Psychology Module 5
Ritalin and Adderall
ADHD treatment drugs
onset is sudden, in response to stress.
Chances for recovery from schizophrenia are best when
depression
Cognitive therapy has been especially effective in treating
Xanax, Zoloft, and Paxil
Common SSRI drugs (antidepressants)
self-fulfillment and growth
Compared with psychoanalysts, humanistic therapists are more likely to emphasize
By reflecting clients' feelings in a nondirective setting, the humanistic therapies attempt to foster personal growth by helping clients become more self-aware and self-accepting. By making clients aware of self-defeating patterns of thinking, cognitive therapies guide people toward more adaptive ways of thinking about themselves and their world.
How do the humanistic and cognitive therapies differ?
The medical model assumes that psychological disorders are mental illnesses with physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and, in most cases, cured through therapy, sometimes in a hospital. The biopsychosocial perspective assumes that three sets of influences—biological (evolution, genetics, brain structure and chemistry), psychological (stress, trauma, learned helplessness, mood-related perceptions and memories), and social and cultural circumstances (roles, expectations, definitions of "normality" and "disorder")—interact to produce specific psychological disorders. Epigenetics also informs our understanding of disorders.
How do the medical model and the biopsychosocial approach influence our understanding of psychological disorders?
anorexia nervosa; bulimia nervosa
People with ______________ (anorexia nervosa/bulimia nervosa) continue to want to lose weight even when they are underweight. Those with ______________ (anorexia nervosa/bulimia nervosa) tend to have weight that fluctuates within or above normal ranges.
narcissistic
People with a(n) _____ personality disorder have a tendency to exaggerate their own importance. They do not accept criticism very well and are known to react to it with rage or shame.
hallucination
People with schizophrenia may hear voices urging self-destruction, an example of a(n)
11 percent; 3x more likely to be diagnosed in boys
Percentage of American 4- to 17-year-olds whom receive the diagnosis of ADHD after displaying its key symptoms
Biological factors include inherited temperament differences and other gene variations; learned fears that have altered brain pathways; and outdated, inherited responses that had survival value for our distant ancestors.
Researchers believe that conditioning and cognitive processes contribute to anxiety disorders, OCD, and PTSD. What biological factors also contribute to these disorders?
no one type
Studies show that __________ therapy is the most effective treatment for most psychological disorders.
generalized anxiety
Unfocused tension, apprehension, and arousal are symptoms of ______________ ______________ disorder.
schizoid personality disorder
Walter keeps to himself at work, is quiet, and has a number of odd collections. Some people call him eccentric. He has only one friend who comes over to drink with him. Walter may be considered to have:
cognitive-behavioral
_____ therapy helps people to change their self-defeating ways of thinking and to act out those changes in their daily behavior.
insight
____therapies are designed to help individuals discover the thoughts and feelings that guide their motivation and behavior.
ECT: Electroconvulsive therapy
a biomedical therapy for severely depressed patients in which a brief electric current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient
Therapeutic alliance
a bond of trust and mutual understanding between a therapist and client, who work together constructively to overcome the client's problem
anterior cingulate cortex in the brain's frontal area
a brain region that monitors our actions and checks for error; especially active in OCD and hoarding
Interpersonal psychotherapy
a brief (12- to 16-session) variation of psychodynamic therapy, has effectively treated depression; aims to help people gain insight into the roots of their difficulties, its goal is symptom relief in the here and now. Rather than focusing mostly on undoing past hurts and offering interpretations, the therapist concentrates primarily on current relationships and on helping people improve their relationship skills.
psychosis
a broad term for a break from reality
unconditional positive regard
a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help clients develop self-awareness and self-acceptance
PTSD
a disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, numbness of feeling, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience
OCD
a disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions), actions (compulsions), or both; considered disorder after persistent interference
delusions
a false belief, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany psychotic disorders.
avoidant personality disorder
a fearful sensitivity to rejection that predisposes the withdrawn
chronic schizophrenia
a form of schizophrenia in which symptoms usually appear by late adolescence or early adulthood. As people age, psychotic episodes last longer and recovery periods shorten; social withdrawal prevalent
acute schizophrenia
a form of schizophrenia that can begin at any age, frequently occurs in response to an emotionally traumatic event, and has extended recovery periods
client-centered therapy
a humanistic therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, in which the therapist uses techniques such as active listening within a genuine, accepting, empathic environment to facilitate clients' growth.
antisocial personality disorder
a personality disorder in which a person (usually a man) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends and family members; may be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist; often become psychopaths or sociopaths
Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)
a popular integrative therapy that combines cognitive therapy (changing self-defeating thinking) with behavior therapy (changing behavior)
schizophrenia
a psychological disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and/or diminished, inappropriate emotional expression.
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
a psychological disorder marked by extreme inattention and/or hyperactivity and impulsivity; heritable
lobotomy
a psychosurgical procedure once used to calm uncontrollably emotional or violent patients. The procedure cut the nerves connecting the frontal lobes to the emotion-controlling centers of the inner brain
dissociative identity disorder
a rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities. Formerly called multiple personality disorder; a way to cope with anxiety
psychological disorder
a syndrome marked by a clinically significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior.
aversive conditioning
a type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol)
Systematic desensitization
a type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias.
insight therapies
a variety of therapies that aim to improve psychological functioning by increasing a person's awareness of underlying motives and defenses psychodynamic, psychoanalytic, and humanistic
survivor resiliency
ability to recover after severe stress
fear or avoidance of situations in which escape might be difficult when panic strikes; often seen with panic disorder
agoraphobia
decreased white matter and enlarged fluid-filled ventricles
altered brain structures in people with bipolar disorder
virtual reality exposure therapy
an anxiety treatment that progressively exposes people to electronic simulations of their greatest fears, such as airplane flying, spiders, or public speaking.
eclectic approach
an approach to psychotherapy that uses techniques from various forms of therapy
anorexia nervosa
an eating disorder in which a person (usually an adolescent female) maintains a starvation diet despite being significantly underweight; sometimes accompanied by excessive exercise.
