PSYCH UGA 1101E Final Study Guide

Problem Solving Skills

Trial and error, algorithms, heuristics

True of False: What you do well, you are likely to do even better in front of an audience, especially a friendly audience. What you normally find difficult may seem all but impossible when you are being watched.

True

True or False: About 1 in 4 or 5 adult Americans suffer from a diagnosable mental disorder in a given year.

True

True or False: Identical twins who have been raised separately sometimes develop the same phobias

True

True or False: In North America, today's young adults are 3 times as likely as their grandparents to report having suffered depression

True

True or False: People with antisocial personality disorder fall far below normal in aspects of thinking such as planning, organization, and inhibition, which are all frontal lobe functions

True

True or False: Serotonin and norepinephrine are scarce during depression?

True

True or false: Stronger emotional experiences make for stronger, more reliable memories

True

Females have ____ the risk of depression compared to males

Twice

Dissociative Identity Disorder (Multiple Personality Disorder)

Two or more distinct identities—each with its own voice and mannerisms—seem to control the person's behavior

When people have recollections of long-ago child sexual abuse, what are two possible injustices?

Two possible injustices are (1) disbelieving people's true stories of victimization, and (2) accusing innocent people of abuse as a result of false "recovered memories."

US

Unconditioned Stimulus (food)

Researchers conditioned a flatworm to contract when exposed to light by repeatedly pairing the light with an electric shock. The electric shock is a(n)

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

Automatic Processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-earned information, such as word meanings

Id

Unconscious mind. A reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle , demanding immediate gratification

Outgroup homogeneity

Uniformity of attitudes, personality, and appearance

Peripheral Route Persuasion

Uses attention-getting cues to trigger emotion-based snap judgments. Ex.) Endorsements by famous people can influence people's attitudes

Positive Psychology

Using scientific methods to study human flourish

At what times of life do disorders strike?

Usually early adulthood

Does NSSI lead to suicide?

Usually not, but it is a risk factor for suicidal thoughts and suicide attempts.

Psychodynamic theories

View human behavior as a dynamic interaction between the conscious mind and unconscious mind, including associated motives and conflicts ***descended from Freud's psychoanalysis

anger management suggestions

Wait, find a healthy distraction or support, distance yourself

Who suggested that very similar physiological reactions are associated with a variety of different emotions?

Walter Cannon

Did viewing violent media or aggression come first?

Watching the violent media came first

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

We prioritize survival-based needs and then social needs more than the needs for esteem and meaning.

Self-actualization level

We seek to realize our own potential.

Self-transcendence level

We strive for meaning, purpose, and communion in a way that is transpersonal—beyond the self

Why do we so often fear the wrong things?

We tend to fear things that were risks for our distant ancestors (thus, we may fear snakes more than cigarettes). And we tend to fear what we can't control, what's immediate, and what's vividly available in memory (a shark attack or a terrorism attack, rather than guns in the home or heart disease).

What evidence and examples presented here suggest that we tend to fear the wrong things?

We tend to have exaggerated fears of publicized threats that kill people dramatically (terrorism, plane crashes, shark attacks), and to fear too little the risks that are harder to visualize but take many more lives, one by one (ongoing gun violence, childhood illnesses worldwide, heart disease).

The _____________ is one of the most widely used intelligence tests for those under the age of 18 years

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)

____________ more often attribute behavior to people's personal traits. People in ______ _______ cultures are somewhat more sensitive to the power of the situation

Westerners; East Asian

Mania

When a depressive episode ends, a euphoric, overly talkative, and excessively optimistic state

Self-reference effect

When asked how well certain adjectives describe someone else, we often forget them; asked how well the adjectives describe us, we often remember them

acute schizophrenia

When previously well-adjusted people develop schizophrenia rapidly following particular life stresses. Recovery is more likely

Relative Deprivation Theory

When we sense that we are worse off than others with whom we compare ourselves

Role

When you become a college student, marry, or begin a new job—you strive to follow the social prescriptions

Stereotypes

Which are generalized beliefs about a group of people. Our stereotypes sometimes reflect reality

How do the genders differ in their ability to communicate nonverbally?

Women tend to read emotional cues more easily and to be more empathic. They also express more emotion.

In obsessive-compulsive disorder, _____ are among the most common obsessions.

Worries about germs, dirt, or other forms of contamination

Are false memories socially contagious?

Yes

Are mothers who report being sick with influenza during pregnancy more likely to bear children who develop schizophrenia?

Yes

Are people at increased risk of schizophrenia if, during the middle of their fetal development, their country experienced a flu epidemic?

Yes

Are people born during the winter and spring months—those who were in utero during the fall-winter flu season—also at increased risk?

Yes

Are people born in densely populated areas, where viral diseases spread more readily, at greater risk for schizophrenia?

Yes

Do attitudes follow behavior?

Yes

Do situations impact our behaviors

Yes

Does blood drawn from pregnant women whose offspring develop schizophrenia show higher-than-normal levels of antibodies that suggest a viral infection?

Yes

In the Southern Hemisphere, where the seasons are the reverse of the Northern Hemisphere, are the months of above-average pre-schizophrenia births similarly reversed?

Yes

Are major depressive disorder and bipolar disorders inheritable?

Yes, the risk of being diagnosed with one of these disorders increases if your parent or sibling has the disorder

_________________ have demonstrated that some emotional responses involve no conscious thinking

Zajonc and LeDoux

collective unconscious

a common reservoir of images, or archetypes, derived from our species' universal experiences

Instinct

a complex behavior must have a fixed pattern throughout a species and be unlearned

Savant syndrome

a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing Mostly effects males

Intellectual disability

a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence test score of 70 or below and difficulty adapting to the demands of life.

Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder (DMDD)

a depressive disorder in children characterized by persistent irritability and frequent episodes of out-of-control behavior

Schizophrenia

a disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and/or diminished, inappropriate emotional expression

Post-traumatic stress disorder

a disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, numbness of feeling, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience

bipolar disorder

a disorder in which a person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania. (Formerly called manic-depressive disorder .)

major depressive disorder

a disorder in which a person experiences, in the absence of drugs or another medical condition, two or more weeks with five or more symptoms, at least one of which must be either (1) depressed mood or (2) loss of interest or pleasure

chronic schizophrenia (process schizophrenia)

a form of schizophrenia that is a slow-developing process. Symptoms appear by late adolescence or early adulthood and as the people age, their psychotic episodes last longer and their recovery periods shorten.

psychotic disorder

a group of disorders marked by irrationality, distorted perceptions, and lost contact with reality

Research indicates that those who attend religious services regularly are more likely than nonattenders to experience:

a longer life span.

Working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious, active processing of incoming sensory information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

Reinforcement schedules

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.

Reconsolidation

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

a projective test in which people view ambiguous pictures and make up stories about them

Heuristics

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than an algorithm

If you have an intense fear of speaking in public, eating out, or going to parties, you may be suffering from:

a social anxiety disorder.

Catatonia

a state of unresponsiveness to one's outside environment, usually including muscle rigidity, staring, and inability to communicate

cross-sectional study

a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another

longitudinal study

a study that observes the same participants on many occasions over a long period of time

Insight

a sudden realization of a problem's solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions

Psychological disorder

a syndrome marked by a clinically significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior. Usually accompanied by distress

classical conditioning

a type of associative learning where we learn to associate two stimuli and thus to anticipate events

Which form of self-injury is not one that is nonsuicidal? a.) taking an overdose of prescription medication b.) cutting or burning one's skin c.) self-administered tattooing d.) pulling out one's hair

a.) taking an overdose of prescription medication

Creativity

ability to produce ideas that are both novel and valuable

survivor resiliency

ability to recover after severe stress

Unconscious

according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware

Personality changes through childhood and ______, but stabilizes in ___________

adolescence, adulthood

Reducing Stress

aerobic exercise, relaxation and meditation, faith communities and health

Research Domain Criteria Project (RDoC)

aims to bring "the power of modern research approaches in genetics, neuroscience, and behavioral science" to the study of psychological disorders. Helps organize disorders according to behaviors and brain activity

Cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Panic Disorder

an anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable, minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a person may experience terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations; often followed by worry over a possible next attack.

