Psychology for Educators CHAPTER 13 VIDEO NOTES:

The Cognitive (Information Processing and Social Cognitive Theory) Approach: The Information Processing View of Learning - Review

*Assumptions: -information is processed in steps or stages -there are limits on how much information can be processed at each stage (short term memory can only hold 7 bits of info at a time). -the human information processing system is interactive (interact with environment, own memories, and people around us). *The sensory register and its control processes: -The nature of recognition (see, hear, taste, touch). Noting key features of a stimulus and relating them to already stored information. -The impact of attention: selective focusing on a portion of the info currently stored in the sensory register (attention). What we attend to is influenced by knowledge schemes in long term-memory. *Short term memory/ working memory and its control processes: -Rehearsal: Maintenance Rehearsal (rote rehearsal, repetition): info is repeated over and over again with no effect on long-term memory storage. Elaborative Rehearsal (elaborative encoding): New info is related to knowledge already stored in long-term memory. -Organization: putting interrelated pieces of info into chunks. -Meaningfulness: when new material can be related to info in long-term memory. -Visual Imagery Encoding: Generating images in your mind of objects, ideas, and actions. Dual coding theory explains memory effect (verbally and visually). *Long-term memory: -The development of children's memory skills: -By early middle school grades, most children spontaneously use basic encoding, organizing, and retrieval skills. Performance increases when children are prompted to use these skills. -Some students acquire more sophisticated memory skills on their own and need no prompting to use them. -Interactions with parents and cognitive demands of school appear to play a role.

Objectives and Taxonomies: Devising and Using Objectives-

-Aligning assessment with objectives and instruction +objectives, instruction, and assessment should be thought of as an integral unit +objectives provide blueprint for the content of a teacher's instruction +classroom assessments based on teacher's objectives and what is actually covered in class.

The Cognitive (Constructivist) Approach: Constructivism Today Review-

-Common claims that frame constructivism +meaningful learning is the active creation of knowledge structures from personal experience -"flipping the classroom" as a way to implement this principle. +knowledge structures are created from interpretations of personal experience and from interactions with others who have different ideas. +Self-regulation is a key to successful learning. +solving authentic problems contributes to meaningful learning and transfer. 3 variations of the constructivist theme: -Cognitive Constructivism: Emphasizes the development of meaningful learning by focusing on the cognitive processes that take place within individuals. -Social Constructivism: Emphasizes the development of meaningful learning by focusing on culture and social interactions. Critical Constructivism: Emphasized the effect of teachers' assumptions about students from various racial, ethnic, and SES backgrounds on students' knowledge construction

The Cognitive (Constructivist) Approach: Meaningful Learning Within a Constructivist Framework Review-

-Conditions that foster constructivist learning: +cognitive apprenticeship. -teachers model cognitive processes that students eventually take responsibility for as they become more skilled. +situated learning. -giving learning tasks situated in realistic contexts. +multiple perspectives. -students should have the opportunity to view ideas and problems from multiple ways.

Objectives and Taxonomies: Devising and Using Objectives

-Contrasting objectives with educational goals: +goals are broad, general statements of what educators and policy would like to see schools accomplish. +Objectives are specific and measurable statements of what students should know and be able to do after instruction. +Cognitive, affective, and psychomotor taxonomies are popular sources of objectives.

Objectives and Taxonomies: Devising and Using Objectives-

-Evaluation of the effectiveness of objects: +objectives seem to work best when students are aware of them, treat them as directions to learn specific sections of material, and feel they will aid learning. +objectives seem to work best when they are clearly written and the learning task is neither too difficult nor too easy. +students of average ability seem to profit more from being given objectives then do students of higher or lower ability. +Objectives lead to an improvement in intentional learning but to a decline in incidental learning.

The Cognitive (Constructivist) Approach: Using Technology to Support Cognitive Approaches to Instruction-

-Helping students process info: multimedia encyclopedias, interactive databases -Discovery and exploratory environments: logo, geometric supposer, genscope.