bulimia nervosa
an eating disorder in which a person alternates binge eating (usually of high-calorie foods) with purging (by vomiting or laxative use) or fasting; often easy to hide due to cynical nature and weight set point
token economy
an operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange their tokens for various privileges or treats
free-floating (not linked to a specific source/threat)
cause for generalized anxiety disorder
Evidence-based practice
clinical decision making that integrates the best available research with clinical expertise and patient characteristics and preferences
anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder, and depression
cognitive and cognitive-behavioral therapy best treats
rumination
compulsive fretting; overthinking about our problems and their causes; often found in women
Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder
controversial DSM-5 additions
schizophrenia
disorder that occurs worldwide; irrationality and incoherent speech
alcohol use disorder, antisocial conduct, lack of impulse control (external states)
disorders men are more prone to
depression, anxiety, and inhibited sexual desire (relate to internalized states)
disorders women are more prone to
controversial, rare disorders in which conscious awareness becomes separated (dissociated) from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings.
dissociative disorders
yes; our compulsive acts typically exaggerate behaviors that contributed to our species' survival
does natural selection have anything to do with our behaviors?
borderline-personality disorder
dramatic or impulsive behaviors, such as the attention-getting
anti anxiety drugs
drugs used to control anxiety and agitation
antidepressants
drugs used to treat depression, anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder. (Several widely used antidepressant drugs are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors—SSRIs.); increasing the availability of neurotransmitters, such as norepinephrine or serotonin, which elevate arousal and mood and appear scarce when a person experiences feelings of depression or anxiety
Antipsychotic drugs
drugs used to treat schizophrenia and other forms of severe thought disorder (ex. Thorazine)
schizotypal personality disorder
eccentric or odd behaviors, such as the emotionless disengagement of
active listening
empathic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and clarifies. A feature of Rogers' client-centered therapy
humanistic perspective
emphasizes people's inherent potential for self-fulfillment
EDMR
eye movement desensitization and reprocessing
genetic predispositions, child abuse, low self-esteem, marital problems, and so forth
factors that put women at risk for depression
antisocial personality disorder and generalized anxiety disorder
faired poorly in field tests
a sudden loss of memory or change in identity, often in response to an overwhelmingly stressful situation
fuge state
women; however, men more likely to succeed
gender more likely to attempt suicide
an anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal.; symptoms persist for 6+ months; twice as likely in women; decreases by 50 years old
generalized anxiety disorder
aimed to bring patients' repressed or disowned feelings into conscious awareness. By helping them reclaim their unconscious thoughts and feelings, and by giving them insight into the origins of their disorders, he aimed to help them reduce growth-impeding inner conflicts.
goals of psychoanalysis
history of violence, use of alcohol or drugs, and access to a gun
good predictors of violence
37%
heritability of major depressive disorder
-boost people's self-fulfillment by helping them grow in self-awareness and self-acceptance. -Promoting this growth, not curing illness -taking immediate responsibility for one's feelings and actions, rather than uncovering hidden determinants -Conscious thoughts -present and future are more important
how do humanistic therapies differ from psychoanalytic therapies?
It slows us down, defuses aggression, helps us let go of unattainable goals, and restrains risk taking; redirect energy; make better decisions
how does depression resemble a psychic hibernation?
25%
how many soldiers coming back from Iraq were diagnosed with a psychological disorder?
two times more; 2/3 cases are in boys
how much more likely are Americans compared to people of other countries to have ever had a diagnosis of bipolar disorder
compared with people who have recently immigrated from Mexico, Mexican-Americans born in the United States are at greater risk of mental disorder
immigrant paradox
they have difficulty perceiving facial emotions and reading others' states of mind; often in schizophrenics
impaired theory of mind
interpretation
in psychoanalysis, the analyst's noting supposed dream meanings, resistances, and other significant behaviors and events in order to promote insight
resistance
in psychoanalysis, the blocking from consciousness of anxiety-laden material
transference
in psychoanalysis, the patient's transfer to the analyst of emotions linked with other relationships (such as love or hatred for a parent)
personality disorders
inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning
maladaptive
interfere with normal day-to-day life
no; dissociative symptoms tend to be exhibited by suggestible, fantasy-prone people
is DID provoked by trauma?
yes, of course; 1 in 10 chance when sibling of parent has it; however, schizophrenia is influenced by many genes
is schizophrenia heritable?
the hopelessness and passive resignation animals and humans learn when they experience uncontrollable painful events.
learned helplessness
a disorder in which a person experiences, in the absence of drugs or another medical condition, two or more weeks with five or more symptoms, at least one of which must be either (1) depressed mood or (2) loss of interest or pleasure.
major depressive disorder
a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state in which dangerously poor judgment is common; little need for sleep; limited sexual inhibitions; persistent positive emotions; loud speech
mania
belarus
most suicide-prone country
A mother whose schizophrenia was severe and long-lasting Birth complications, often involving oxygen deprivation and low birth weight Separation from parents Short attention span and poor muscle coordination Disruptive or withdrawn behavior Emotional unpredictability Poor peer relations and solo play Childhood physical, sexual, or emotional abuse
possible early warning signs of schizophrenia
poverty
predictor of mental disorder that crosses ethnic and gender lines
psychodynamic, humanistic, behavioral, and cognitive
psychotherapy options for those treated with "talk therapies.
whites and native americans
races more prone to suicide
field tiral
real world test
Philippe Pinel
reformer of mental institutions; He and others worked to replace brutality with gentleness, isolation with activity, and filth with clean air and sunshine.
low birth weight, maternal diabetes, older paternal age, and oxygen deprivation during delivery, mid-pregnancy viral infection
risk factor for schizophrenia
binge-eating disorder
significant binge-eating episodes, followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without the compensatory purging or fasting that marks bulimia nervosa.
shyness taken to an extreme; intense fear of other people's negative judgments; avoid potentially embarrassing social situations—such as speaking up, eating out, or going to parties—or they may sweat or tremble when doing so
social anxiety disorder
psychosurgery
surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue in an effort to change behavior
historical reconstruction; free association; As the psychoanalyst sits out of your line of vision, you say aloud whatever comes to mind; several sessions per week
techniques of psychoanalysis
DSM-5
the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition; a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders. (p. 613)
Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS)
the application of repeated pulses of magnetic energy to the brain; used to stimulate or suppress brain activity.
dopamine; uch a hyper-responsive dopamine system may intensify brain signals in schizophrenia, creating positive symptoms such as hallucinations and paranoia
what is an excessive receptor often found in schizophrenic patients
20%
what percentage of people experience chronic depression?
past experiences
what shapes our expectations and influences our interpretations and reactions?
anxiety conditioning
when bad events happen unpredictably and uncontrollably, anxiety and other disorders often develop
when people cannot switch off such intrusive thoughts and perceive a loss of control and a sense of helplessness
when does anxiety become common?