Fixation

an inability to come to a fresh perspective

Sternberg's Three Intelligences

analytical (academic problem-solving) intelligence, creative intelligence, practical intelligence

Extreme dieting and significant weight loss is common in individuals with:

anorexia nervosa

Raquel was initially excited to make the cheerleading squad. However, her parents noticed that she stopped eating dinner with them, wanted to help make most meals, and had a list of good and bad foods. She began portioning the amount of food she ate and weighing food. Most concerning was the significant weight drop from a healthy 115 pounds to 90 pounds. This case demonstrates symptoms of:

anorexia nervosa

What are the three eating disorders

anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, binge eating disorder

Where does insight occur in the brain?

anterior superior temporal gyrus (right hemisphere)

Bruce assaulted a 72-year-old woman and stole her purse. Keeping the cash, he dumped the purse and then went to Starbucks to get a cup of coffee for his travel to the South Side. On the train, someone accidentally stepped on his shoes, and he threw the hot coffee in the person's face and laughed. Bruce feels no guilt or remorse for his actions. Bruce would likely be considered to have a(n) _____ personality disorder.

antisocial

Bob has never been able to keep a job. He has been in and out of jail for theft, sexual assault, and spousal abuse. Bob would MOST likely be diagnosed as having:

antisocial personality disorder

Last week 15-year-old Stan went into the hospital for a painful medical procedure. Oddly, he did not seem worried beforehand, and he showed no signs of autonomic nervous system arousal. His parents and teachers are also concerned by his apparent lack of a conscience for wrongdoing. From all these signs, it is likely that Stan would be diagnosed with

antisocial personality disorder.

The vulnerability-stress model

argues that individual characteristics combine with environmental stressors to increase or decrease the likelihood of developing a psychological disorder

The sympathetic nervous system is to ____________ as the parasympathetic nervous system is to calming.

arousal

Cannon-Bard Theory

arousal and emotion occur simultaneously Ex.) my heart began pounding as I experienced fear. The emotion-triggering stimulus traveled to my sympathetic nervous system, causing my body's arousal. At the same time, it traveled to my brain's cortex, causing my awareness of my emotion. My pounding heart did not cause my feeling of fear, nor did my feeling of fear cause my pounding heart.

intelligence test

assesses people's mental abilities and compares them with others, using numerical scores

T lymphocytes (White blood cells)

attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances

Emotion-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to our stress reaction When it is believed the problem is insolvable

Problem-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress directly—by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor. When it is believed the problem is solvable

Alzheimer's disease

begins as difficulty remembering new information, progressing to an inability to do everyday tasks

Extrinsic motivation

behaving in certain ways that gain external rewards or avoid threatened punishment

B. F. Skinner

behaviorism; pioneer in operant conditioning; behavior is based on an organism's reinforcement history; worked with pigeons

Which of the following could be an example of a dissociative experience that is pathological or abnormal?

being unable to remember your own name or other important details about your life

Dr. Phelps believes that psychological disorders are influenced by genetic predispositions and physiological states. He is also aware that inner psychological dynamics, social dynamics, and culture influence psychological disorders. Dr. Phelps believes in a _____ model.

biopsychosocial

Components of emotions

bodily arousal, expressive behaviors, conscious experiences and feelings

In an attempt to lose some of the weight gained by binge eating, Claire uses laxatives and exercises until she is exhausted. Claire MOST clearly demonstrates symptoms of _____ nervosa.

bulimia

Three types of stressors

catastrophes, significant life changes, daily hassles

By directly experiencing a thunderstorm, we learn that a flash of lightning signals an impending crash of thunder. This best illustrates:

classical conditioning

Life story approach

collecting a rich narrative detailing each person's unique life history

Rumination

compulsive fretting; overthinking about our problems and their causes

CR

conditioned response (salivation)

CS

conditioned stimulus (bell)

informational conformity

conformity that occurs when conformity pressures actually persuade group members to adopt new beliefs and/or attitudes

dissociative disorders

controversial, rare disorders in which conscious awareness becomes separated (dissociated) from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings

Standardization

defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group

Circumstances that increase self-awareness are likely to reduce ________.

deindividuation

A person with schizophrenia having selective-attention difficulty is most likely to experience:

disorganized thoughts

Researchers have suggested that the role playing of fantasy-prone patients in response to the leading questions of therapists has often contributed to diagnoses of:

dissociative identity disorder.

The Biopsychological Approach

emphasizes that mind and body are inseparable. Gave rise to the vulnerability-stress model

Why do we forget? (3 reasons)

encoding failure, storage decay, retrieval failure

Information processing model Hint: ESR

encoding: get information into our brain storage: retain that information retrieval: later get the information back out

Environmental factors such as viral infections can "turn on" specific genes that put people at risk of developing schizophrenia. This best illustrates the impact of:

epigenetic factors

College men given injections of _____ felt happiest if they were told that the injection would help assess their eyesight and if they were in the company of a person who was acting euphoric.

epinephrine

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

representativeness heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

The social-cognitive perspective

explores how people's assumptions and expectations influence what they perceive.

The ingredients of emotion include not only physiological arousal but also _____ behavior and _____ experience.

expressive; conscious

Which of the following is a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items?

factor analysis

encoding failure

failure to process information into memory

Delusions

false beliefs

source amnesia (source misattribution)

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined. (Also called source misattribution .) Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories

agoraophobia

fear of open spaces

In a crisis, the sympathetic nervous system of your ANS is highly adaptive because it prepares you for:

fight or flight

As adults age, they show the greatest declines in

fluid intelligence and in the memory needed to recall recently presented information

cerebellum (memory)

forms and stores implicit memories created by classical conditioning

John B. Watson

founder of behaviorism, built on Pavlov's work

defensive self-esteem

fragile; focuses on sustaining itself, which makes failures and criticism feel threatening

In a study examining genetic influences on antisocial personality disorder, Adrian Raine compared the PET scans of murderers' brains to the brains of nonmurderers of the same age and sex. Raine reported reduced activity in the murderers' _____________ (a brain area that helps with impulse control).

frontal lobes

According to Robert Zajonc, highly emotional people are most likely intense partly because of their interpretations. They may ______________ their experiences by blowing single incidents out of proportion.

generalize

By providing prospective terrorists with electronic chat rooms for interfacing online with others who share their attitudes, the Internet most likely serves as a medium for:

group polarization

ADHD is diagnosed ________ as often in girls than in boys.

half

A person with schizophrenia who may see, feel, taste, or smell things that are not there is said to be experiencing

hallucinations

Therapeutic drugs that block dopamine receptors are most likely to reduce:

hallucinations.

OCD related disorders

hoarding, excoriation (skin picking), trichotillomania (hair pulling), body dysmorphic disorder (preoccupation with perceived body defects)

Correlation between violence viewing and aggression is strongest for young boys who....

identify with the characters, have poor interpersonal relationships, and view more realistic violence

possible selves

images of what we dream of or dread becoming in the future

What does norepinephrine do?

increase arousal

Activation of the parasympathetic nervous system _____ salivation and _____ blood pressure.

increases; decreases

Normative Social Influence

influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval.

Aptitude tests

intended to predict your ability to learn some new skill. If you took a college entrance exam, it was designed to predict your ability to do college work.

Achievement tests

intended to reflect what you have learned. Your final exam will measure what you learned in this class.

Word Salad

jumble of incoherent speech as sometimes heard in schizophrenia

The process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors is called:

learning

Memory

learning that persists over time; it is information that has been acquired and stored and can be retrieved

Secure self-esteem

less fragile and less dependent on external evaluation

Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligences

linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, naturalistic, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, and interpersonal ***Proposed a ninth: existential intelligence (the ability o ponder large questions about life, death, existence)

Personality inventories

longer questionnaires covering a wide range of feelings and behaviors—assess several traits at once

Thirty-seven-year-old Steven is a single male who has suffered from depression all his life. He has been in treatment for the last week and a half and has begun taking an antidepressant. He is starting to feel better, but he is tired of living this way and does not want to face another depressive episode. In terms of risk factors for suicide, Steven is _____ likely to attempt suicide _____.

more; because his energy and initiative are rebounding

Which symptom is NOT diagnostic of schizophrenia?

multiple personalities

Insula

neural center deep inside the brain that is activated when humans experience negative social emotions

For conditioning to occur, a(n) ____________ must repeatedly come before an unconditioned stimulus.

neutral stimulus (NS)

NS

neutral stimulus (bell)

free floating (anxiety)

not linked to a specific stressor or threat

The anterior cingulate cortex is especially likely to be hyperactive in those with:

obsessive-compulsive disorder

A dog learns that if she sits, her owner will give her a treat. The dog likes treats, so she will repeat the sitting behavior often in order to get a treat. This example best illustrates:

operant conditioning

Crystallized intelligence

our accumulated knowledge as reflected in vocabulary and analogies tests—increases up to old age

Personality

our characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.

intution

our fast, automatic, unreasoned feelings and thoughts

belief perseverance

our tendency to cling to our beliefs in the face of contrary evidence

When people suffer from a(n) ____________, they often feel intense fear that something horrible is about to happen. These feelings last minutes and include symptoms such as heart palpitations, shortness of breath, and dizziness.

panic attack

Catatonia is characterized by:

periods of immobility or excessive, purposeless movement.

two forms of persuasion efforts

peripheral route persuasion and central route persuasion

Our biology influences our _________, and our personality ______ are significant in that they impact large areas of our life: careers and selection of partners

personality, traits

Storage Decay

poor durability of stored memories leads to their decay

People with acute schizophrenia more often have the ________ symptoms that respond to drug therapy.

positive

You imagine the self you want to be—a great athlete who is well loved and well educated. You also imagine the self you fear becoming—a homeless person who is lonely and unemployed. These visions reflect the concept of:

possible selves.

