Semantics

The criteria for assigning meaning to the morphemes in a language.

Sexual orientation

The direction of one's sexual interest toward members of the same sex, the opposite sex, or both sexes.

Binet-Simon Scale

The first test of intelligence, developed for testing children.

Margaret Floy Washburn

The first woman in America to receive a Ph.D. in psychology, was an editor of the American Journal of Psychology, and elected president of the APA in 1921.

Mary Whiton Calkins

The first woman to be elected president of the American Psychological Association. Developed an influential theory of self-psychology.

Grammar

The language rules that determine how sounds and words can be combined and used to communicate meaning within a language.

Sigmund Freud

The most controversial pioneer of psychology. Developed the psychodynamic theory. He believed that humans are motivated by unconscious instincts, are not aware of their true motives, and are not entirely in control of thoughts and behavior.

Surface structure

The particular words and phrases used to make up a sentence.

Framing

The perspective or phrasing of information that is used to make a decision.

Learning

The process by which experience or practice results in a relatively permanent change in behavior or potential behavior.

Critical thinking

The process of examining the information already given, then making judgements and decisions.

Cognition

The process whereby we acquire and use knowledge.

Gender

The psychological and social meanings attached to being biologically male or female. Often used interchangeable with one's biological makeup or sex.

Spontaneous recovery

The reappearance of an extinguished response after the passage of time, without further training.

Syntax

The rules for arranging words into grammatical phrases and sentences.

Gestalt Psychology

The school of psychology that studies how people perceive and experience objects as whole patterns.

Behaviorism

The school of psychology that studies only observable and measurable behavior.

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Morphemes

The smallest meaningful units of speech, such as simple words, prefixes, and suffixes.

Naturalistic observation

The study of human/animal behavior in a natural setting.

Anthropomorphism

The tendency to attribute human characteristics to other animals.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to look for evidence in support of a belief and to ignore evidence that would disprove a belief.

Mental set

The tendency to perceive and approach problems in certain ways.

Functional fixedness

The tendency to perceive only a limited number of uses for an object, thus interfering with the process of problem solving.

Anthropocentrism

The tendency to view humans as unique, and overlook evolutionary heritage as well as abilities in other species.

Hindsight bias

The tendency to view outcomes as inevitable and predictable after we know the outcome.

Stimulus generalization

The transfer of a learned response to different but similar stimuli.

Deep structure

The underlying meaning of a sentence.

Functionalist theory

Theory of mental life and behavior that is concerned with how an organism uses its perceptual abilities to function in its environment.

Counterfactual thinking

Thinking about alternative realities and things that never happened.

Convergent thinking

Thinking that is directed toward one correct solution to a problem.

Divergent thinking

Thinking that meets the criteria of originality, inventiveness, and flexibility.

Law of effect

Thorndike's theory that behavior consistently rewarded will be "stamped in" as learned behavior, and behavior that brings about discomfort will be "stamped out" (also known as the principle of reinforcement).

Stanley Milgram

Thought he was researching and studying the effects of punishment on learning. In his experiment he asked the subject a question and they were shocked by the other participant when they were incorrect. He was actually studying obedience.

Visual/iconic codes

Type of encoding researched by George Sperling.

Emotional memory

Type of long-term memory. Learned emotional responses to stimuli.

Episodic memory

Type of long-term memory. Personally experienced events.

Semantic memory

Type of long-term memory. Stores general facts and information.

Procedural memory

Type of long-term memory. Stores information on skills, habits, and how to do things.

Loci method

Type of mnemonic device that relates items to be learned to a list of familiar locations.

Loci method, rhymes, non-sense phrases, acronyms

Types of mnemonic devices.

Mnemonic devices

Unusual associations made with material to aid memory.

Schema

Used in long-term memory. Set of beliefs of expectations about something that is based on past experience. Mental presentations are stored in memory.

Chunking

Used in short-term memory. Aids in making the most of limited capacity and grouping information into related units.

Criterion-related validity

Validity of a test as measured by a comparison of the test score and independent measures of what the test is designed to measure.

Environmental bias

Virtually every aspect of human behavior is attributed to learning and experience.

Flashbulb memory

Vivid memory of a certain event and the incidents surrounding it long after the event has passed. Often unusual, tragic, or events with strong emotional connection. Can have errors and fade over time.