Composers, artists, poets, novelists, and entertainers
who is especially prone to bipolar disorder?
veterans; survivors of accidents, disasters, and violent and sexual assaults
who is most prone to PTSD?
OCD is more common among teens and young adults than among older people
whom is OCD most common among?
schizophrenia and depression
Two disorders are found worldwide. What are they
lithium
A simple salt that often brings relief to patients suffering the highs and lows of bipolar disorder is
The left frontal lobe and an adjacent brain reward center
What becomes more active during positive emotions?
medical
A therapist says that psychological disorders are sicknesses and people with these disorders should be treated as patients in a hospital. This therapist believes in the ____ model.
psychoanalysis
A therapist who helps patients search for the unconscious roots of their problem and offers interpretations of their behaviors, feelings, and dreams, is drawing from
active listening
A therapist who restates and clarifies the client's statements is practicing
Autism Spectrum disorder
"autism" and "Asperger's syndrome"
major depressive disorder, Persistent depressive disorder, and bipolar disorder
3 types of depressive disorders
maladaptive
A lawyer is distressed by feeling the need to wash his hands 100 times a day. He has no time left to meet with clients, and his colleagues are wondering about his competence. His behavior would probably be labeled disordered, because it is ______________ that is, it interferes with his day-to-day life.
negative; chronic; positive; acute
A person with schizophrenia who has ______________ (positive/negative) symptoms may have an expressionless face and toneless voice. These symptoms are most common with ______________ (chronic/acute) schizophrenia and are not likely to respond to drug therapy. Those with ______________ (positive/negative) symptoms are likely to experience delusions and to be diagnosed with ______________ (chronic/acute) schizophrenia, which is much more likely to respond to drug therapy.
inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning.
A personality disorder, such as antisocial personality, is characterized by
preventive mental health.
An approach that seeks to identify and alleviate conditions that put people at high risk for developing psychological disorders is called
panic attack
An episode of intense dread, accompanied by trembling, dizziness, chest pains, or choking sensations and by feelings of terror, is called
Aaron Beck
An influential cognitive therapy for depression was developed by ______________ ______________.
Xanax or Ativan
Anti anxiety drugs
psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety.
Anxiety disorders
phobia
Anxiety that takes the form of an irrational and maladaptive fear of a specific object, activity, or situation is called a___
reinforcement
Anything that helps us avoid or escape the feared situation can be reinforcing because it reduces anxiety and gives us a feeling of relief.
Some psychological disorders are culture-specific. For example, anorexia nervosa occurs mostly in North American cultures, and taijin-kyofusho appears largely in Japan. Other disorders, such as schizophrenia, are universal—occurring in all cultures.
Are psychological disorders universal, or are they culture-specific? Explain with examples.
No one type of psychotherapy is generally superior to all others. Therapy is most effective for those with clear-cut, specific problems. Some therapies—such as behavior conditioning for treating phobias and compulsions—are more effective for specific disorders. Psychodynamic therapy has been effective for depression and anxiety, and cognitive and cognitive-behavioral therapies have been effective in coping with anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder, and depression. Evidence-based practice integrates the best available research with clinicians' expertise and patients' characteristics, preferences, and circumstances.
Are some psychotherapies more effective than others for specific disorders?
"Over 75 percent of our sample with any disorder had experienced [their] first symptoms by age 24,"; earliest to appear are the symptoms of antisocial personality disorder (median age 8) and of phobias (median age 10); Alcohol use disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, bipolar disorder, and schizophrenia symptoms appear at a median age near 20. Major depressive disorder often hits somewhat later, at a median age of 25.
At what times of life do disorders strike?
counterconditioning
Behavior therapies often use _____ techniques such as systematic desensitization and aversive conditioning to encourage clients to produce new responses to old stimuli.
specific behavior problems, such as bed-wetting, phobias, compulsions, marital problems, and sexual dysfunctions
Behavioral conditioning therapies best things to treat
Mental health professionals use labels to communicate about their cases, to comprehend the underlying causes, and to discern effective treatment programs. Researchers use labels when discussing work that explores the causes and treatments of disorders. Clients are often relieved to learn that the nature of their suffering has a name, and that they are not alone in experiencing this collection of symptoms.
Benefits of labels
Prozac, Zoloft, and Paxil
Depression drugs that block reuptake
anxiety disorders (generalized, panic, phobia), PTSD, and OCD
Disorders that involve anxiety
Twin and adoption studies indicate that the predisposition to schizophrenia is inherited. Multiple genes probably interact to produce schizophrenia. No environmental causes invariably produce schizophrenia, but environmental events (such as prenatal viruses or maternal stress) may "turn on" genes for this disorder in those who are predisposed to it. Possible early warning signs of later development of schizophrenia include both biological factors (a mother with severe and long-lasting schizophrenia; oxygen deprivation and low weight at birth; separation from parents; short attention span and poor muscle coordination) and psychological factors (disruptive or withdrawn behavior; emotional unpredictability; poor peer relations and solo play).
Do genes influence schizophrenia? What factors may be early warning signs of schizophrenia in children?
Mental disorders seldom lead to violence, but when they do, they raise moral and ethical questions about whether society should hold people with disorders responsible for their violent actions. Most people with disorders are nonviolent and are more likely to be victims than attackers.