The Humanistic Approach: The Humanistic View of Motivation Review

-Maslow's theory of growth motivation +Motivation is influenced by fulfilling different levels of need. +Deficiency needs must be met in order for a student to be motivated to learn and fulfill his/her potential (self-acutralizatoin). +Teachers should do what they can to satisfy students deficiency needs particularly belonging and self-esteem needs. +Make growth choices attractive and less risky. -Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: +Physiological: food, water, oxygen. +Safety: Nurturance, money +Belongingness and love: acceptance and affection. +Esteem: respect. +Self-actualization: maximizing one's potential.

The Behavioral Approach to Teaching: Direct Instruction Effectiveness-

-Produced modestly positive increases in math and reading achievement in urban middle school -biggest gains made by English language learners.

The Cognitive (Constructivist) Approach: Meaningful Learning Within a Constructivist Framework Review-

-Putting constructivism in perspective: + it is almost impossible to create highly detailed lesson plans because so much variation is possible. +teaching from a constructivist perspective is more time consuming and places higher demands on learners as compared to a typical lecture format. +constructivism is not the only orientation to learning that you will ever need.

Objectives and Taxonomies: Devising and Using Objectives - Affective Taxonomy:

-Taxonomy of educational objectives: Affective Domain +Receiving (attending): willingness to receive or attend +Responding: active participation indicating positive response or acceptance of an idea +Valuing: expressing a belief or attitude about the value or worth of something. +Organization: organizing various values into an internalized system +Characterization by a value or value complex: the system becomes a way of life.

Objectives and Taxonomies: Devising and Using Objectives - Cognitive Taxonomy

-Taxonomy of educational objectives: Cognitive domain: +knowledge: remembering previously learned information such as facts, terms, and principles. +comprehension: grasping the meaning of information by putting it into one's own words. +Application: applying knowledge to actual situations. +Analysis: breaking down ideas into simpler parts and seeing how the parts relate and are organized. +Synthesis: rearranging component ideas into a new whole. +Evaluation: making judgements based on internal evidence or external criteria.

Objectives and Taxonomies: Devising and Using Objectives - Psychomotor Taxonomy

-Taxonomy of educational objectives: Psychomotor domain +Perception: using sense organs to obtain cues needed to guide motor activity +Set: Being ready to perform a particular action. +Guided Response: performing under the guidance of a model. +Mechanism: being able to perform a task habitually with some degree of confidence and proficiency. +Complex or Overt Response: performing a task with a high degree of proficiency and skill. +Adaptation: using previously learned skills to perform new but related tasks. +Origination: creating new performances after having developed skills.

The Humanistic Approach: Humanistic Approach to Teaching- Student Centered Instruction

-The humanistic approach pays particular attention to the role of noncognitive variables in learning. Specifically, students needs, emotions, values, and self perceptions. -Assumes that motivation to learn is based on: +Material that is personally meaningful. +Understanding the reasons for one's behavior. +A classroom environment that supports efforts to learn. -Pioneers of the humanistic approach: +Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, Arthur Combs: -People have an inherent desire to learn and be competent (self-actualization). -Basic needs must be met before self-actualization is possible. -Understand a student's behavior by understanding how the student perceives himself or herself. -Meaningful learning is relevant to one's own life. -Establishing a classroom atmosphere of acceptance and help creates the basis for learning. -Teaching from a humanistic orientation: +classroom provides for physical safety. +students receive emotional support. +students given clear and achievable expectations. +instruction is organized and comprehensible. +help with learning is provided when needed. +interactions with students are respectful, courteous, and fair. +feedback is constructive. +students allowed some freedom to make learning choices. +learning seen as exciting, meaningful, pleasurable. -Does research support the humanistic approach? + research has shown the following: -increased motivation to learn. -stronger sense of competence. -heightened sense of autonomy. -positive school related attitudes. -higher expectations of success. -lower depression, anxiety, frustration. -higher levels of achievement.

The Cognitive (Constructivist) Approach: The Cognitive Approach to Teaching-

-The nature and elements of a constructivist approach: +Provide scaffolded instruction within the zone of proximal development (ZPD) +Provide opportunities for learning by discovery +Foster multiple viewpoints +Emphasize relevant problems and tasks +Encourage students to become more autonomous learners (those with resourcefulness to go out and get what they need to have for resources, initiative to get started in learning activity, and persistence).