Encoding

Ways to make mental presentations of information.

Linguistic relativity hypothesis

Whorf's idea that patterns of thinking are determined by the specific language one speaks.

Short-term memory

Working memory. Holds about 7 items that can last for a few seconds to a day. Research by George Miler.

receptor site

a location on a receptor neuron into which a specific neurotransmitter fits

marijuana

a mild hallucinogen that produces a "high" often characterized by feelings of euphoria, a sense of well-being, and swings in mood from gaiety to relaxation; may also cause feelings of anxiety and paranoia

substance dependence

a pattern of compulsive drug taking that results in tolerance, withdrawal symptoms, or other specific symptoms for at least a year

substance abuse

a pattern of drug use that diminishes the ability to fulfill responsibilities at home or at work or school, that results in repeated use of a drug in dangerous situations, or that leads to legal difficulties related to drug use

relative refractory period

a period after firing when a neuron is returning to its normal polarized state and will fire again only if the incoming message is much stronger than usual

absolute refractory period

a period after firing when a neuron will not fire again no matter how strong the incoming messages may be

sound

a psychological experience created by the brain in response to changes in air pressure that are received by the auditory system

graded potential

a shift in the electrical charge in a tiny area of a neuron

pupil

a small opening in the iris through which light enters the eye

receptor cell

a specialized cell that responds to a particular type of energy

perceptual constancy

a tendency to perceive objects as stable and unchanging despite changes in sensory stimulation

shape constancy

a tendency to see an object as the same shape no matter what angle it is viewed from

convergence

a visual depth cue that comes from muscles controlling eye movement as the eyes turn inward to view a nearby stimulus

6

absolute threshold for hearing: the tick of a watch from ___ meters in very quiet conditions

1, 3

absolute threshold for smell: ___ drop of perfume in a ___ room apartment

1, 500

absolute threshold for taste: ___ gram of salt in ___ liters of water

1

absolute threshold for touch: the wing of a bee falling on your cheek from a height of ___ centimeter

30

absolute threshold for vision: a candle flame seen from ___ miles on a clear, dark night

negative daydreamers

achievement oriented people, fear failure, often frustrated, guilty, or hostile

hypnosis

altered state. trancelike state which a person responds readily to suggestions. person must be open to suggestion

color constancy

an inclination to perceive familiar objects as retaining their color despite changes in sensory stimulation

meditation

any of the various methods of concentration, reflection, or focusing of thoughts undertaken to suppress the activity of the sympathetic nervous system

phi phenomenon

apparent movement caused by flashing lights in sequence, as on theater marquees

stroboscopic motion

apparent movement that results from flashing a series of still pictures in rapid succession, as in motion picture

daydreams

apparently effortless shifts in a attention away from the here-and-now into a private world of make-believe. occur every 90 minutes

synapse

area composed of the axon terminal of one neuron, the synaptic space, and the dendrite or cell body of the next neuron

hindbrain

area containing the medulla, pons, and cerebellum

primary somatosensory cortex

area of the parietal lobe where messages from the sense receptors are registered

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex where incoming messages from the separate senses are combined into meaningful impressions and outgoing messages from the motor areas are integrated

pitch

auditory experience corresponding primarily to frequency of sound vibrations, resulting in a higher or lower tone

consciousness

awareness of various cognitive processes, such as sleeping, dreaming, concentrating, and making decisions

ground

background against which a figure appears

retinal disparity

binocular distance cue based on the difference between the images cast on the two retinas when both eyes are focused on the same object

circadian cycle

body's natural adaptation to 24-hour cycles, the hypothalamus releases melatonin

parasympathetic division

branch of the autonomic nervous system; it calms and relaxes the body

sympathetic division

branch of the autonomic nervous system; it prepares the body for quick action in an emergency

glial cells (glia)

cells that form the myelin sheath; they insulate and support neurons by holding them together, removing waste products, and preventing harmful substances from passing from the bloodstream into the brain

sound waves

changes in pressure caused when molecules of air or fluid collide with tone another and then move apart again

pheromones

chemical molecules that communicate information to other members of a species, and influence their behavior

hormones

chemical substances released by the endocrine glands; they help regulate bodily activities

psychoactive drugs

chemical substances that change moods and perceptions

neurotransmitters

chemicals released by the synaptic vesicles that travel across the synaptic space and affect adjacent neurons

depressants

chemicals that slow down behavior or cognitive processes. increase activity of inhibiting neurotransmitters. includes alcohol, barbiturates, valium, and tranquilizers

stereoscopic vision

combination of two retinal images to form a three-dimensional perceptual experience

spinal cord

complex cable of neurons that runs down the spine, connecting the brain to most of the rest of the body