Do psychological disorders predict violent behavior?
yes
Does OCD have a strong genetic basis?
Clients' and therapists' positive testimonials cannot prove that psychotherapy is actually effective, and the placebo effect makes it difficult to judge whether improvement occurred because of the treatment. Using meta-analyses to statistically combine the results of hundreds of randomized psychotherapy outcome studies, researchers have found that those not undergoing treatment often improve, but those undergoing psychotherapy are more likely to improve more quickly, and with less chance of relapse.
Does psychotherapy work? How can we know?
anti anxiety
Drugs like Xanax and Ativan, which depress central nervous system activity, can become addictive when used as ongoing treatment. These drugs are referred to as _____ drugs
classical; operant
Exposure therapies and aversive conditioning are applications of ______________ conditioning. Token economies are an application of ______________ conditioning.
The American Psychiatric Association's DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition) contains diagnostic labels and descriptions that provide a common language and shared concepts for communication and research. Most U.S. health insurance organizations require a DSM diagnosis before paying for treatment. Some critics believe the DSM editions have become too detailed and extensive. Others view DSM diagnoses as arbitrary labels that create preconceptions, which bias perceptions of the labeled person's past and present behavior.
How and why do clinicians classify psychological disorders, and why do some psychologists criticize the use of diagnostic labels?
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), in which a brief electric current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient, is an effective, last-resort treatment for severely depressed people who have not responded to other therapy. Newer alternative treatments for depression include repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) and, in preliminary clinical experiments, deep-brain stimulation that calms an overactive brain region linked with negative emotions. Psychosurgery removes or destroys brain tissue in hopes of modifying behavior. Radical psychosurgical procedures such as lobotomy were once popular, but neurosurgeons now rarely perform brain surgery to change behavior or moods. Brain surgery is a last-resort treatment because its effects are irreversible.
How are brain stimulation and psychosurgery used in treating specific disorders?
The biological perspective on depressive disorders and bipolar disorder focuses on genetic predispositions and on abnormalities in brain structures and function (including those found in neurotransmitter systems). The social-cognitive perspective views depression as an ongoing cycle of stressful experiences (interpreted through negative beliefs, attributions, and memories) leading to negative moods and actions and fueling new stressful experiences.
How can the biological and social-cognitive perspectives help us understand depressive disorders and bipolar disorder?
Abnormal states tend to return to normal on their own, and the placebo effect can create the impression that a treatment has been effective. These two tendencies complicate assessments of alternative therapies (nontraditional therapies that claim to cure certain ailments). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) has shown some effectiveness—not from the eye movement but rather from the exposure therapy nature of the treatments. Light exposure therapy does seem to relieve depression symptoms for those with a seasonal pattern of major depressive disorder by activating a brain region that influences arousal and hormones.
How do alternative therapies fare under scientific scrutiny?
Twin and adoption studies show that biological relatives of people with this disorder are at increased risk for antisocial behavior. Negative environmental factors, such as poverty or childhood abuse, may channel genetic traits such as fearlessness in more dangerous directions—toward aggression and away from social responsibility.
How do biological and psychological factors contribute to antisocial personality disorder?
Schizophrenia typically strikes during late adolescence, affects men slightly more than women, and seems to occur in all cultures. In chronic (or process) schizophrenia, the disorder develops gradually and recovery is doubtful. In acute (or reactive) schizophrenia, the onset is sudden, in reaction to stress, and the prospects for recovery are brighter.
How do chronic and acute schizophrenia differ?
The learning perspective views anxiety disorders, OCD, and PTSD as products of fear conditioning, stimulus generalization, fearful-behavior reinforcement, and observational learning of others' fears and cognitions (interpretations, irrational beliefs, and hypervigilance). The biological perspective considers the role that fears of life-threatening animals, objects, or situations played in natural selection and evolution; genetic predispositions for high levels of emotional reactivity and neurotransmitter production; and abnormal responses in the brain's fear circuits.
How do conditioning, cognition, and biology contribute to the feelings and thoughts that mark anxiety disorders, OCD, and PTSD?
Therapists differ in the values that influence their goals in therapy and their views of progress. These differences may create problems if therapists and clients differ in their cultural or religious perspectives.
How do culture and values influence the therapist-client relationship?
Anxious feelings and behaviors are classified as an anxiety disorder only when they form a pattern of distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety. People with generalized anxiety disorder feel persistently and uncontrollably tense and apprehensive, for no apparent reason. In the more extreme panic disorder, anxiety escalates into periodic episodes of intense dread. Those with a phobia may be irrationally afraid of a specific object, activity, or situation. Two other disorders (OCD and PTSD) involve anxiety but are classified separately from the anxiety disorders.
How do generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and phobias differ?
A person with major depressive disorder experiences two or more weeks with five or more symptoms, at least one of which must be either (1) depressed mood or (2) loss of interest or pleasure. Persistent depressive disorder includes a mildly depressed mood more often than not for at least two years, along with at least two other symptoms. A person with the less common condition of bipolar disorder experiences not only depression but also mania—episodes of hyperactive and wildly optimistic, impulsive behavior.
How do major depressive disorder, persistent depressive disorder, and bipolar disorder differ?
Psychotherapy is treatment involving psychological techniques; it consists of interactions between a trained therapist and someone seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or achieve personal growth. The major psychotherapies derive from psychology's psychodynamic, humanistic, behavioral, and cognitive perspectives. Biomedical therapy treats psychological disorders with medications or procedures that act directly on a patient's physiology. An eclectic approach combines techniques from various forms of therapy.
How do psychotherapy and the biomedical therapies differ?
Researchers assign people to treatment and no-treatment conditions to see if those who receive the drug therapy improve more than those who don't. Double-blind controlled studies are most effective. If neither the therapist nor the client knows which participants have received the drug treatment, then any difference between the treated and untreated groups will reflect the drug treatment's actual effect.
How do researchers evaluate the effectiveness of particular drug therapies?