The Humanistic Approach: The Role of Self-Perceptions in Motivation Review-

-The role of academic self-conept in motivation and learning +Current strength of academic self-concept influences motivation, which influences use of effective learning skills, which influences achievement. +Academic self-concept and achievement have reciprocal effects. -Current strength of academic self-concept influences achievement, and prior achievement affects current level of academic self-concept. -Motivation and Identity: +A person's identity may be thought of as a combination of self-perceptions of: -skills, characteristics, and competencies. -personal values and goals. +These self-perceptions influence expectations for success and tasks that are deemed important. +Students who are interested in a subject "identify" with the subject matter. +Enhance motivation by creating opportunities for students to develop their interests.

The Cognitive (Information Processing and Social Cognitive Theory) Approach: Self Control, Self Regulation, and Self-Efficacy-

-The role of self-efficacy in self-regulation: *Self-efficacy beliefs affect many aspects of self-regulation: -optimistic or pessimistic thoughts. -approach or avoid task. -high or low motivation. -persevere for long or short periods when tasks are difficult. -use of more effective or less effective learning skills. -motivated or demoralized by failure. *Self efficacy more influential than expect rewards, punishments, or actual skill level. *Factors that affect self-efficacy: -performance accomplishments. -verbal persuasion. -emotional arousal. -vicarious experience. *Types of behaviors affected by self-efficacy: -Selection process(what you choose). -Cognitive Processes(how you think). -Motivational process(how motivated you are). -Affective Processes (emotional).

The Cognitive (Constructivist) Approach: Transfer of Learning

-Transfer of learning is... students independently apply knowledge and skills to similar but new info. -The nature and significance of transfer learning: +Positive, negative, and zero transfer: -Positive Transfer: A situation in which prior learning aids subsequent learning. -Negative Transfer: A situation in which prior learning interferes with subsequent learning. -Zero Transfer: A situation in which prior learning has no effect on new learning. +Specific and general transfer: -Specific transfer: A situation in which prior learning aids subsequent learning because of specific similarities between two tasks. -General transfer: A situation in which prior learning aids subsequent learning due to the use of similar cognitive strategies. +Near and far transfer: -Near transfer: knowledge domains are highly similar, the settings in which the original learning and transfer tasks occur are basically the same, and the elapsed time between the two tasks is relatively short. -Far transfer: knowledge domains and settings are judged to be dissimilar and the time between the original learning and transfer tasks is relatively long. +Low-road transfer: -a situation in which a previously learned skill or idea is almost automatically retrieved from memory and applied to a highly similar current task +High-road transfer: -a situation involving the conscious, controlled, somewhat effortful formation of an "abstraction" that allows a connection to be made between two tasks. -Contemporary views of specific/near and general/far transfer: +teaching for low-road and high-road transfer: -provide students with multiple opportunities for varied practice to help them develop a rich web of interrelated concepts. -give students opportunities to solve problems similar to those they will eventually have to solve. -teach students how to formulate for a variety of task, general rules, strategies, or schemes that can be used with a variety of similar problems. -give students cues that will allow them to retrieve from memory easier-learned information that can be used to make current learning easier. -teach students to focus on beneficial effects of creating and using rules and strategies to solve particular kinds of problems.

The Social/Cooperative Approach: Social Approach-Teaching Students to Learn from Each Other

-Types of classroom reward structures: +competitive structures. -structures in which one's grade is determined by how well everyone else in the group performs. +individualistic structures. -structures characterized by students working alone and earning rewards solely on the quality of their own efforts. +Cooperative structures. -structures characterized by students working together to accomplish shared goals. -Elements of cooperative learning: +group heterogeneity: 4-5 students who differ in gender, ethnicity, and social class. +Group goals/ positive interdependence: students must support one another's learning efforts for group to achieve goal. +Promotive Interaction: students taught how to help one another complete their assigned tasks. +Individual accountability: each group member must make own contribution to groups goal. +Equal opportunities for success: all students have equal opportunity to contribute to groups efforts. +Team Competition: groups, if well-match, may compete with one another. -Does cooperative learning work? +Most students report positive effects for: motivation, achievement, social interaction. -Motivational effect: students motivated by desire to support group and receive reinforcement from group members. -Cognitive-development effect: students model effective forms of thinking for each other, peer interaction hastens to decline of egocentrism. -Cognitive Elaboration Effect: group interactions encourage more advanced encodings of information. -Teacher's use of cooperative learning: +teachers must be aware of the elements that define cooperative learning and implement at least positive interdependence and individual accountability. +But allowances may need to be made for particular conditions. -Using technology to support learning through instruction +supporting thinking and sharing: use of Web 1.0, 2.0 and 3.0 applications. +personalization and diversification: using tech to address students particular learning characteristics. Using tech to maximize learning opportunities for all students.