DNA

complex molecule in a double-helix configuration that is the main ingredient of chromosomes and genes and forms the code for all genetic information

reverse rebound

compounded effects if 2nd dose of a hallucinogen is taken while the 1st dose is still in the body

medulla

controls breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure

binaural cue

cue to sound location that involves both ears working together

monaural cue

cue to sound location that requires just one ear

hertz (Hz)

cycles per second; unit of measurement for the frequency of sound waves

light adaptation

decreased sensitivity of rods and cones in bright light

alcohol

depressant that is the intoxicating ingredient in whiskey beer, wine, and other fermented or distilled liquors

peripheral nervous system

division of the nervous system that connects the central nervous system to the rest of the body

central nervous system

division of the nervous system that consist of the brain and spinal cord

unconscious wishes

dream theory created by Freud. dreams have manifest (surface meaning) or latent (hidden meaning) and symbolism

dreams of waking life

dream theory that is an extension of daily life in an altered form. Reflects conceptions, interests, concerns, and pre-sleep activities

information processing

dream theory that reprocesses information from the day, can allow problem solving

activation synthesis theory

dream theory that the neurons are misfiring. dreams are pointless. the limbic system is active but the frontal lobe is not

cocaine

drug derived from the coca plant that, while producing a sense of euphoria by simulating the sympathetic nervous system, also leads to anxiety, depression, and addictive cravings

opiates

drugs such as opium, morphine and heroin, derived from the opium poppy, that dull the sense and induce feelings of euphoria, well-being, and relaxation. Synthetic drugs resembling opium derivatives are also classified as this.

stimulants

drugs, including amphetamines, cocaine, caffeine, methamphetamine, and nicotine that stimulate the sympathetic nervous system and produce feelings of optimism and boundless energy

resting potential

electrical charge across a neuron membrane due to excess positive ions concentrated on the outside and negative ions on the inside

ions

electrically charged particles found both inside and outside the neuron

genes

elements that control the transmission of traits; found on the chromosomes

thyroid gland

endocrine gland located below the voice box; produces the hormone thyroxin

figure

entity perceived to stand apart from the background

thalamus, cerebral cortex

explaining waking consciousness: stream of information resulting from activity between the ______ and _______ _______

hypothalamus

forebrain region that governs motivation and emotional responses

thalamus

forebrain region that relays and translates incoming messages from the sense receptors, except for smell

parathyroids

four tiny glands embedded in the thyroid; they secrete parathormone

human genome

full complement of genes within human cell

pineal gland

gland located in the center of the brain that regulates activity levels. Releases melatonin

pituitary gland

gland located on the underside of the brain; produces the largest number of the body's hormones

endocrine glands

glands of the endocrine system that release hormones into the bloodstream

nerve (tract)

group of axons bundled together

lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)

hallucinogens or "psychedelic" drug that produces hallucinations and delusions similar to those occurring in a psychotic state

psychedelics

hallucinogens. any of a number of drugs, such as LSD, marijuana, PCP, shrooms, peyote and mescaline, that distort visual and auditory perception

positive daydreamers

happy, pleasant, entertaining, uncomplicated people

narcolepsy

hereditary sleep disorder characterized by sudden nodding off during the day and sudden loss of muscle tone following moments of emotional excitement

perceptual illusion

illusion due to misleading cues in stimuli that give rise to inaccurate or impossible perceptions

dark adaptation

increased sensitivity of rods and cones in darkness

neurons

individual cells that are the smallest units of the nervous system; receive and transmit information

unconscious

information we are not aware of

nonconscious

level of consciousness. body is controlled by mind, we are not aware of it

preconscious

level of consciousness. not currently aware of but can be if we choose (ex. what is 6x3?)