Behavior therapies are not insight therapies. Their goal is to apply learning principles to modify problem behaviors. Classical conditioning techniques, including exposure therapies (such as systematic desensitization or virtual reality exposure therapy) and aversive conditioning, attempt to change behaviors through counterconditioning—evoking new responses to old stimuli that trigger unwanted behaviors.
How does the basic assumption of behavior therapy differ from the assumptions of psychodynamic and humanistic therapies? What techniques are used in exposure therapies and aversive conditioning?
four weeks
How long does it take for antidepressants to work?
1 in 4
How many Americans "suffer from a diagnosable mental disorder in a given year"?
1 in 4 (25%)
How many people diagnosed with depression have been brought down by a significant loss or trauma, such as a loved one's death, a ruptured marriage, a physical assault, or a lost job
Psychological disorder rates vary, depending on the time and place of the survey. In one multinational survey, rates for any disorder ranged from less than 5 percent (Shanghai) to more than 25 percent (the United States). Poverty is a risk factor: Conditions and experiences associated with poverty contribute to the development of psychological disorders. But some disorders, such as schizophrenia, can drive people into poverty.
How many people have, or have had a psychological disorder? Is poverty a risk factor?
The placebo effect is the healing power of belief in a treatment. Patients and therapists who expect a treatment to be effective may believe it was.
How might the placebo effect bias clients' and clinicians' appraisals of the effectiveness of psychotherapies?
According to psychologists and psychiatrists, psychological disorders are marked by a clinically significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior.
How should we draw the line between normality and disorder?
Depressed people who undergo a program of aerobic exercise, adequate sleep, light exposure, social engagement, negative-thought reduction, and better nutrition often gain some relief. In our integrated biopsychosocial system, stress affects our body chemistry and health; chemical imbalances can produce depression; and social support and other lifestyle changes can lead to relief of symptoms.
How, by taking care of themselves with a healthy lifestyle, might people find some relief from depression? How does this reflect our being biopsychosocial systems?
phobia
If a person is focusing anxiety on specific feared objects or situations, that person may have a ______________.
predict the disorder's future course. suggest appropriate treatment. prompt research into its causes.
In psychiatry and psychology, classification also aims to...?
transference; resistance; interpretation
In psychoanalysis, when patients experience strong feelings for their therapist, this is called ______________. Patients are said to demonstrate anxiety when they put up mental blocks around sensitive memories, indicating ______________. The therapist will attempt to provide insight into the underlying anxiety by offering a(n) ______________ of the mental blocks.
biospychosocial
Many psychologists reject the "disorders-as-illness" view and instead contend that other factors may also be involved—for example, the person's bad habits and poor social skills. This view represents the __________ approach
depressive/bipolar disorders; phobia; social anxiety; ADHD; PTSD; Generalized anxiety; Schizophrenia; OCD
Most to least occurring disorders.
Philippe Pinel (1745-1826) and Dorothea Dix (1802-1887)
Reformers who pushed for gentler, more humane treatments and for constructing mental hospitals.
Norepinephrine; lack of serotonin may have effect too when combined with stressful event
Neurotransmitter which increases arousal and boosts mood and is scarce during depression and overabundant during mania
hoarding disorder and binge-eating disorder
New DSM-5 catergories
Risperdal and Zyprexa
New antipsychotic drugs
intellectual disability
New name for mental retardation
lower than normal activation in the frontal lobes
PET scans of murderers' brains have revealed
depression and anxiety
Psychodynamic therapy best treats
social-cognitive
Psychologists who emphasize the importance of negative perceptions, beliefs, and thoughts in depression are working within the _____ perspective.
males 19 and under.
Rates of bipolar disorder have risen dramatcally in the twenty-first century, especially among
electroconvulsive therapy (ECT); repetitive transcranial; deep-brain
Severe depression that has not responded to other therapy may be treated with ______________ ______________, which can cause brain seizures and memory loss. More moderate neural stimulation techniques designed to help alleviate depression include ______________ ______________ magnetic stimulation, and ______________ - ______________ stimulation.
Psychoanalysis
Sigmund Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts. (2) Freud's therapeutic technique used in treating psychological disorders. Freud believed that the patient's free associations, resistances, dreams, and transferences—and the therapist's interpretations of them—released previously repressed feelings, allowing the patient to gain self-insight
sluggishness, tremors, and twitches.
Some antipsychotic drugs, used to calm people with schizophrenia, can have unpleasant side effects, most notably
If a behavior can be learned, it can be unlearned, and replaced by other more adaptive responses.
Some maladaptive behaviors are learned. What hope does this fact provide?
antidepressants; antipsychotic
The drugs given most often to treat depression are called ______________. Schizophrenia is often treated with ______________ drugs.
The psychodynamic explanation of DID symptoms is that they are defenses against anxiety generated by unacceptable urges. The learning perspective attempts to explain these symptoms as behaviors that have been reinforced by relieving anxiety in the past.
The psychodynamic and learning perspectives agree that dissociative identity disorder symptoms are ways of dealing with anxiety. How do their explanations differ?
phobias; major depressive disorder
The symptoms of _______ appear around age 10; _______ tend[s] to appear later, around age 25.
systematic desensitization
The technique of __________ teaches people to relax in the presence of progressively more anxiety-provoking stimuli.
are
Therapy is most likely to be helpful for those with problems that ______________ (are/are not) well-defined.
panic
Those who experience unpredictable periods of terror and intense dread, accompanied by frightening physical sensations, may be diagnosed with a ______________ disorder.
obsessive-compulsive
Those who express anxiety through unwanted repetitive thoughts or actions may have a(n) ______________-______________ disorder.
more
Those who undergo psychotherapy are ______________ (more/less) likely to show improvement than those who do not undergo psychotherapy.
post-traumatic stress
Those with symptoms of recurring memories and nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, numbness of feeling, and/or insomnia for weeks after a traumatic event may be diagnosed with ______________ ______________ disorder.
norepinephrine; serotonin
Treatment for depression often includes drugs that increase supplies of the neurotransmitters ___ and ___ .