What do implicit memories include?

procedural memory for automatic skills and classically conditioned association associations.

Observational learning

process of observing and imitating a specific behavior, which is often called modeling Type of cognitive learning

Some _____ theorists see dissociative identity disorder as defenses against the anxiety caused by unacceptable impulses

psychodynamic

anxiety disorders

psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety.

Not only are we _______ by our need to reduce drives, we also are _______ by incentives

pushed, pulled

When their self-esteem has been threatened, people with large egos may:

react violently

Three measurements of memory retention...

recall—retrieving information that is not currently in your conscious awareness but that was learned at an earlier time. A fill-in-the-blank question tests your recall. recognition—identifying items previously learned. A multiple-choice question tests your recognition. relearning—learning something more quickly when you learn it a second or later time. When you study for a final exam or engage a language used in early childhood, you will relearn the material more easily than you did initially.

types of defense mechanisms

regression, reaction formation, projection, rationalization, displacement, denial

improving memory

rehearse repeatedly, make the material meaningful, activate retrieval cues, use mnemonic devices, minimize interference, sleep more, test your own knowledge

Partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedules

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

B lymphocytes (white blood cells)

release antibodies that fight bacterial infections

Compulsions

repetitive behaviors

How does the IQ test measure performance today?

represent the test-taker's performance relative to the average performance (which is arbitrarily set at 100) of others the same age.

Implicit Memories (nondeclarative memories)

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection. Occurs through automatic processing

Most people with this mental disorder smoke, often heavily.

schizophrenia

According to the James-Lange theory of emotion, which of the following is the correct sequence of events when a car drives directly toward us and we experience emotion?

see an oncoming car; heart pounds; experience fear

Shortly after exercising ________, people become less restrained in their aggressive responses to provocation.

self-control

Nonsuicidal Self-Injury (NSSI)

self-harm intended to provide relief from negative feelings or to induce a positive mood state

Concepts

simplify thinking by grouping similar objects, events, ideas, or people

Algorithms

step-by-step procedures that gurantee a solution

Any event or situation that evokes a response is a(n):

stimulus

Amygdala (Two limbic system, emotion-processing clusters)

stress provokes this to initiate a memory trace that boosts activity in the brain's memory-forming areas.

MaryAnne Garry explicitly states that viewing memory as a _______________ is mistaken.

tape or video recording

Overconfidence

tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our knowledge and judgments

Psychologists study implicit prejudice by...

testing for unconscious group associations, considering unconscious patronization, and monitoring reflexive bodily responses

Patients with schizophrenia have difficulty focusing their attention. This is most likely related to a smaller-than-normal:

thalamus

déjà vu

that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience ***attributed to source amnesia

Scharchter-Singer two-factor theory

the Schachter-Singer theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal. Arousal + Label = Emotion

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

the WAIS is the most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests including similarities, vocabulary, block design, and letter-number sequencing

Divergent thinking

the ability to consider many different options and to think in novel ways

Self-control

the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for longer-term rewards

Intelligence

the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

retroactive interference

the backward- acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information

spotlight effect

the belief that others are paying more attention to our appearance and behavior than they really are

Psychosexual stages

the childhood stages of development during which the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones Oral (0 - 18 months): Pleasure centers on the mouth—sucking, biting, chewing Anal (18 - 36 months): Pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination; coping with demands for control Phallic (3 - 6 years): Pleasure zone is the genitals; coping with incestuous sexual feelings Latency (6 years to puberty): A phase of dormant sexual feelings Genital (puberty on): Maturation of sexual interests

The Medical Model (of mental disorders)

the concept that diseases, in this case psychological disorders, have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and, in most cases, cured , often through treatment in a hospital

Intrinsic motivation

the desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations Fight or Flight

Parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy Rest and Digest

functional connectivity

the extent to which multiple brain regions function at the same time.

People's tendency to be helpful when they are already in a positive mood is known as:

the feel-good, do-good phenomenon.

proactive interference

the forwardacting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information

learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

Encoding specificity principle

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it.

Infantile amnesia

the inability to recall conscious memories from our first four years of life

Retrieval Failure

the inability to recall long-term memories because of inadequate or missing retrieval cues

Ego

the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, the superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle , satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain

Homeostasis

the maintenance of a steady internal state

Affiliation need

the need to belong

Memory Consolidation

the neural storage of a long-term memory

Negative punishment

the removal of an attractive stimulus after a response Ex.) Taking away a teen's phone

Zimbardo concludes that his study demonstrates the power of __________ to shape behavior.

the social environment

Predictive validity

the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior. (Also called criterion-related validity .)

Fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing others' behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

Facial Feedback effect

the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness.

normative conformity

the tendency to go along with the group in order to fulfill the group's expectations and gain acceptance

self-serving bias

the tendency to perceive oneself favorably

cognitive dissonance theory

the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when our awareness of our attitudes and of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes

The fundamental attribution theory

the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation (situational attribution) or the person's disposition (disposition attribution)

Behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

Superego

the voice of our moral compass (conscience) that forces the ego to consider not only the real but also the ideal

Framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is worded can significantly affect decisions and judgments

Stanford-Binet Test

the widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet's original intelligence test.

Discriminate

to act in negative and unjustifiable ways toward members of the group.

UR

unconditioned response (salivation)

Tendand-befriend response

under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend)

positive transfer

when old information facilitates the learning of new information

Spillover effect

when one emotion continues from one situation to another; more happy about getting job after running as opposed to just waking up

Does biology influence aggression?

yes. identical twins are more likely to have the same violent temper as compared to fraternal twins. also, men tend to be more aggressive than women

Priming

"Memory less memory" - the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response.

Allison has just learned that her neighbor Patricia was involved in an automobile accident at a nearby intersection. The tendency to make the fundamental attribution error may lead Allison to conclude:

"Patricia's recklessness has finally gotten her into trouble."

Prejudice

"Prejudgment". It is an unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and its members—who often are people of a particular racial or ethnic group, gender, sexual orientation, or belief system.

Ingroup

"us"—people with whom we share a common identity.

Why do so many people disparage themselves?

(1) Self-directed put-downs can be subtly strategic—they elicit reassuring strokes. Saying "No one likes me" may at least elicit "But not everyone has met you!" (2) Before an important event, such as a game or an exam, self-disparaging comments prepare us for possible failure. The coach who extols the superior strength of the upcoming opponent makes a loss understandable, a victory noteworthy. (3) A self-disparaging "How could I have been so stupid!" can help us learn from our mistakes. (4) Self-disparagement frequently pertains to one's old self.

Fixation

(1) in thinking, the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an obstacle to problem solving. (2) in personality theory, according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved

person-situation controversy

(also known as trait-vs-state controversy) this controversy stems from a disagreement about the degree to which a person's reaction in a given situation is due to their personality (trait) or is due to a situation itself (state)

Research has suggested that, if one identical twin develops major depressive disorder, the chances the other twin will also develop major depressive disorder are:

1 in 2

Evidence for the scapegoat theory of prejudice

1. Economically frustrated people tend to express heightened prejudice 2. Experiments that create temporary frustration intensify prejudice

Five components of creativity

1. Expertise 2. Imaginative thinking skills 3. A venturesome personality 4. Intrinsic motivation 5. A creative environment

Major Personality Theories

1. Psychoanalytic 2. Psychodynamic 3. Humanistic 4. Trait 5. Social-Cognitive

drawbacks of physical punishment

1. Punished behavior is suppressed, not forgotten. This temporary state may (negatively) reinforce parents' punishing behavior. 2.Physical punishment does not replace the unwanted behavior. 3. Punishment teaches discrimination among situations. 4. Punishment can teach fear. 5. Physical punishment may increase aggression by modeling violence as a way to cope with problems

memory forming process

1. sensory memory: the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system 2. short-term memory: activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as digits of a phone number while calling, before the information is stored or forgotten. 3. long-term memory: the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

The cycle of depressed thinking

1. stressful experiences 2. negative explanatory style 3. depressed mood 4. cognitive and behavioral changes

Contributing influences to infantile amnesia

1. we index much of our explicit memory with a command of language that young children do not possess 2. the hippocampus is one of the last brain structures to mature, and as it does, more gets retained

What proportion of the time are polygraph test are wrong?