vomeronasal organ (VNO)

location of receptors for pheromones in the roof of the nasal cavity

recessive gene

member of a gene pair that can control the appearance of a certain trait only if it is paired with another recessive gene

dominant gene

member of a gene pair that controls the appearance of a certain trait

oval window

membrane across the opening between the middle ear and inner ear that conducts vibrations to the cochlea

altered states of consciousness

mental state that differs noticeably from normal waking consciousness. examples are sleeping, dreaming, drugs, and meditation

waking consciousness

mental state that encompasses the thoughts, feelings, and perceptions that occur when we are awake and reasonably alert

aerial perspective

monocular cue to distance and depth based on the fact that more distant objects are likely to appear hazy and blurred

texture gradient

monocular cue to distance and depth based on the fact that objects seen at greater distances appear to be smoother and less textured

linear perspective

monocular cue to distance and depth based on the fact that two parallel lines seem to come together at the horizon

motion parallax

monocular distance cue to which objects closer than the point of visual focus seem to move in the direction opposite to the viewer's moving head, and objects beyond the focus point appear to move in the same direction as the viewer's head

olfactory epithelium

nasal membranes containing receptor cells sensitive to odors

reticular formation (RF)

network of neurons; vital for attention, sleep, and arousal, sends alert signals, can result in coma if damaged

interneurons (association neurons)

neurons that carry messages from one neuron to another

sensory neurons (afferent)

neurons that carry messages from sense organs to the spinal cord or brain

motor neurons (efferent)

neurons that carry messages from the spinal cord or brain to the muscles and glands

ganglion cells

neurons that connect the bipolar cells in the eyes to the brain. It's axons join to form the optic nerve

bipolar cells

neurons that have only one axon and one dendrite; in the eye, these neurons connect the receptors on the retina to the ganglion cells

glutamate

neurotransmitter. excitatory. involved in long-term memory

acetylcholine (ACh)

neurotransmitter. excitatory. plays a role in arousal, attention, memory, and motivation

histamine

neurotransmitter. has been implicated in severe depression

GABA

neurotransmitter. inhibitory distributed through central nervous system. Implicated in sleep and eating disorders. Low levels have been linked to anxiety

norepinephrine

neurotransmitter. inhibitory in brain. affects arousal, wakefulness, learning, memory, and mood

glycene

neurotransmitter. inhibitory responsible for inhibition in the spinal cord and lower brain centers

dopamine

neurotransmitter. inhibitory. affects neurons association with voluntary movement, learning, memory, and emotions. Implicated in schizophrenia and Parkinson's disease

endorphins

neurotransmitter. inhibitory. involved in the inhibition of pain. Released during exercise and may be responsible for "runner's high"

serotonin

neurotransmitter. inhibitory. regulates sleep, dreaming, mood, eating, pain, and aggressive behavior. Implicated in depression

non-REM (NREM) sleep

non-rapid-eye-movement stages of sleep that alternate with REM stages during the sleep cycle

pancreas

organ lying between the stomach and small intestine; secretes insulin and glucagon to regulate blood-sugar levels

placebo effect

pain relief that occurs when a person believes a pill or procedure will reduce pain. The actual cause of the relief seems to come from endorphins

chromosomes

pairs of threadlike bodies within the cell nucleus that contain the genes

frontal lobe

part of the cerebral cortex that is responsible for voluntary movement, attention, goal-directed behavior, emotional control, and temperament

parietal lobe

part of the cerebral cortex that receives sensory information from throughout the body

temporal lobe

part of the cerebral hemisphere that helps regulate hearing, balance and equilibrium, and certain emotions and motivations

occipital lobe

part of the cerebral hemisphere that receives and interprets visual information

cochlea

part of the inner ear containing fluid that vibrates, which in turn causes the basilar membrane to vibrate

autonomic nervous system

part of the peripheral nervous system that carries messages between the central nervous system and the internal organs

somatic nervous system

part of the peripheral nervous system that carries messages from the senses to the central nervous system and between the central nervous system and the skeletal muscles

color blindness

partial or total inability to perceive hues

posthypnotic amnesia

people forget what they were told during hypnosis

dichromats

people who are blind to either red-green or yellow-blue

monochromats

people who are totally color-blind

trichromats

people who have normal color vision

scattered daydreamers

people with high anxiety, often fleeting, loosely connected, or worrisome

purposeful daydreamers

people with high levels of curiosity, like to solve problems, think ahead, and have insight