Dissociative disorders are conditions in which conscious awareness seems to become separated from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings. Skeptics note that dissociative identity disorder, formerly known as multiple personality disorder, increased dramatically in the late twentieth century; is rarely found outside North America; and may reflect role playing by people who are vulnerable to therapists' suggestions. Others view this disorder as a manifestation of feelings of anxiety, or as a response learned when behaviors are reinforced by anxiety-reduction.
What are dissociative disorders, and why are they controversial?
Exercise regularly, get enough sleep, get more exposure to light (get outside and/or use a light box), nurture important relationships, redirect negative thinking, and eat a diet rich in omega-3 fatty acids.
What are some examples of lifestyle changes we can make to enhance our mental health?
Group therapy sessions can help more people and costs less per person than individual therapy would. Clients may benefit from exploring feelings and developing social skills in a group situation, from learning that others have similar problems, and from getting feedback on new ways of behaving. Family therapy views a family as an interactive system and attempts to help members discover the roles they play and to learn to communicate more openly and directly.
What are the aims and benefits of group and family therapies?
Both psychoanalytic and humanistic therapists are insight therapies—they attempt to improve functioning by increasing clients' awareness of motives and defenses. Humanistic therapy's goals have included helping clients grow in self-awareness and self-acceptance; promoting personal growth rather than curing illness; helping clients take responsibility for their own growth; focusing on conscious thoughts rather than unconscious motivations; and seeing the present and future as more important than the past. Carl Rogers' client-centered therapy proposed that therapists' most important contributions are to function as a psychological mirror through active listening and to provide a growth-fostering environment of unconditional positive regard, characterized by genuineness, acceptance, and empathy.
What are the basic themes of humanistic therapy? What are the specific goals and techniques of Rogers' client-centered approach?
Psychopharmacology, the study of drug effects on mind and behavior, has helped make drug therapy the most widely used biomedical therapy. Antipsychotic drugs, used in treating schizophrenia, block dopamine activity. Side effects may include tardive dyskinesia (with involuntary movements of facial muscles, tongue, and limbs) or increased risk of obesity and diabetes. Antianxiety drugs, which depress central nervous system activity, are used to treat anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder. These drugs can be physically and psychologically addictive. Antidepressant drugs, which increase the availability of serotonin and norepinephrine, are used for depression, with modest effectiveness beyond that of placebo drugs. The antidepressants known as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (often called SSRI drugs) are now used to treat other disorders, including strokes and anxiety disorders. Lithium and Depakote are mood stabilizers prescribed for those with bipolar disorder. Studies may use a double-blind procedure to avoid the placebo effect and researcher's bias.
What are the drug therapies? How do double-blind studies help researchers evaluate a drug's effectiveness?
The cognitive therapies, such as Aaron Beck's cognitive therapy for depression, assume that our thinking influences our feelings, and that the therapist's role is to change clients' self-defeating thinking by training them to view themselves in more positive ways. The widely researched and practiced cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) combines cognitive therapy and behavior therapy by helping clients regularly act out their new ways of thinking and talking in their everyday life.
What are the goals and techniques of cognitive therapy and of cognitive-behavioral therapy?
hrough psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud tried to give people self-insight and relief from their disorders by bringing anxiety-laden feelings and thoughts into conscious awareness. Psychoanalytic techniques included using free association and interpretation of instances of resistance and transference. Psychodynamic therapy has been influenced by traditional psychoanalysis but differs from it in many ways, including the lack of belief in id, ego, and superego. This contemporary therapy is briefer, less expensive, and more focused on helping the client find relief from current symptoms. Psychodynamic therapists help clients understand how past relationships create themes that may be acted out in present relationships. Interpersonal therapy is a brief 12- to 16-session form of psychodynamic therapy that has been effective in treating depression.
What are the goals and techniques of psychoanalysis, and how have they been adapted in psychodynamic therapy?
The insight therapies—psychodynamic and humanistic therapies—seek to relieve problems by providing an understanding of their origins. Behavior therapies assume the problem behavior is the problem and treat it directly, paying less attention to its origins.
What are the insight therapies, and how do they differ from behavior therapies?
Personality disorders are disruptive, inflexible, and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning. This disorder forms three clusters, characterized by (1) anxiety, (2) eccentric or odd behaviors, and (3) dramatic or impulsive behaviors. Antisocial personality disorder (one of those in the third cluster) is characterized by a lack of conscience and, sometimes, by aggressive and fearless behavior. Genetic predispositions may interact with the environment to produce the altered brain activity associated with antisocial personality disorder.
What are the three clusters of personality disorders? What behaviors and brain activity characterize the antisocial personality?
research evidence, clinical expertise, and knowledge of the patient
What are the three components of evidence-based practice?
In those with eating disorders (most often women or gay men), psychological factors can overwhelm the body's tendency to maintain a normal weight. Despite being significantly underweight, people with anorexia nervosa (usually adolescent females) continue to diet and exercise excessively because they view themselves as fat. Those with bulimia nervosa (usually females in their teens and twenties) secretly binge and then compensate by purging, fasting, or excessive exercise. Those with binge-eating disorder binge but do not follow with purging, fasting, and exercise. Cultural pressures, low self-esteem, and negative emotions interact with stressful life experiences and genetics to produce eating disorders.
What are the three main eating disorders, and how do biological, psychological, and social-cultural influences make people more vulnerable to them?
People with schizophrenia have increased dopamine receptors, which may intensify brain signals, creating positive symptoms such as hallucinations and paranoia. Brain abnormalities associated with schizophrenia include enlarged, fluid-filled cerebral cavities and corresponding decreases in the cortex. Brain scans reveal abnormal activity in the frontal lobes, thalamus, and amygdala. Interacting malfunctions in multiple brain regions and their connections may produce schizophrenia's symptoms.
What brain abnormalities are associated with schizophrenia?
Traumatic fear-learning experiences can leave tracks in the brain, creating fear circuits within the amygdala ; These fear pathways create easy inroads for more fear experiences
What can traumatic fear-learning experiences do to the brain?
block the neurotransmitter dopamine
What do most conventional antipsychotic drugs do?