1/3

Roughly speaking, just over _____ percent of 4- to 17-year-olds are diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

10

In one study (Seal et al., 2007) of 103,788 veterans returning from Iraq and Afghanistan, _____ percent were diagnosed with a psychological disorder, in which the most frequent diagnosis was posttraumatic stress disorder.

25

The percentage of Americans who reported suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder in 2015 was:

3.5%

At some point during the past year, approximately _____ percent of American college students have felt so depressed that they found it difficult to function.

30

The percentage of Americans who reported suffering from attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in 2015 was:

4.1

How many Americans die by suicide each year

40,000 Americans

The U.S. National Institute of Mental Health estimates that about 1 in _____ adult Americans suffers from a diagnosable mental disorder in a given year.

5

On average, how long does it take a behavior to become habitual?

66 days

68% of people score within (IQ Test)

85 and 115

Type ______ people are more prone to heart attacks and have lower life expectancies

A

Fernald School

A "school" where all were labeled "feebleminded" that was a result of the eugenics movement (which started in the United States)

Psychological needs

A basic bodily requirement (create aroused, motivated state)

Flashbulb memories

A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

Achievement motivation

A desire for significant accomplishment, for mastering skills or ideas, for control, and for attaining a high standard

obessive-compulsive disorder

A disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions), actions (compulsions), or both

Ingroup bias

A favoring of our own group

_____ is characterized by symptoms of extensive amnesia or confusion about one's personal identity.

A fugue state

bipolar disorder (manic depression)

A mood disorder in which the person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania.

Motivations

A need or desire that energizes and directs behavior. Arise from the interplay between nature (the bodily "push") and nurture (the "pulls" from our personal experiences, thoughts, and culture).

hippocampus (memory)

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

antisocial personality disorder (sociopaths or psychopaths)

A personality disorder in which the person (usually a man) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends and family members. May be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist. (Antisocial meaning disruptive)

Iconic Memory

A quickly fading visual memory, last milliseconds

Self-serving bias

A readiness to perceive ourselves favorably

Some people may be more vulnerable to PTSD as a comorbid disorder because they have ________, which floods the body with stress hormones.

A sensitive limbic system

Factor analysis

A statistical procedure that identifies clusters (factors) of test items that tap basic components of a trait

Conditioned Reinforcers (secondary reinforcers)

A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through is association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer.

Empirically derived

A test (such as the MMPI) created by selecting from a pool of items those that discriminate between groups.

The relationship between attitudes and actions can BEST be described as:

A two-way street: actions influence attitudes and attitudes affect actions.

Truman has been diagnosed with schizophrenia. His parents have a difficult time understanding him because his speech is fragmented and bizarre. He jumps from one idea to another, sometimes within sentences, creating:

A word salad

Our memory of facts and experiences that we consciously know and can easily declare is known as: A. Explicit memory B. Nondeclarative memory C. Automatic memory D. Implicit memory

A. Explicit memory

A multiple-choice test is a good example of a test of: A. Recognition B. Recall C. Retrieval D. Relearning

A. Recognition

Gregory is an impoverished African-American teen who finds school stressful but performs at a moderate level academically. He has no relationship with his father but a close relationship with his mother and grandmother. Which factor MOST increases his vulnerability to developing a mental disorder? a.) socioeconomic status b.) stressful school experience c.) lack of relationship with father d.) race

A.) Socioeconomic status

Who is most vulnerable to psychological disorders?

Academic failure, birth complications, caretaker to those with disorders, low birth weight, low social economic status, child abuse, social incompetence, substance abuse, child of substance abuse

Carl Rogers believed that a growth-promoting social climate provides

Acceptance: Unconditional positive regard- a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help people develop self-awareness and self-acceptance. Genuineness Empathy

Informational Social Influence

Accepting others' opinions about reality, as when reading online movie and restaurant reviews

Oedipus complex

According to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father

Two types of mental ability tests

Achievement tests and Aptitude tests

Positive Reinforcement

Add a desirable stimulus

Positive punishment

Addition of something unpleasant Ex.) Spray water on a barking dog

Conformity

Adjusting our behavior or thinking toward some group standard

Combats of mental disorders

Aerobic exercise, supportive community, literacy, positive parent-child relationship

One of the Big Five personality factors is

Agreeableness.

He proposed the social-cognitive perspective on personality.

Albert Bandura

Self-concept

All the thoughts and feelings we have in response to the question, "Who am I?"

What is the most common tool for describing disorders and estimating how they occur?

American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5)

hindsight bias

Amplifies victim blaming

Convergent thinking

An ability to provide a single correct answer

Anterograde amnesia

An inability to form new memories

Retrograde amnesia

An inability to retrieve information from one's past

Shaping

An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

Basic Human Emotions

Anger, Fear, Disgust, Sadness, Happiness

Elaina is a 15-year-old adolescent who has become shockingly thin. She barely eats and, when she does, she compensates by exercising excessively. Elaina is MOST likely suffering from:

Anorexia

What are the three clusters of personality disorders

Anxiety Eccentric or odd behaviors Dramatic or Impulsive behaviors

One problem with the use of the polygraph for lie detection is that

Anxiety, irritation, and guilt feelings all prompt similar physiological reactivity

Reinforcement

Any consequence that strengthens behavior

Stimulus

Any event or situation that evokes a response

Aggression

Any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone, whether done out of hostility or as a calculated means to an end.

People who suffer from generalized anxiety disorder:

Are tense and apprehensive all of the time.

Primary Reinforcers

Are unlearned

James-Lange Theory

Arousal comes before emotion Ex.) noticing racing heart and then, shaking with fright, felt the whoosh of emotion—the feeling of fear followed my body's response.

Operant conditioning

Associating a response (our behavior) and its consequence

Respondent behavior

Associating stimuli that we do not control and responding automatically

Each time Brenda eats yogurt, she feels sick. Brenda has learned that eating yogurt and sickness go together, so she now refuses to eat yogurt. This kind of learning is called:

Associative learning

Learning that certain events occur together is called:

Associative learning

Hierarchy of needs

At the base of this pyramid are our physiological needs, such as for food and water. Only if these needs are met are we prompted to meet our need for safety, and then to satisfy our needs to give and receive love and to enjoy self-esteem. Beyond this, said Maslow (1971), lies the need for self-actualization—to realize our full potential.

Natural killer cells (NK cells)

Attack diseased cells (such as those infected by viruses or cancer)

According to psychologists, memory refers to the persistence of learning through all of the following EXCEPT: A. storage of information B. categorizing information C. retrieval of information D. relearning information

B. Categorizing information

Evidence that learning has occurred includes these three measures of retention: A. Recognition, storage, retrieval B. Recall, recognition, relearning C. Recognition, encoding, storage D. Recall, relearning, retrieving

B. Recall, recognition, relearning

reciprocal determinism

Bandura's idea that the interacting influences between personality and environmental factors

Reciprocal Determinism

Bandura. The interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment

Repression

Banishes anxiety-arousing wishes and feelings from consciousness.

Operant behaviors

Behavior that operates on the environment, producing a consequence

What following principles must any theory of depression explain?

Behaviors and thoughts change with depression, Depression is widespread, Women's risk of major depressive disorder is roughly double men's, Most major depressive episodes end on their own; Work, marriage, and relationship stresses often preceed depression, Compared with generations past, depression strikes earlier (now often in the late teens) and affects more people, with the highest rates among young adults in developed countries

_____ instruments mirror the results of a person's own efforts, enabling the person to learn which techniques do (or do not) control a particular physiological response.

Biofeedback

The police brought Corinne to the emergency room after she was seen running down the street in her underwear yelling, "I have the power!" Corinne was also spending large amounts of money across town and was rude and reckless over the last five days. In the emergency room, Corinne would not be quiet long enough for the nurse to ask her questions. Corinne is MOST likely suffering from _____ disorder.