posthypnotic suggestion

person responds to suggestions after hypnosis

tolerance

phenomenon whereby higher doses of a drug are required to produce its original effects or to prevent withdrawal symptoms

barbiturates

potentially deadly depressants, first used for their sedative and anticonvulsant properties, now only used to treat such conditions as epilepsy and arthritis

all-or-none law

principle that the action potential in a neuron does not vary in strength; the neuron either fires at full strength or does not fire at all

polygenic inheritance

process by which several genes interact to produce a certain trait; responsible for out most important traits

agonists

psychoactive drug that acts like a neurotransmitter

antagonists

psychoactive drug that blocks receptor sites

REM

rapid eye movement, paradoxical sleep, increased vivid dreaming, body is paralyzed

cones

receptor cells in the retina responsible for color vision

rods

receptor cells in the retina responsible for night vision and perception of brightness

golgi tendon organs

receptors that sense movement of the tendons, which connect muscle to bone

stretch receptors

receptors that sense muscle stretch and contraction

volley principle

refinement of the frequency theory; it suggests that receptors in the ear fire in sequence, with one group responding, then a second, then a third, and so on, so that the complete pattern of firing corresponds to the frequency of the sound wave

midbrain

region between the hindbrain and the forebrain; it is important for hearing and sight, registers pain

pons

regulates sleep-wake cycle

hemispherectomy

removal of the left or right half of the brain

adoption studies

research carried out on children, adopted at birth by parents not related to them, to determine the relative influence on heredity and environment on human behavior

sleep onset/twilight

rhythm of sleep. irregular, low alpha waves. see flashing lights, colors, and geometric shapes. right before you fall asleep

limbic system

ring of structures that play a role in learning and emotional behavior

vestibular sacs

sacs in the inner ear that sense gravitation and forward, backward, and vertical movement

identical twins

twins developed from a single fertilized ovum and therefore identical in genetic makeup at the time of conception

fraternal twins

twins developed from two separate fertilized ova and therefore different in genetic makeup

adrenal glands

two endocrine glands located just above the kidneys

decibel

unit of measurement for the loudness of sounds

withdrawal symptoms

unpleasant physical or psychological effects that follow the discontinuance of a dependence-producing substance

macroelectrode techniques

used to obtain a picture of the activity in a particular region of the brain (EEG)

microelectrode techniques

used to study the functions of individual neurons

basilar membrane

vibrating membrane in the cochlea of the inner ear; it contains sense receptors for sound

binocular cues

visual cues requiring the use of both eyes

monocular cues

visual cues requiring the use of one eye

dreams

vivid visual and auditory experiences that occur primarily during REM periods of sleep. 4-5 times per night

sleep deprivation

weakened immune system, impaired concentration and creativity, slowed performance, misperceptions on monotonous tasks

myelin sheath

white fatty covering found on some axons; provides insulation and increases speed at which signals are transmitted

sleep cycles

4-6 times a night, 90 minutes per cycle, NREM/REM alternate

Skinner box

A box often used in operant conditioning of animals, which limits the available response and thus increases the likelihood that the desired response will occur.

Washoe

A chimpanzee taught by Gardner and Gardner that learned to communicate through sign language.

Information Processing Model

A computer like model used to describe the ways humans encode, store, and retrieve information.

neural impulse (action potential)

the firing of a nerve cell

neurogenesis

the growth of new neurons

absolute threshold

the least amount of energy that can be detected as a stimulation 50% of the time

threshold of excitation

the level an impulse must exceed to cause a neuron to fire

retina

the lining of the eye containing receptor cells that are sensitive to light

amplitude

the magnitude of a wave; in sound, the primary determinant of loudness

natural selection

the mechanism proposed by Darwin in his theory of evolution, which states that organisms bested adapted to their environment tend to survive, transmitting their genetic characteristics to succeeding generations, whereas organisms with less adaptive characteristics tend of vanish from the earth

brightness

the nearness of a color to white as opposed to black

frequency

the number of cycles per second in a wave; in sound, the primary determinant of pitch

cerebral cortex

the outer surface of the two cerebral hemispheres that regulates most complex behavior

size constancy

the perception of an object as the same size regardless of the distance from which it is viewed

autokinetic illusion

the perception that a stationary object is actually moving

blind spot

the place on the retina where the axons of all the ganglion cells leave the eye and where there are no receptors

optic chiasm

the point near the base of the brain where some fibers in the optic nerve from each eye cross to the other side of the brain