Many factors contribute to depression, including the biological influences of genetics and brain function. Social-cognitive factors also matter, including the interaction of explanatory style, mood, our responses to stressful experiences, and changes in our patterns of thinking and behaving. The whole body is involved.
What does it mean to say that "depression is a whole-body disorder"?
Biological factors include abnormalities in brain structure and function, prenatal exposure to a maternal virus, and a genetic predisposition to the disorder. However, a high-risk environment, with many environmental triggers, can increase the odds of developing schizophrenia.
What factors contribute to the onset and development of schizophrenia?
Suicide rates differ by nation, race, gender, age group, income, religious involvement, marital status, and (for gay and lesbian youth, for example) social support structure. Those with depression are more at risk for suicide than others are, but social suggestion, health status, and economic and social frustration are also contributing factors. Environmental barriers (such as jump barriers) are effective in preventing suicides. Forewarnings of suicide may include verbal hints, giving away possessions, withdrawal, preoccupation with death, and discussing one's own suicide. Nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) does not usually lead to suicide but may escalate to suicidal thoughts and acts if untreated. People who engage in NSSI do not tolerate stress well and tend to be self-critical, with poor communication and problem-solving skills.
What factors increase the risk of suicide and what do we know about nonsuicidal self-injury?
PTSD
What is DID included under the umbrella of?
This integrative therapy helps people change self-defeating thinking and behavior. It has been shown to be effective for those with anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, depressive disorders, bipolar disorder, and eating disorders.
What is cognitive-behavioral therapy, and what sorts of problems does this therapy best address?
Using this approach, therapists make decisions about treatment based on research evidence, clinical expertise, and knowledge of the client.
What is evidence-based clinical decision making?
Biological, psychological, and social-cultural influences combine to produce psychological disorders. This broad perspective helps us understand that our well-being is affected by our genes, brain functioning, inner thoughts and feelings, and the influences of our social and cultural environment.
What is the biopsychosocial approach, and why is it important in our understanding of psychological disorders?
Psychological and biomedical therapies attempt to relieve people's suffering from psychological disorders. Preventive mental health attempts to prevent suffering by identifying and eliminating the conditions that cause disorders.
What is the difference between preventive mental health and psychological or biomedical therapy?
Operant conditioning operates under the premise that voluntary behaviors are strongly influenced by their consequences. Therapy based on operant conditioning principles uses behavior modification techniques to change unwanted behaviors through positively reinforcing desired behaviors and ignoring or punishing undesirable behaviors. Critics maintain that (1) techniques such as those used in token economies may produce behavior changes that disappear when rewards end, and (2) deciding which behaviors should change is authoritarian and unethical. Proponents argue that treatment with positive rewards is more humane than punishing people or institutionalizing them for undesired behaviors.
What is the main premise of therapy based on operant conditioning principles, and what are the views of its proponents and critics?
reventive mental health programs are based on the idea that many psychological disorders could be prevented by changing oppressive, esteem-destroying environments into more benevolent, nurturing environments that foster growth, self-confidence, and resilience. Struggling with challenges can lead to posttraumatic growth. Community psychologists are often active in preventive mental health programs.
What is the rationale for preventive mental health programs, and why is it important to develop resilience?
Poverty-related stresses can help trigger disorders, but disabling disorders can also contribute to poverty. Thus, poverty and disorder are often a chicken-and-egg situation, and it's hard to know which came first.
What is the relationship between poverty and psychological disorders?
Therapists and others use disorder labels to communicate with one another using a common language, and to share concepts during research. Clients may benefit from knowing that they are not the only ones with these symptoms. The dangers of labeling people are that (1) people may begin to act as they have been labeled, and (2) the labels can trigger assumptions that will change our behavior toward those we label.
What is the value, and what are the dangers, of labeling individuals with disorders?
A psychodynamic therapist might be more interested in helping the child develop insight about the underlying problems that have caused the bed-wetting response. A behavior therapist would be more likely to agree with Mowrer that the bed-wetting symptom is the problem, and that counterconditioning the unwanted behavior would indeed bring emotional relief.
What might a psychodynamic therapist say about Mowrer's therapy for bed-wetting? How might a behavior therapist reply?
the hippocampus- the memory-processing center linked with the brain's emotional circuitry
What part of the brain is vulnerable to stress-related damage?
Symptoms of schizophrenia include disturbed perceptions, disorganized thinking and speech, and diminished, inappropriate emotions. Delusions are false beliefs; hallucinations are sensory experiences without sensory stimulation. Schizophrenia symptoms may be positive (the presence of inappropriate behaviors) or negative (the absence of appropriate behaviors).
What patterns of perceiving, thinking, and feeling characterize schizophrenia?
31%
What percentage of college students said they had at some time in the past year, "felt so depressed that it was difficult to function"
Possible contributing factors include viral infections or famine conditions during the mother's pregnancy; low weight or oxygen deprivation at birth; and maternal diabetes or older paternal age.
What prenatal events are associated with increased risk of developing schizophrenia?
A person seeking therapy may want to ask about the therapist's treatment approach, values, credentials, and fees. An important consideration is whether the therapy seeker feels comfortable and able to establish a bond with the therapist.
What should a person look for when selecting a therapist?
All psychotherapies offer new hope for demoralized people; a fresh perspective; and (if the therapist is effective) an empathic, trusting, and caring relationship. The emotional bond of trust and understanding between therapist and client—the therapeutic alliance—is an important element in effective therapy.
What three elements are shared by all forms of psychotherapy?
Hope for demoralized people A new perspective leading to new behaviors An empathic, trusting, caring relationship
What three elements are shared by all forms of psychotherapy?
mixed evidence suggesting that extensive TV watching and video gaming are associated with reduced cognitive self-regulation and ADHD; often coexists with a learning disorder or with defiant and temper-prone behavior; heritable
What, then, is known about ADHD's causes?
a neural hub that bridges the thinking frontal lobes to the limbic system. This area, which is overactive in the brain of a depressed or temporarily sad person, calms when treated by ECT or antidepressants
Where does deep brain stimulation focus?