Bipolar

What is the only psychiatric condition linked to working in a creative profession?

Bipolar Disorder

Albert Bandura

Bobo doll experiment: showed that kids who watched an aggressive model were more likely to behave aggressively than kids who had not. Children were more attracted to weapons

What controls our behavior: genes or brain?

Brain

anterior cingulate cortex

Brain region that monitors our actions and checks for errors is more hyperactive in OCD victims

Research conducted by George Sperling showed that people have something akin to a fleeting photographic memory. This ____________ memory provides a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli, like a picture-image that lasts only a few tenths of a second A. echoic B. implicit C. iconic D. explicit

C. Iconic

Leslie works in a hospital psychiatric unit. She cares for a patient with schizophrenia who often stands motionless in a corner for several hours. This physical stupor usually ends abruptly with the patient then becoming quite agitated. This patient experiences:

Catatonia

Mark is watching a presidential debate on television and is keenly paying attention to the candidates' arguments. At the end of the debate, Mark says, "I agree with many of the third-party candidate's arguments." Mark is influenced by:

Central route persuasion

Which of the following individuals suffered from panic disorder and agoraphobia?

Charles Darwin

Pavlov's experiment

Classical Conditioning Experiment -unconditioned stimulus (meat) caused unconditioned response (salivation) in dogs -Pavlov repeatedly rang a bell (neutral stimulus) before placing meat in the dogs' mouth - initially, the dogs didn't react much when they only heard the bell w/o receiving meat -After repeating procedure several times, dogs began to salivate when they heard the bell (even if he did not deliver meat) -turned the bell (neutral) into a conditioned stimulus

What are the two main forms of learning associations (conditioning)

Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning

immigrant paradox

Compared to people who have recently immigrated from Mexico, Mexican-Americans born in the U.S. are at a greater risk of mental disorder, poverty (2.5x higher for those below poverty line)

When individuals are driven to perform repetitive behaviors that persistently interfere with everyday life, they are said to be experiencing:

Compulsions

Pavlov noticed that dogs began salivating at the mere sight of the person who regularly brought food to them. For the dogs, the sight of this person had become a(n):

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

Rats that received unpredictable electric shocks in a laboratory experiment subsequently became apprehensive when returned to that same laboratory setting. This best illustrates that anxiety disorders may result from:

Conditioning

Two forms of learning

Conditioning and Cognitive learning

Effortful Processing

Conscious encoding of explicit memories

Phobias

Consumption by a persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of some object, activity, or situations

intelligence quotient (IQ)

Created by WIlliam Stern. defined originally as the ratio of mental age ( ma ) to chronological age ( ca ) multiplied by 100 (thus, IQ = ma/ca × 100). On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100

Discriminative Stimuli

Cues that influence operant behavior by indicating the probable consequences (reinforcement or nonreinforcement) of a response.

Social Scripts

Culturally provided mental files for how to act in certain situations

Your girlfriend is talking to you, and you ask her to repeat what she just said. Before she does so, you respond with your answer of "Yes." This is likely due to: A. declarative memory B. iconic memory C. implicit memory D. echoic memory

D. echoic memory

Which of the following individuals attributes differences in children's shyness and inhibition to their autonomic nervous system reactivity? A.) Paul Costa B.) Albert Bandura C.) Hans Eysenck D.) Jerome Kagan

D.) Jerome Kagan

Reaction formation

Defense mechanism by which people behave in a way opposite to what their true but anxiety-provoking feelings would dictate.

symptoms of major depressive disorder

Depressed mood most of the time Dramatically reduced interest or enjoyment in most activities most of the time Significant challenges regulating appetite and weight Significant challenges regulating sleep Physical agitation or lethargy Feeling listless or with much less energy Feeling worthless, or feeling unwarranted guilt Problems in thinking, concentrating or making decisions Thinking repetitively of death and suicide

What is the leading cause of disability in the world?

Depression

What is the number one reason people seek mental health services?

Depression

The Biological Perspective of depression

Depression is a whole-body disorder. It involves genetic predispositions, brain connectivity issues, and biochemical imbalances, as well as negative thoughts and a gloomy mood.

Mental Age

Developed by Binet and Simon. The level of performance typically associated with a certain chronological age

The "Big Five" Personality Model

Developed by Robert McCrae and Paul Costa Five Factors conscientiousness (Discipline vs Impulsiveness), agreeableness, neuroticism (emotional [in]sability), openness to experience, extraversion **These traits are stable in adulthood, heritable (about 40%), common to all cultures, predictors of other attributes

Alfred Binet (1857-1911)

Developer of the first test to classify children's abilities using the concept of mental age.

James was bitten by a dog when he was 5 years old. To this day, he will not pet a dog, but he will pet cats. This reaction best illustrates:

Discrimination

Artie has been arrested for grand theft auto. He claims that it was not him and that he knows nothing about the crime, as another one of his personalities must have done it. The court-appointed psychiatrist knows immediately that Artie does not suffer from _____, as the original personality generally denies awareness of the others.

Dissociative identity disorder

Evidence that confirm LTP is a physical basis for memory

Drugs that block LTP interfere with learning Drugs that mimic what happens during learning increase LTP Rats given a drug that enhanced LTP learned a maze with half the usual number of mistakes

Expressive behavior implies _________.

Emotion

_____________ is an organism's response to a stimulus that includes a mixture of physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experience.

Emotion

Four Theories of Intelligence

Emotional Intelligence, Sternberg's triarchic theory, Gardner's multiple intelligences, Spearmen's general intelligence

Catharsis

Emotional release

moral treatment

Emphasized by Philippe Pinel. Boosting patient's spirits by unchaining them and talking to them

Individualism

Emphasizes an independent self

Collectivism

Emphasizes group standards

Humanistic theorists

Emphasizes the ways people strive for self-determination and self-realization

Deep processing

Encodes semantically, based on the meaning of the words

Shallow Processing

Encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words ( encodes on an elementary level, such as a word's letters or, at a more intermediate level, a word's sound.)

Testing effect (Retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning)

Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information.

Stressors

Events that we appraise as threatening or challenging

Trait theories

Examine characteristic patterns of behavior (traits).

narcissim

Excessive self-love and self-absorption

Lazarus Theory

Experience of emotion depends on how the situation is labelled. We label the situation, which then leads to emotional and physiological response Ex.) The sound is "just the wind."

Social-Cognitive Theories

Explore the interaction between people's traits (including their thinking) and their social context

True or False: About 30% of psychologically disordered people are dangerous; that is, they are more likely than other people to commit a crime

False

True or False: Dissociative identity disorder is a type of schizophrenia

False

True or False: In some cultures, depression and schizophrenia are nonexistent

False

True or False: Extroverts are more easily aroused and conditioned than Introverts.

False, Introverts are more easily aroused and conditioned than extroverts

Social loafing: When people act as a part of a group, they may...

Feel less accountable, view individual contributions as dispensable, overestimate their own contributions, free ride on others' efforts.

Attitudes

Feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose our reactions to objects, people, and events.

In poorer nations that lack easy access to money and the food and shelter it buys, _____________ ___________ more strongly predicts feelings of well-being. In wealthy nations, where most are able to meet their basic needs, _________ _____________ better predict well-being.

Financial satisfaction, Social Connections

Skinners four schedules of reinforcement

Fixed-ratio Schedules: reinforce behavior after a set number of responses. Ex.) Buy 10 coffees, get 1 free, or pay workers per product unit produced Variable-ratio Schedules: reinforce behavior after a set number of responses. Ex.) Playing slot machines or fly fishing Fixed-interval Schedules: reinforce the first response after a fixed time period. Ex.) Tuesday discount prices Variable-interval Schedules: reinforce the first response after varying time intervals. Ex.) Checking our phone for a message ***Response rates are higher when reinforcement is linked to the number of responses (a ratio schedule) rather than to time (an interval schedule) but responding is more consistent when reinforcement is unpredictable (a variable schedule) than when it is predictable (a fixed schedule).

A person's ability to reason speedily and abstractly (e.g., solving novel logic problems) decreases slowly up to about age 75, then more rapidly, especially after age 85. This type of ability is also known as:

Fluid intelligence

Personality psychologists

Focus on the person, study the personal traits and dynamics that explain why, in a given situation, different people may act differently

Which of the following is NOT a suggestion for how to live a happier life?