Weber's law

the principle that the just noticeable difference for any given sense is a constant fraction or proportion of the stimulation being judged

perception

the process of creating meaningful patterns from raw sensory information

additive color mixing

the process of mixing lights of different wavelengths to create new hues

subtractive color mixing

the process of mixing pigments, each of which absorbs some wavelengths of light and reflects others

timbre

the quality or texture of sound; caused by overtones

primary motor cortex

the section of the frontal lobe responsible for voluntary movement

vestibular senses

the senses of equilibrium and body position

light

the small segment of the electromagnetic spectrum to which the eyes are sensitive

difference threshold (just noticeable difference)

the smallest change in stimulation that can be detected 50% of the time

olfactory bulb

the smell center in the brain

genetics

the study of how traits are transmitted from one generation to the next

trichromatic theory

the theory of color vision that holds that all color perception derives from three different color receptors in the retina (usually red, green, and blue receptors)

gate control theory

the theory that a "neurological gate" in the spinal cord controls the transmission of pain messages to the brain

biopsychosocial theory

the theory that the interaction of biological, psychological, and cultural factors influence the intensity and duration of pain

hammer, anvil, stirrup

the three small bones in the middle ear that relay vibrations of the eardrum to the inner ear

lens

the transparent part of the eye inside the pupil that focuses light onto the retina

cornea

the transparent protective coating over the front part of the eye

saturation

the vividness or richness of a hue

opponent-process theory

theory of color vision that holds that three sets of color receptors (yellow-blue, red-green, or black-white) respond to determine the color you experience

role theory of hypnosis

theory of hypnosis that people who are easily hypnotized have richer fantasy lives and follow directions well. it is not an altered state of consciousness

state theory of hypnosis

theory of hypnosis that someone is more or less aware of the environment. meets some requirements of an altered state

frequency theory

theory that pitch is determined by the frequency with which hair cells in the cochlea fire

place theory

theory that pitch is determined by the location of greatest vibration on the basilar membrane

corpus callosum

thick band of nerve fibers connecting the left and right hemispheres

synaptic space

tiny gap between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrites or cell body of the next neuron

synaptic vesicles

tiny sacs in a terminal button that release chemicals into the synapse

overtones

tones that result from sound waves that are multiple of the basic tone; primary determinant of timbre

Taste aversion

(Conditioned food). Conditioned avoidance of certain foods even if there is only one pairing of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli.

Operant conditioning

(Instrumental). The type of learning in which behaviors are emitted (in the presence of specific stimuli) to earn rewards or avoid punishments.

Classical conditioning

(Pavlovian). The type of learning in which a response naturally elicited by one stimulus comes to be elicited by a different, formerly neutral stimulus.

Observational learning

(Vicarious). Learning by observing other people's behavior.

Psychotherapists

Can work in clinical settings and do not need a degree. Includes clinical methods from psychological principles.

Ethnic group

Category of people who have migrated to another country but see themselves and are perceived as by others as distinctive because of a common homeland and language.

Selective attention or Cocktail-party phenomenon

Concentration on one sensation but not completely blocking out others

Intellectual disability

Condition of significantly subaverage intelligence combined with deficiencies in adaptive behavior.

Higher-order conditioning

Conditioning based on previous learning; the conditioned stimulus serves as an unconditioned stimulus for further training.

Philip Zambardo

Conducted the prison experiment to see how easily college students could lose their morals when in bad situations.

Experiential intelligence

Creative intelligence. Sternberg's term for the ability to adapt creatively in new situations, to use insight.

George Gallup

Developed a mirror test of self-recognition for animals.

William James

Developed the functionalist theory and earned degrees in physiology and philosophy. He was greatly influenced by Charles Darwin's theory of evolution and that anatomy and behavior are a result of natural selection.

Edward Bradford Titchener

Developed the structuralist theory. His ideas revolved around chemistry and physics, and reasoned that psychologists should analyze complex experiences in terms of their simplest forms. He broke consciousness down into physical sensations, feelings, and images.

Child psychology

Developmental psychology that focuses on infants and children. It is mainly concerned with whether babies are born with distinct personalities, how infants become attached to their parents, and how they acquire language and develop morals.