Bulimia is marked by weight fluctuations within or above normal ranges.
Which of the following statements is true of bulimia nervosa?
Some people may have more sensitive emotion-processing limbic systems that flood their bodies with stress hormones; PTSD patients have smaller amygdala—that acorn-shaped brain region that governs fear; Genes and gender also matter; odds are 2x higher for women
Why do some people develop PTSD after a traumatic event, but others don't?
A child (or, less commonly, an adult) who displays extreme inattention and/or hyperactivity and impulsivity may be diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and treated with medication and other therapy. The controversy centers on whether the growing number of ADHD cases reflects overdiagnosis or increased awareness of the disorder. Long-term effects of stimulant-drug treatment for ADHD are not yet known.
Why is there controversy over attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder?
levels of stress hormones were lower than average when they were youngsters, before committing any crime; show little autonomic nervous system arousal
antisocial tendencies noticed young
-Many behavioral and cognitive changes -depression is widespread -women risk is 2x that of men -major depression self-terminates -Stressful events related to work, marriage, and close -relationships often precede depression. -depression now strikes earlier, and effects more people in developed countries
any theory of depression must explain, including the following
heck yes
are depressive disorders and bipolar disorders genetic/do they run in families?
yes- twins more likely to have anxiety disorders together, fear runs in monkey families
are genes related to anxiety disorders?
counterconditioning
behavior therapy procedures that use classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors; include exposure therapies and aversive conditioning
exposure therapies
behavioral techniques, such as systematic desensitization and virtual reality exposure therapy, that treat anxieties by exposing people (in imagination or actual situations) to the things they fear and avoid
a disorder in which a person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania. (Formerly called manic-depressive disorder.); afflicts men and women equally; more dysfunctional than major depressive disorder
bipolar disorder
abnormally low brain activity in the frontal lobes, areas that help us reason, plan, and solve problems; noticeable decline in the brain waves that reflect synchronized neural firing in the frontal lobes; thalamus overactive in hallucinations
brain activity in schizophrenics
fluid-filled areas and a corresponding shrinkage and thinning of cerebral tissue; two smaller-than-normal areas are the cortex and the corpus callosum connecting the brain's two hemispheres; Another is the thalamus, which may explain why people with schizophrenia have difficulty filtering sensory input and focusing attention
brain structure
hallucinations, talk in disorganized and deluded ways, and exhibit inappropriate laughter, tears, or rage.
positive symptoms of schizophrenia
toneless voices, expressionless faces, or mute and rigid bodies
negative symptoms of schizophrenia
people hurt themselves in various ways. They may cut or burn their skin, hit themselves, insert objects under their nails or skin, or tattoo themselves
nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI)
24 million; men struck earlier and more severely; child abuse and bullying are risk factors
number of people with schizophrenia worldwide
stimulus generalization
occurs when a person experiences a fearful event and later develops a fear of similar events
Suicide rates have been much higher among the rich, the nonreligious, and those who were single, widowed, or divorced; Wednesdays
other factors increasing suicide rates
cognition
our thoughts, memories, interpretations, and expectations
an anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable, minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations. Often followed by worry over a possible next attack; smokers have doubled risk and worse symptoms
panic disorder
the emotion-controlling amygdala is smaller; The frontal lobes are also less active (area helps control impulses); less activity in brain areas that typically respond to emotional stimuli; larger and hyper-reactive dopamine reward system, which predisposes their impulsive drive to do something rewarding despite the consequences
people with antisocial criminal tendencies have these brain abnormalities
a mildly depressed mood more often than not for two years or more with symptoms (@ least 2) such as: -Difficulty with decision-making and concentration -Feeling hopeless -Poor self-esteem -Reduced energy levels -Problems regulating sleep -Problems regulating appetite
persistent depressive disorder
an anxiety disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object, activity, or situation.
phobia
post-traumatic growth
positive psychological changes as a result of struggling with extremely challenging circumstances and life crises.
antisocial personality disorder
the callous, and sometimes dangerous
medical model
the concept that diseases, in this case psychological disorders, have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and, in most cases, cured, often through treatment in a hospital.
depression
the number-one reason people seek mental health services; leading cause of disability worldwide
resilience
the personal strength that helps most people cope with stress and recover from adversity and even trauma
narcissistic personality disorder
the self-focused and self-inflating
epigenetics
the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change; how nurture shapes nature.
Psychopharmacology
the study of the effects of drugs on mind and behavior.
group therapy
therapy conducted with groups rather than individuals, permitting therapeutic benefits from group interaction
Psychodynamic therapy
therapy deriving from the psychoanalytic tradition; views individuals as responding to unconscious forces and childhood experiences, and seeks to enhance self-insight; help people understand their current symptoms; once or twice a week
behavior therapy
therapy that applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors
cognitive therapy
therapy that teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking; based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions.
family therapy
therapy that treats the family as a system. Views an individual's unwanted behaviors as influenced by, or directed at, other family members.
Biomedical therapy
therapy with prescribed medications or procedures that act directly on the person's physiology.
hallucinations
they see, feel, taste, or smell things that exist only in their minds; most often sounds or voices; false perceptions
anxiety eccentric or odd behaviors dramatic or impulsive behaviors
three clusters of personality disorders
conditioning, cognition, and biology;
three factors psychologist believe contribute to anxiety (a feeling and cognition)
psychotherapy
treatment involving psychological techniques; consists of interactions between a trained therapist and someone seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or achieve personal growth.
frontal lobe
what brain area is smaller in depressed people?
chromosome 3 genes; however, depression is a complex condition with many interactions
what chromosome has possible linkage to depression?
disruptive mood dysregulation disorder
what disorder recently made will decrease the number of bipolar diagnoses
affects brain levels of serotonin, a neurotransmitter that influences sleep, mood, and attention to negative images; some studies implicate genes that regulate the neurotransmitter glutamate - too much glutamate = brain's alarm centers become overactive.
what does the anxiety gene do?
lithium also, Depakote
what is an effective mood-stabilizer?