Focus on the self

social psycologists

Focus on the situation, study the social influences that explain why the same person acts differently in different situations

Schadenfreude (German)

For this secret joy that we sometimes take in another's failure

Basal ganglia (memory)

Formulate procedural memories for skills

Social-Cognitive Theory

Founder: Bandura Assumptions: Our traits interact with the social context to produce our behaviors. View of Personality: Conditioning and observational learning interact with cognition to create behavior patterns. Our behavior in one situation is best predicted by considering our past behavior in similar situations. Personality Assessment: Observing behavior in realistic situations

psychoanalytic theory

Founder: Freud Assumptions: Emotional disorders spring from unconscious dynamics, such as unresolved sexual and other childhood conflicts, and fixation at various developmental stages. Defense mechanisms fend off anxiety View of Personality: Personality consists of pleasure-seeking impulses (the id), a reality-oriented executive (the ego), and an internalized set of ideals (the superego). Personalty Assessment Methods: Free association, projective tests, dream analysis

Psychodynamic theory

Founders: Adler, Horney, Jung Assumptions: The unconscious and conscious minds interact. Childhood experiences and defense mechanisms are important. View of Personality: The dynamic interplay of conscious and unconscious motives and conflicts shapes our personality. Personalty Assessment: Projective tests, therapy sessions

Trait Theory

Founders: Allport, H. Eysenck, S. Eysenck, McCrae, Costa Assumptions: We have certain stable and enduring characteristics, influenced by genetic predispositions. View of Personality: Scientific study of traits has isolated important dimensions of personality, such as the Big Five traits (conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and extraversion). Personalty Assessment: Personality inventories

Humanistic Theories

Founders: Rogers, Maslow Assumptions: Rather than examining the struggles of sick people, it's better to focus on the ways healthy people may strive for self-realization View of Personality: If our basic human needs are met, we will strive toward self-actualization. In a climate of unconditional positive regard, we can develop self-awareness and a more realistic and positive self-concept. Personalty Assessment: Questionnaires, therapy sessions

Psychoanalysis

Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts. (2) Freud's therapeutic technique used in treating psychological disorders. Freud believed the patient's free associations, resistances, dreams, and transferences—and the analyst's interpretations of them—released previously repressed feelings, allowing the patient to gain self-insight.

What lobe is involved in behavior inhibition is less active in extroverts than in introverts?

Frontal lobe area

Where are the networks that process and store new explicit memories for these facts and episodes includes...

Frontal lobes and Hippocampus

types of anxiety disorders

GAD Phobia Panic (Social anxiety)

Marlee is a toddler who has learned to fear moving cars. She has also become afraid of moving motorcycles. This is an example of:

Generalization

____________ is the tendency to respond in a similar manner to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus (CS).

Generalization

Kevin is continually tense and plagued by muscle tension, sleeplessness, and an inability to concentrate. Kevin most likely suffers from a(n):

Generalized anxiety disorder.

Maria is constantly concerned about things at work even when she is at home. She is constantly worried about her home life even when she is at work. Maria has a free-floating anxiety that leaves her tense and irritable, impairs her concentration, and leaves her with many sleepless nights. Maria suffers from a(n):

Generalized anxiety disorder.

The eugenics movement assumed that intelligence is:

Genetic

Your father-in-law had a serious heart attack several weeks ago. You are especially concerned because he lives alone. After his heart attack, which of the following would increase his odds of survival?

Getting a dog

Glutamate

Heightens activity in the brain's alarm centers

Processing sites of explicit memories?

Hippocampus and frontal lobes

Macrophage cells

Identify, pursue, and ingest harmful invaders and worn-out cells

Stress can also trigger ___________ ___________ by reducing the release of disease-fighting lymphocytes

Immune suppression

Three-Phase Processes of GAS

In Phase 1, you have an alarm reaction, as your sympathetic nervous system is suddenly activated. Your heart rate zooms. Blood is diverted to your skeletal muscles. You feel the faintness of shock. With your resources mobilized, you are now ready to fight back. During Phase 2, resistance, your temperature, blood pressure, and respiration remain high. Your adrenal glands pump hormones into your bloodstream. You are fully engaged, summoning all your resources to meet the challenge. As time passes, with no relief from stress, your body's reserves dwindle. You have reached Phase 3, exhaustion. With exhaustion, you become more vulnerable to illness or even, in extreme cases, collapse and death.

acquisition

In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response.

Free association

In psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing

long-term potentiation (LTP)

Increased efficiency of potential neural firing that provides a neural basis for learning and remembering associations

Overlearning (Additional rehearsal)

Increases retention

Serotonin

Influences sleep, mood, and attending to threats

Four perspectives to understand motivated behavior

Instinct theory (now replaced by the evolutionary perspective) focuses on genetically predisposed behaviors. Drive-reduction theory focuses on how we respond to inner pushes and outer pulls. Arousal theory focuses on finding the right level of stimulation. Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs focuses on the priority of some needs over others.

Bobby is participating in an experiment during which he is undergoing fMRI scanning. He is asked to imagine biting into a mold-covered piece of bread. Which area of the brain is likely to show a high level of activity due to this thought?

Insula

Your instructor has just asked the class, "What is intelligence?" Of the following statements, which should you tell her BEST explains intelligence?

Intelligence is whatever intelligence tests measure.

Superego

Internalized ideals

What should you remember if you sometimes have feelings you would rather not have about other people?

It is what we do with our feelings that matters

Polygraphs

It measures emotion-linked changes in breathing, cardiovascular activity, and perspiration. It detects arousal.

Which theory suggests that you would NOT experience intense anger unless you first noticed your racing heart (or other symptoms of physiological arousal)?

James-Lange theory

Social intelligence

Know-how involved in understanding social situations and managing yourself successfully

Catastrophes

Large-scale disasters such as earthquakes, floods, wildfires, and storms

Discrimination

Learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus (which predicts the US) and other, irrelevant stimuli

cognitive learning

Learning new behaviors by observing events and people, and through language, we learn hing we have neither experienced nor observed

Which parts of the brain become more active during positive emotions?

Left frontal area

If you needed to recall a password and hold it in working memory which brain lobe would you activate?

Left frontal lobe

How can we be helpful to someone who is talking suicide?

Listen, connect, protect

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

MMPI was originally developed to identify emotional disorders, it also assesses people's personality traits

"He is as slow as molasses" might be a good way to describe the energy level for people suffering from _____ disorder

Major depressive

T. J. seems to have stopped caring about his own life. He has lost interest in his work and his usual social activities. Sometimes he wonders if living is worth the effort. T. J. is MOST likely suffering from a(n):

Major depressive disorder

Generalized anxiety disorder

Marked by excessive and uncontrollable worry that persists for six months or more.

Violence and Media

Media violence causes significant increases in human aggression Viewing violent media desensitizes observer to violence The Priming Effect

Marisela seeks treatment for depression. To explore possible early childhood roots, the therapist hypnotizes her and in the process, Marisela recalls being sexually abused by her father at age 2. Why might some memory researchers be skeptical of Marisela's resulting accusation of her father?

Memories tend to be unreliable for things that occurred at very young ages (before age 4), and when constructed long afterward with suggestions implanted during hypnosis or therapy.

Brain's two-track memory processing and storage system for implicit (automatic) and explicit (effortful) memories

Memory Processing Automatic 1. Implicit memories (Non declarative): Without conscious recall 2. Processed in cerebellum and basal ganglia 3a. Space, time, frequency (where you ate dinner yesterday) 3b. Motor and cognitive skills (riding a bike) 3c. Classical conditioning (reaction to dentist's office) Effortful 1. Explicit memories (Declarative) With conscious recall 2. Processed in hippocampus and frontal lobes 3a. Semantic memory: Facts and general knowledge (this chapter's concepts) 3b. Episodic memory: Personally experienced events (family holidays)

mnemonics

Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

Anti-gay attitudes are most common among

Men, older adults, and those who are unhappy, unemployed, and less educated

According to your textbook, the most widely used personality questionnaire is?

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

Changes in how we connect

Mobile phones: At the end of 2016, 95 percent of the world's 7.5 billion people lived in an area covered by a mobile-cellular network (ITU, 2016). Texts: The typical U.S. teen sends 30 texts a day (Lenhart, 2015b). Half of 18- to 29-year-olds check their phone multiple times per hour, and "can't imagine . . . life without [it]" (Newport, 2015; Saad, 2015). The internet: Worldwide in 2015, 68 percent of adults have used the internet (Poushter, 2016). Social networking: Among 2014's entering American college students, 94 percent were using social networking sites (Eagan et al., 2014). With one's friends online, it's hard not to be: Check in or miss out.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

Moderate arousal leads to optimal performance: optimal arousal levels depend on the task, with more difficult tasks requiring lower arousal for best performance

Which gene helps break down neurotransmitters such as dopamine and serotonin

Monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) gene

Ego

Mostly conscious; makes peace between the id and the superego

What are the factors that affect the imitation of a model?