Life-span psychology

Developmental psychology that focuses on the adult years, and the different ways individuals adjust to partnership and parenting, middle age, retirement, and the prospect of death.

Adolescent psychology

Developmental psychology that focuses on the teenage years, and how puberty, changes in relationships with peers and parents, and the search for identity can make it a difficult time.

Childhood amnesia

Difficulty remembering experiences from birth-2 years of age because the brain is not fully developed.

Explicit memory

Information that can readily be expressed in words and is intentionally retrieved from memory.

Random sample

Each potential participant has an equal chance of being selected.

Semantic codes

Encoding by giving personal meaning to information for memory.

Acoustic/echoic codes

Encoding through sounds and saying things out loud.

Contextual intelligence

Environmental intelligence. Sternberg's term for the ability to select contexts in which you can excel, to shape the environment to fit your strengths.

dissociation theory of hypnosis

Ernest Hilgards theory of a split in consciousness. one part of the mind operates independently and is conscious. other part of the mind is subject to hypnotic suggestion

G. Stanley Hall

Established the first American psychology laboratory at Johns Hopkins University in 1883. The founder and first president of the APA. Studied child and educational psychology

Observer bias

Expectation or biases of the observer that might distort or influence his/her interpretation of what is actually being observed.

The forgetting curve

Experiment by Hermann Ebbinghaus that showed that the greatest memory loss occurs immediately following learning.

Episodic/semantic

Explicit/declarative memory.

Learned helplessness

Failure to take steps to avoid or escape from an unpleasant or aversive stimulus that occurs as a result of previous exposure to unavoidable painful stimuli.

(Re)Constructed memory

False details of real events or recollection of events that never happened that are created by misleading questions or overhearing a story.

Experimental Psychology

Field of psychology that conducts research on basic psychological processes, including learning, memory, sensation, perception, cognition, motivation, and emotion.

Clinical Psychology

Field of psychology that focuses primarily on the diagnosis, cause, and treatment of psychological disorders.

Physiological/Biological Psychology

Field of psychology that investigates the biological basis of human behavior, thoughts, and emotions.

Industrial and Organizational Psychology

Field of psychology that is concerned with issues such as selecting and training personnel, improving productivity and working conditions, and the impact of computerization and automation on workers.

Counseling Psychology

Field of psychology that is primarily concerned with normal problems of adjustment that many people face at some point.

Social Psychology

Field of psychology that studies how people influence one another.

Developmental Psychology

Field of psychology that studies human mental and physical growth from the prenatal period through childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age.

Personality Psychology

Field of psychology that studies the differences among individuals in such traits as anxiety, sociability, self-esteem, the need for achievement, and aggressiveness.

Sensory registers/memory

First stage in the memory process. They are entry points for raw information from the senses and store information momentarily. Can hold a lot of information and uses pattern recognition.

Feature extraction

Focusing on significant characteristics of the information selected for attention.

Implicit Memory

Information that cannot be readily expressed in words and someone may not be aware of having.

Group tests

Intelligence tests administered by one examiner to many people at one time.

Culture-fair tests

Intelligence tests designed to reduce cultural bias minimizing skills and values that vary from one culture to another.

Performance tests

Intelligence tests that minimize the use of language.

Case study

Intensive description and analysis of an individual or a few individuals. Includes the scores on psychological tests. Ex: Phineas Cage- brain damage and memory loss.

Wilhelm Wundt

Founded the first psychological laboratory at the University of Leipzig in Germany. Studied voluntarism.

Repression

Freud's theory that painful memories are purposely pushed deep into the unconscious mind.

Gender stereotypes

General beliefs about characteristics that are presumed to be typical of each sex.

Retrieval

Getting information from memory to conscious.

Response generalization

Giving a response that is somewhat different from the response originally learned to that stimulus.

Culture

Goods, values, attitudes, behaviors, and vocal that are passed from one generation to the next.

Subculture

Groups whose values and behaviors distinguish them from the cultural mainstream.

American Psychological Association (APA)

Has 53 divisions which represent the major fields of psychological inquiry, as well as specialized research and professional interests. Guidelines: 1. Informed consent 2. Aware of possible risks/limits on confidentiality 3. Informed of nature of the experiment 4. If a course credit, alternate assignments must be offered 5. No deception if it would impact someone's willingness to participate 6. Deception can be used only when necessary, and there must be debriefing after

Operational definition

How specifically the dependent variable is measured.