Objectives and Taxonomies: Devising and Using Objectives- Gronlund

-Ways to state and use objectives: +Gronlund's recommendations for use of general objectives -formulate general objectives of instruction that describe types of behavior students should exhibit -under each general instructional objective, list up to five specific learning outcomes that provide a representative sample of what students should be able to do when they have achieved the general objective.

Objectives and Taxonomies: Devising and Using Objectives- Mager

-Ways to state and use objectives: +Mager's recommendations for use of specific objectives: -Describe what you want learners to be doing when demonstrating achievement and indicate how you will know they are doing it. -In your description, identify and name the behavioral act that indicates achievement, define the conditions under which the behavior is to occur, and state the criterion of acceptable performance. -Write a separate objective for each learning performance.

The Behavioral Approach to Teaching: Direct Instruction- Getting the most out of practice

-move from structured practice to guided practice to independent practice. -have short but intense practice sessions. -monitor students responses during structured practice. -require minimum performance of 85% correct before moving to independent practice. -spread practice sessions over several months. -Space practice sessions close together at first then further apart for guided and independent practice

The Behavioral Approach to Teaching: Direct Instruction Components-

1. Orientation: introduction and overview of the lesson. 2. Presentation: explaining and demonstrating new material. 3. Structured Practice: teacher leads class through problem. 4. Guided Practice: Students work on problems with teacher assistance. 5. Independent Practice: students practice on their own.

Educational Application of Operant Conditioning Principles- Review

Behavior modification: -Shaping -token economies -contingency contracts -extinction, time out, and response cost -punishment Skinner'term-30s basic principles: -be clear about what is to be taught -teach first things first -present material in small, logical steps -allow students to learn at their own rate Operant Conditioning and Behavior Programs: -Drill and Practice: Practice knowledge and skills learned earlier to produce fast and accurate responses. -Tutorial: teach new info and skills -Problem-Solving Programs: Simulations and Games- teach new info and skills and provide an opportunity to apply what was learned in a meaningful context that would otherwise be unavailable because of cost, physical danger, and time constraints.

The Cognitive (Constructivist) Approach: The Cognitive Approach to Teaching-

Challenges to being a constructivist teacher: -The conceptual challenge: fully understand the theoretical basis of constructivism and align current beliefs with constructivist theory -The pedagogical challenge: teach for meaningful learning with complex problem-solving and collaborative tasks and assess learning with various assessment devices. -The cultural challenge: the "ideal" classroom is not necessarily the traditional classroom. -The political challenge: convince others that the constructivist approach is effect and consistent with state standards.

The Cognitive (Information Processing and Social Cognitive Theory) Approach: Using Technology to Support Cognitive Approaches to Instruction-

Guided Leanring: HOTS Problem and project based learning: tutorial and simulation programs Situated learning: knowledge Forum, WISE, GLOBE.

The Cognitive (Constructivist) Approach: The Nature of Problem Solving Review-

Helping students become good problem solvers: -Realize that a problem exists -Understand the nature of the problem -Compile relevant info. -Formulate and carry out a solution. -Evaluate the solution

The Cognitive (Constructivist) Approach: Meaningful Learning Within a Constructivist Framework-Review.

Meaningful learning occurs when individuals construct a personal interpretation of the world by filtering new ideas and experiences through existing knowledge structures (i.e., schemes) -Jerome Bruner and discovery learning: An early constructivist perspective. -Too much school learning emphasized rote learning of verbal statements and mathematical formulas that cannot be applied outside the classroom. -Children should be helped to discover how ideas relate to each other and to existing knowledge and how to solve problems. -research supports use of guided discovery methods.