Motor Reproduction Capabilities Characteristics of the model: Nurturance is a key aspect of imitation The Model's Power

What factors increase the risk of suicide?

National differences: In Britain, Italy, and Spain, suicide rates have been little more than half those of Canada, Australia, and the United States. Austria's and Finland's are about double (WHO, 2011). Within Europe, people in the most suicide-prone country (Belarus) have been 16 times more likely to die by suicide than those in the least suicide-prone country (Georgia). Racial differences: Within the United States, Whites and Native Americans die by suicide twice as often as Blacks, Hispanics, and Asians Gender differences: Women are much more likely to attempt sucide, while men are more likely to die from sucide (due to the method performed). Trait differences: Among Swedes, those with obsessive-compulsive disorder are at higher risk of depression, thereby increasing their risk of suicide (de la Cruz et al., 2017). So, too, are self-critical, perfectionist people, especially when feeling like they have failed to meet others' expectations Age differences and trends: In late adulthood, rates increase, with the highest rate among 45- to 64-year-olds and the second-highest among those 85 and older (AFSP, 2015). In the last half of the twentieth century, the global rate of annual suicide deaths nearly doubled (WHO, 2008). In the U.S., teen depression and suicide rates have jumped about a third since 2010, in tandem with increased cell phone use and decreased time spent face-to-face with friends (Twenge et al., 2018). Studies indicate that, over time, increasing social media use predicts increased unhappiness, while unhappiness does not lead to more social media use. Other group differences: Suicide rates have been much higher among the rich, the nonreligious, and those single, widowed, or divorced (Hoyer & Lund, 1993; Norko et al., 2017; Okada & Samreth, 2013; VanderWeele et al., 2016, 2017). Witnessing physical pain and trauma can increase the risk of suicide, which may help explain veterans' and physicians' elevated suicide rates (Bender et al., 2012; Cornette et al., 2009). Gay, transgender, and gender-nonconforming youth facing an unsupportive environment, including family or peer rejection, are also at increased risk of attempting suicide (Goldfried, 2001; Haas et al., 2011; Hatzenbuehler, 2011; Testa et al., 2017). Among people with alcohol use disorder, 3 percent die by suicide. This rate is roughly 37 times greater for those who have just been heavily drinking (Borges et al., 2017). Day-of-the-week and seasonal differences: Negative emotion tends to go up midweek, which can have tragic consequences (Watson, 2000). A surprising 25 percent of U.S. suicides occur on Wednesdays (Kposowa & D'Auria, 2009). Suicide rates are highest in April and May, and not (as commonly believed) over the winter holiday

Chameleon Effect

Natural (unconscious) tendency to imitate other peoples speech, inflections & physical movements

Victor's mother is frustrated because she cannot get Victor involved in any activities. Although he has been diagnosed with schizophrenia, she still expects him to do things around the house. But most days, he sits in a chair with no expression on his face. This type of absence of appropriate behavior reflects the _____ symptoms of schizophrenia.

Negative

What are the three-part mixture to prejudice

Negative emotions, Stereotypes, a predisposition to dsciminate

If there is damage to the hippocampus which type of memories would be lost?

New explicit memories

Do disorders increase risk for violence?

No; moreover, people with disorders are more likely to be victims than perpetrators of violence

What is the curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes?

Normal curve

Scapegoat theory

Notes that when things go wrong, finding someone to blame can provide a target for our negative emotions

John B. Watson believed that psychology should be the science of:

Observable behavior

Uncontrollable thoughts and worries are to _____ as uncontrollable behaviors are to compulsions.

Obsessions

People who are troubled by unwanted repetitive thoughts or actions may be suffering from:

Obsessive-compulsive disorder

Central Route Persuasion

Offers evidence and arguments that aim to trigger careful thinking

In Asch's conformity experiments, researchers find that conformity to the group increases when all of the following occur EXCEPT:

One has a prior commitment to a response

association

One way we learn- our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence

Casual observation and intelligence tests before age 3

Only modestly predict children's future aptitudes

Operant chamber (Skinner box)

Operant Conditioning The box has a bar (a lever) that an animal presses—or a key (a disc) the animal pecks—to release a reward of food or water. It also has a device that records these responses. This creates a stage on which rats and other animals act out Skinner's concept of reinforcement

Children often learn to associate pushing a vending machine button with the delivery of a candy bar. This best illustrates the process underlying:

Operant conditioning

chunking information

Organizing items into familiar, manageable units- enables us to recall it more easily

When we explain ____ _____ behavior, we are sensitive to how behavior changes with the situation

Our Own

Fluid Intelligence

Our ability to reason speedily and abstractly, as when solving novel logic problems—decreases beginning in the twenties and thirties, slowly up to age 75 or so, then more rapidly, especially after age 85

Cognitive dissonance theory emphasizes that we seek to reduce the discomfort we feel when we become aware that:

Our attitudes and actions clash

Subjective well-being

Our feelings of happiness (sometimes defined as a high ratio of positive to negative feelings) or our sense of satisfaction with life

Self-esteem

Our feelings of high or low self-worth

Arousal theory

Our need to maintain an optimal level of arousal motivates behaviors that meet no physiological need (such as our yearning for stimulation and our hunger for information).

Self-efficacy

Our sense of competence on a task

adaptation-level phenomenon

Our tendency to judge various stimuli in comparison with our past experiences.

Serial Position Effect

Our tendency to recall best the last ( recency effect ) and first ( primacy effect ) items in a list.

The Priming Effect

Our thoughts can activate other related ideas and behaviors

Some psychologists believe that mental health professionals have been overdiagnosing:

PTSD

Erika suddenly feels chest pains, shortness of breath, trembling, and dizziness. She thinks she is having a heart attack but could actually be experiencing a:

Panic attack

Thomas is a smoker. He has at least doubled risk of which mental disorder?

Panic disorder

______________ is to anxiety as a(n) hurricane is to a windy day.

Panic disorder

Is resistance to extinction greater with continuous reinforcement or partial reinforcement?

Partial Reinforcement

Social identity

Partly in terms of our groups

Rorschach inkblot test

People describe what they see in a series of inkblots

Misinformation Effect

People may misremember when exposed to subtly misleading information, despite feeling confident

Outgroup

People outside that circle are "them,"

Traits

People's characteristic behaviors and conscious motives

Four components of emotional and social intelligence

Perceiving emotions, Understanding emotions, Managing emotions, Using emotions to enable adaptive or creative thinking

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

Performed pioneering conditioning experiments on dogs. These experiments led to the development of the classical conditioning model of learning.

In a famous study, a notable improvement in activity, health, and happiness was observed among nursing home patients who experienced:

Personal control

_____ disorders are characterized by inflexible and enduring maladaptive character traits that impair social functioning.

Personality

Although Fernando realizes his behavior is unreasonable, he is so distraught by high bridges that he avoids them and takes an unnecessarily lengthy route to and from work each day. Fernando appears to suffer from a(n):

Phobia

"Red cherry day" was a day of

Physical abuse

Drive-reduction theory

Physiological needs (such as hunger and thirst) create an aroused state that drives us to reduce the need (for example, by eating or drinking).

Incentives

Positive or negative environmental stimuli that lure or repel us

Symptoms of Schizophrenia

Positive: Inappropriate behaviors are present- disturbed perceptions, talk in disorganized and deluded ways, or exhibit inappropriate laughter, tears, or rage. Negative: Appropriate behaviors are absent- an absence of emotion in their voices, expressionless faces, or unmoving—mute and rigid—bodies.

Seven months ago Brandon witnessed the attack of a close friend. Although this was a terrible experience, in time he was able to move on. He developed a greater appreciation for life, his relationships with family members became more meaningful, and he became more involved in his faith. Brandon's response is known as:

Posttraumatic growth.

Evidence that many DID patients have suffered abuse as children leads some psychologists to include dissociative disorders under the umbrella of:

Posttraumatic stress disorder

Poverty-Pathology Link

Poverty causes disorders, likewise, disorders cause poverty

Juan learned at an early age how to sell numerous items that ranged from chocolate to small electronics. Many say his best education came from the streets he grew up on. His abilities best illustrate:

Practical intelligence.