Theory of multiple intelligences

Howard Gardner's theory that there is not one intelligence, but rather many intelligences, each of which is relatively independent of the others. -logical-mathematical, linguistic, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic, and existentialism.

Procedural/emotional

Implicit/non-declarative memory.

Schedule of reinforcement

In operant conditioning, the rule for determining when and how often reinforcers will be delivered.

Positive transfer

In remembering, past learning aides in new learning.

Negative transfer

In remembering, previous learning interferes with new learning.

Transfer

In remembering, the effect of previous learning on later learning.

Anterograde amnesia

Inability to recall events after an accident or injury.

Retrograde amnesia

Inability to recall events preceding an accident or injury.

Tip of the tongue phenomenon

Inability to recall familiar words or memories.

Forgetting

Increase in errors during attempt to retrieve information from memory.

Proactive interference

Information already in memory interferes with new information.

Empirical evidence

Information derived from systematic, objective observation.

sensation

the experience of sensory stimulation

afterimage

sense experience that occurs after a visual stimulus has been removed, always seen in opposite color of original image

kinesthetic senses

senses of muscle movement, posture, and strain on muscles and joints

dendrites

short fibers that branch out from the cell body and pick up incoming messages

axon

single long fiber extending from the cell body; it carries outgoing messages

apnea

sleep disorder characterized by breathing difficulty during the night and feelings of exhaustion during the day

insomnia

sleep disorder characterized by difficulty in falling asleep or remaining asleep throughout the night. can be caused by stress, depression, medication, or an over aroused biological system

night terrors

sleep disorder. episodes of fright during stages 3 or 4 of sleep. person suddenly sits up screaming. most common from ages 4-12

sleep walking

sleep disorder. occurs during stage 4, difficult to wake sleeper, more common in children and boys, also called somnambulism

stage 3

sleep stage. delta waves, harder to wake during sleep, do not respond to light or noise

stage 4

sleep stage. low delta waves. heart rate, breathing, blood pressure, and temperature are low. restoration of the body

stage 2

sleep stage. short rhythmic bursts of activity called sleep spindles

stage 1

sleep stage. slowing pulse, muscle relaxation, rolling eyes, lasts about 10 minutes. theta waves have a high-frequency, low amplitude

papillae

small bumps on the tongue that contain taste buds

feature detectors

specialized brain cells that only respond to particular elements in the visual field such as movement or lines of specific orientation

amphetamines

stimulant drugs that initially produce "rushes" of euphoria and often followed by sudden "crashes" and, sometimes, severe depression

terminal button

structure at the end of an axon terminal branch

cerebellum

structure in the hindbrain that controls certain reflexes and coordinates the body's movements

organ of corti

structure on the surface of the basilar membrane that contains the receptor cells for hearing

taste buds

structures on the tongue that contain the receptor cells for taste

family studies

studies of heritability in humans based on the assumption that if genes influence a certain trait, close relatives should be more similar on that trait than distant relatives

twin studies

studies of identical and fraternal twins to determine the relative influence of heredity and environment on human behavior

strain studies

studies of the heritability of behavioral traits using animals that have been inbred to produce strains that are genetically similar to one another

selection studies

studies that estimate the heritability of a trait by breeding animals with other animals that have the same trait

behavior genetics

study of the relationship between heredity and behavior

evolutionary psychology

subfield of psychology concerned with the origins of behaviors and mental processes, their adaptive value, and the purposes they continue to serve

functional imaging

techniques that can image activity in the brain as it responds to various stimuli (MEG, PET, fMRI)

structural imaging

techniques used to map structures in a brain (CAT, MRI)

neural plasticity

the ability of the brain to change in response to experience

visual acuity

the ability to distinguish fine details visually

adaptation

the adjustment of the senses to the level of stimulation they are receiving

psychobiology

the area of psychology that focuses on the biological foundations of behavior and mental processes

fovea

the area of the retina that is the center of the visual field

hue

the aspect of color that corresponds to names such as red, green, and blue

optic nerve

the bundle of axons of ganglion cells that carries neural messages from each eye to the brain

iris

the colored part of the eye

polarization

the condition of a neuron when the inside is negatively charged relative to the outside; when the neuron is at rest