The Cognitive (Information Processing and Social Cognitive Theory) Approach: Implications for Instruction- Short Term Memory and Its Control Processes

Research Findings and Implications: *Rehearsal: prevents the quick disappearance of information from short-term memory. Most children do not begin to rehearse on their now until about age seven. -all children, especially younger ones, can benefit from being taught rehearsal techniques. *Organization: of material into chunks make it easier to remember. -teachers can aid students by presenting material in logical chunks and by showing students how to organize information on their own. *Meaningful Learning: Occurs when the learned related new information to prior ideas and experiences. -Teachers should mediate learning by relating new information to students cultural knowledge and by helping students to learn techniques of self-mediation. *Visual Imagery: is easier to recall than abstractions. -teachers should help students develop learning skills that incorporate visual imagery and the memory aiding techniques.

The Cognitive (Information Processing and Social Cognitive Theory) Approach: Self Control, Self Regulation, and Self-Efficacy Review-

Self Control: ability to control ones actions in the absence of external reinforcement or punishment. Self Regulation: The consistent and appropriate application of self control skills to new situations. Self Efficacy: How capable or prepared we believe we are for handling particular kinds of tasks.

The Cognitive (Information Processing and Social Cognitive Theory) Approach: Triadic Reciprocal Causation Model Review-

Social Learning (Cognitive) Theory: -Learning results from interaction among: *Personal characteristics: Mental and emotional factors such as goals, anxiety, metacognition, and self-efficacy. *Behavioral Patterns: include self-observation, self-evaluation, making changes in behavior to overcome or reduce perceptions and creating productive study environments. *Environmental Factors: an individuals social and physical environment.

The Cognitive (Information Processing and Social Cognitive Theory) Approach: Self Control, Self Regulation, and Self-Efficacy-

The components of a self-regulatory system: -Forethought Phase: +task analysis- set a long term goal and then a series of near-term achievable sub-goals. Formulate a plan to achieve those goals. -Performance Phase: + Self Control- focus on task, ignore distraction. think about the steps involved in competing a task. +Self observation- use journals and logs to maintain awareness of performance. try different approaches to learning.

The Cognitive (Information Processing and Social Cognitive Theory) Approach: The Cognitive Approach to Teaching-

The nature and elements of an information-processing/social cognitive approach: -communicate clear goals and objectives -use attention getting devices -emphasize organization and meaningfulness -present info in learnable amounts and over realistic time periods -facilitate encoding of info into long term memory.

The Cognitive (Information Processing and Social Cognitive Theory) Approach: Metacognition Review-

The nature and importance of metacognition: *Metacognition is composed of two parts: - Metacognitive knowledge: What we know about how we think (i.e., attention, recognition, encoding, storage, and retrieval). +Declarative Knowledge: what we know about how person variables, task, variables, and strategy variables affect learning. +Conditional Knowledge: What we know when and why we use certain cognitive processes in certain circumstances. +Procedural Knowledge: What we know about how to use various cognitive processes. -Metacognitive Skills: How those operations are used to achieve a learning goal: +analyzing learning tasks. +setting goals. +creating plans. +monitoring progress. +Evaluating goal attainment. Age Trends in Metacognition: *Primary grade children have limited knowledge of: -their memory capability. -factor affecting reading comprehension and recall. -The needs to tailor learning tactics to task demands. - Why memory techniques are effective. -when they have learned something well enough they can pass a test. *Metacognitive knowledge develops with age, experience, and instruction.

The Behavioral Approach to Teaching: Direct Instruction

The nature of direct instruction: -Almost all classroom activity focused on learning basic academic knowledge and skills. -The teacher makes all instructional decisions. -Students work productively toward learning new academic knowledge and skills as much as possible. -All lessons include demonstration, practice, corrective feedback. -Maintain a positive classroom climate by emphasizing positive reinforcement and avoid the use of aversive consequences.

The Behavioral Approach to Teaching: Direct Instruction- technology

Using technology to support behavioral approaches to instruction: -drill and practice CBI tools. -Integrated Learning Systems. -Multimedia to embellish a lecture.