Your professor hands out brief aptitude tests at the beginning of the year. You are surprised to see that your score on the aptitude test was able to predict your performance in the class. This is an example of:

Predictive validity

When you summon up a mental encore of a past experience, many brain regions send input to your __________ _______ (the front part of your frontal lobes) for working memory processing

Prefrontal cortext

Spearman's General intelligence (g)

Promoted by Charles Spearman. Underlies all mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test

Depression

Protects our energy by sending us into a kind of hibernation

Health Psychology

Provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine

According to ________ theory, anxiety is sometimes produced by the submerged mental energy associated with repressed impulses.

Psychoanalytic

Learned responses are a(n) _____ influence on personality.

Psychological

Jerome Kagan

Psychologist who believed in more biological view, thought our genes had a lot of effect on our personality and thinks child shyness is caused by autonomic nervous system

Punishment versus Reinforcement

Punishment tells you what not to do; reinforcement tells you what to do

motivated reasoning

Rather than using evidence to draw conclusions, using their conclusions to assess evidence

Lately, Ambrose and Grant cannot get along. Ambrose often expects the worst of people, and yesterday he thought Grant was mad at him. As a result, Ambrose ignored Grant's phone calls and other attempts at conversation, angering Grant. But in truth, Ambrose created the situation to which he was reacting. This is an example of:

Reciprocal determinism.

Just-world phenomenon

Reflects an idea we commonly teach our children—that good is rewarded and evil is punished

A learning theory would be most likely to emphasize the role of ________ in the onset of anxiety disorders.

Reinforcers

Continuous Reinforcement

Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs Learning occurs rapidly

John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner taught "Little Albert" to fear white rats by

Repeatedly pairing a loud noise with the presentation of a white rat

If the immune system doesn't properly function it will...

Respond to strongly: attacking itself or Underreact: allow infections to flare.

Law of effect

Rewarded behaviors tend to recur

Rhonda is a very optimistic young woman. She usually expects the best, even in uncertain times. Her college roommate Leah, on the other hand, is pessimistic and is always expecting the worst. For these two women, what do you predict will happen during finals week?

Rhonda will have less fatigue and fewer colds than will Leah

If you needed to call up a visual party scene which brain lobe would you activate?

Right Frontal lobe

Norms

Rules for expected and accepted behavior

Which disorders are the most inheritable

Schizophrenia and Bipolar Disorder

Card players who attribute their wins to their own skill and their losses to bad luck best illustrate:

Self-Serving Bias

The significant difference between suicidal behavior and self-injury is:

Self-injury is an attempt at coping.

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three phases—alarm, resistance, exhaustion

Two types of conscious memories

Semantic (facts and general knowledge) and Episodic (experienced events)

Although Gloria was almost hit by a bus, she is okay, and her parasympathetic system is responding accordingly. It is:

Slowing her heart rate and activating her digestion

Ostracism

Social exclusion

When Jessica is at her health club, she pedals an exercise bike much faster when other patrons are using nearby equipment. This best illustrates:

Social facilitation

This association with the risk of death is equivalent to smoking.

Social isolation

Zajonc's; LeDoux's

Some embodied responses happen instantly, without conscious appraisal. Ex.) We automatically feel startled by a sound in the forest before labeling it as a threat.

Jared has not read the chapter on psychological disorders, so he misunderstands some basic facts. For example, he believes that schizophrenia refers to a multiple personality split, rather than a:

Split from reality.

Long after her conditioned fear of dogs had been extinguished, Michelle experienced an unexpected surge of nervousness when she first met her cousin's new cocker spaniel. Her unexpected nervousness best illustrates:

Spontaneous recovery

When Abigail had leukemia as a child she had to undergo numerous bouts of chemotherapy and came to associate the waiting room with nausea. Now 35 years old, she took her mother to the same hospital for breast cancer treatment. Once again, she became nauseous while in the waiting room. Her nausea best illustrates:

Spontaneous recovery

To be widely accepted, a psychological test must be

Standardized, reliable, and valid

You are conducting a multisite trial for a large pharmaceutical company, one requirement of which is to select a scale that will consistently provide objective data on a weekly basis for depression. You need the scale to be consistent and change gradually only in response to the positive effects of the drug being tested. You need a scale that:

Standardized, reliable, and valid

Philip Zimbardo conducted his study (Stanford prison study) in the basement of...

Stanford University's psychology department.

Abigail was attacked by a fierce dog and later developed a fear of all dogs. This best illustrates

Stimulus generalization

Social facilitation

Strengthened performance in others' presence

Negative Reinforcement

Strengthens a response by reducing or removing something negative NOT A PUNISHMENT

Self-determination theory

Strive to satisfy three needs: competence, autonomy (a sense of personal control), and relatedness

Obsessive-compulsive disorder has a(n) __________ genetic basis.

Strong

Asch's conformity experiment

Studied conformity- showed that individuals will often conform to an opinion held by the group 4 against 1: went along with the group about 37% of the time With a partner yielding to the group drops to 5% 4 against 1 but answer is on paper: conformity drops by two-thirds

Stress' effect on immune systems

Surgical wounds heal more slowly in stressed people Stressed people are more vulnerable to colds Stress can hasten the course of disease ***Stress does not make us sick, but it does alter our immune functioning, which leaves us less able to resist infection.

A local religious organization has taken an interest in reaching out to community members with AIDS. They were prompted to do this when they learned that religiously active AIDS patients _____________ than do their nonreligious counterparts

Survive longer

According to the Cannon-Bard theory, bodily arousal is related to the subjective awareness of emotion in the same way as the ________ is related to the cortex.

Sympathetic nervous system

Which test is more effective than the polygraph test?

The Concealed Information Test

It's often supposed that people repress memories of trauma, to banish the pain. How does evidence support or challenge this idea?

The available evidence challenges this idea, indicating that people seldom forget traumas, and are instead much more likely to be haunted by intrusive memories.

Culture

The behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

Parallel Processing

The brain's processing of many thing simultaneously (both consciously and unconsciously)

In one study, participants who worked alongside someone who rubbed her face or shook her foot were observed to produce the same behaviors. This mimicry illustrates:

The chameleon effect

Extinction

The diminished responding that occurs when the CS (bell) no longer signals an impending US (food). Suppressing the CR rather than eliminating it

Group polarization

The enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group

Reliability

The extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternative forms of the test, or on retesting

Validity

The extent to which the test actually measures or predicts what it promises

Explicit Memories (declarative memories)

The facts and experiences we can consciously know and "declare"

In atrocious situations, such as Philip Zimbardo's simulated prison experiment, some people succumb to the situation and others do not. The difference best illustrates:

The interactive influence of persons and situations

At one time, disordered people were simply warehoused in asylums. Asylums have been replaced with psychiatric hospitals, where attempts are made to diagnose and cure people suffering from psychological disorders. This BEST illustrates one of the beneficial consequences of:

The medical model

People desire death when two fundamental needs are frustrated to the point of extinction.

The need to belong with or connect to others and the need to feel effective with or to influence others

External locus of control

The perception that chance or outside forces control their fate

Internal locus of control

The perception that we control our own fate

Which of the following is NOT one of the key defining features of anorexia nervosa?

The person recognizes that he or she has an eating disorder and is aware of the seriousness of her weight loss.

Minority influence

The power of one or two individuals to sway majorities

identification

The process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos

Learning

The process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

Stress

The process of appraising and responding to a threatening or challenging event

Deindividuation

The process of losing self-awareness and self-restraint ***Often occurs when group participation makes people both aroused and anonymous

Spontaneous recovery

The reappearance of a (weakened) CR after a pause

Criticisms of the DSM-5 suggest that, if Rosenhan's study were replicated today:

The results would be much the same.

Behavior feedback effect

The tendency of behavior to influence our own and others' thoughts, feelings, and actions

False Consensus Effect

The tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors.

mood congruent

The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

Other-race effect

The tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races. (Also called the crossrace effect and the own-race bias .)

Generalization

The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS

state-dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, happy, somber) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind.

Why don't most people who watch violence become violent?

There are multiple and converging causes of human behavior (Protective factors- such as positive parenting)

Instincts and evolutionary theory

There is a genetic basis for unlearned, species-typical behavior (such as birds building nests or infants rooting for a nipple).

Vince is suspected of a crime and is asked to take a polygraph test. Although he is innocent, what are the chances that he will be falsely accused?

These tests err in determining false guilt about one-third of the time

Who is more at risk for bipolar disorder male or female?

They are at equal risk

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

They knew that people who agree to a small request will find it easier to comply later with a larger one.

Hallucinations

They see, hear, feel, taste, or smell things that exist only in their minds

According to Gordon Allport, personality should be described in terms of:

Traits