Psychology Section 3

Anterior Pituitary =

FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH, Prolactin and GH (mnemonic: FLAT PiG)

KURT LEWIN:

Field Theory = Focuses on the state-of-mind of the patient as the sum of interactions between their individual personality and the "total field" (environment).

Q34. For each theorist, state whether they would be most likely to agree or to disagree with the situational approach to explaining behavior and why: a) Sigmund Freud, b) Carl Jung, c) Gordon Allport, d) Social-Cognitive Theorists, e) B.F. Skinner, f) Albert Bandura.

Sigmund Freud believed that conscious behavior was largely driven by the conflicts that existed between the various components of the unconscious mind and the ego. Freud would have expected the situation to have power in so much as the ego deals in reality, but the effect of the situation on any given behavior was certainly not a primary focus of Freud's theories. Jung's focus on the power of the situation is reflected in the archetype of the persona. Jung believed that we often put on a good face for the world to see, yet that may or may not be reflective of the true self. Allport allows for the situation to affect behavior in his concept of secondary traits. By definition, these are patterns of behavior that may only be observed in a given situation or context. Albert Bandura and other social-cognitive theorists would have strongly adhered to the idea that the situation is a powerful influence in determining one's behavior. Skinner would argue that the situation is paramount to determining one's behavior because the given situation would determine which behaviors might be reinforced and/or punished.

4) One of Freud's students proposed a psychoanalytic theory after his death. He suggested that the ego was a combined conscious and unconscious force that regulates behavior. The libido was seen as a nonsexual psychic energy that motivates behaviors pleasing to the superego. This new theory is: A) more similar to Carl Jung's perspective than it is to Freud's perspective. B) more similar to Freud's perspective than it is to Carl Jung's perspective. C) a combination of the ideas of both Freud and Jung. D) a combination of the ideas of both Freud and Horney.

Solution: Freud suggested that the ego was part of the conscious, preconscious, and subconscious realms, while Jung said the ego was 100% conscious. This aspect of the new theory is more like Freud. Freud characterized the libido as a sexual and primitive force, while Jung said it was more general, and not primarily sexual. This part of the new theory is more like Jung. Therefore, the new theory is about a 50/50 split, as it is described in the stem. This makes Answer C the best answer and makes Answers A and B incorrect. Answer D is false because Karen Horney's psychoanalytic theory is not directly applicable to the stem.

5) Which statement supports the Trait Perspective of personality theory over the Type Perspective? A) Most people have a personality that fits within one of several categories. B) Many people have persistent personality features. C) All people have either a Type A or Type B personality D) Some people share personality features, but exhibit them to varying degrees.

Solution: The Trait Perspective favors a view of personality as a combination of many traits, each of which can be represented along a continuum of varying degrees. The Type Perspective favors a more universally limited set of traits that constitute fixed "types" or categories into which all or most persons will fit. Based on the stem, we should be looking for a statement that favors a continuum over a limited number of categories. Answer A is false because it favors Type over Trait. Answer B is false because it really favors neither perspective. The persistence of personality can be explained either as persistence within a category or as persistence at a certain point along a continuum. Answer C is false because it strongly favors the Type perspective. Answer D is the correct answer, and the only option that favors the Trait perspective.

RAYMOND CATTELL

Ranked large sample on 171 character traits. Used factor analysis to reduce this to 16 traits. Resulting "16-Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF) is widely-used.

Psychoanalytic vs. Humanistic Perspectives:

THINK of Psychoanalytic as: Psychoanalytic = Patients are "sick", repressed, or have other troubles in need of treatment. A person is DEFINED by their neuroses. THINK of Humanistic as: Humanistic = How healthy individuals strive toward self- realization; HOLISTIC view of the person, as more than the sum of their neuroses.

Type vs. Trait Theories:

TYPE THEORIST VIEW = Personality characteristics exist as discrete, fixed categories. Most people will fit into one category or another (e.g., Introverts and extroverts are two types of people). A single, or small set of traits defines personality type. TRAIT THEORIST VIEW = Personality characteristics are part of a larger continuum of personality (e.g., Introversion and extroversion are traits describing ones position along a continuum. Individuals can be at either end, or anywhere in the middle). Personality is a combination of this and many other traits along many other continuums.

Q33. Albert Bandura's famous Bobo Doll Experiment either illustrates or provides support for which concepts or theories? a) the spacing effect, b) classical conditioning, c) social-cognitive theory, d) learning, e) modeling, f) behaviorism, g) gender-based differences in aggression, h) social learning theory, i) the influence of genes on behavior.

Albert Bandura's Bobo Doll experiment provides support for social cognitive theory, learning, modeling, gender-based differences in aggression, and social learning theory.

Q32. Identify the following descriptions as examples of cardinal, central, or secondary traits according to Allport's Trait Theory of Personality: a) At his funeral, Daniel is described by multiple speakers as a true "Renaissance Man," known for his many talents as an artist, b) Michelle is not generally an anxious person, but feels anxiety when she gets locked outside of her apartment, c) Mahatma Gandhi is known world-wide as a peacemaker. He is known in particular for his peaceful, non-violent protests against British rule in India and is called by many "The Father of Peace," d) Sharon notices that her friend Becky is often anxious and in a hurry. She cannot stand to wait in traffic and gets very impatient when waiting in any line, e) Jeffrey strives to be honest in all of his dealings and his friends and coworkers generally think of him as being honest.

Cardinal : Cardinal traits are those that dominate personality to the point that people are famous for them. A Cardinal Trait is a trait that defines and dominates one's personality and behavior. For example, Oprah Winfrey's cardinal trait could be sociability. She is sometimes called the "queen of talk" because of her extraordinary ability to talk to different kinds of people. Central Traits refer to general characteristics that are present to some degree in almost everyone. Examples of central traits could be kindness, honesty, or friendliness. Secondary Traits are characteristics that surface only in certain situations. Some examples could be shyness, irritability, or anxiety. A) cardinal trait, B) secondary trait, C) cardinal, D) central, E) central

CARL ROGERS:

Client-Centered Therapy (CCT) = One of the most widely-used psychotherapeutic approaches. In CCT, therapists should not direct the therapy or offer solutions. The client directs the discussion. Further, the therapist must always be empathetic, genuine and show unconditional positive regard for the client, regardless of circumstance. Finally, Rogers emphasized calling the recipient a "client" rather than a "patient" to avoid the concept that they are "sick" and need help; which he viewed as judgmental.

Drive Reduction Theory

Drive reduction is a motivation characterized by some extant need such as hunger or thirst that is causing physiological tension.

Subdivision: MIDBRAIN

Embryological Origin : Mesencephalon (medial neural tube) STRUCTURES: Superior Colliculi = visual motor reflexes Inferior Colliculi = auditory center, hearing reflexes

Subdivision: HINDBRAIN (brainstem)

Embryological Origin : Rhombencephalon (inferior neural tube) Medulla Oblongata = breathing, heart rate, digestion Pons = sensory and motor tracts between the medulla and the cortex Cerebellum = balance, refined motor movements.The cerebellum is thought to be the storage site for implicit memories Reticular Formation = states of consciousness (sleep -> wake)

Spinal Cord

Embryological Origin : inferior neural tube Function: reflexes, bundled tracts to and from peripheral nervous system

ALBERT BANDURA:

First to name/describe "social-cognitive" theory. Bandura emphasized: Reciprocal Determinism = An individual, their behavior, AND their environment affect one another rather than the environment exclusively influencing behavior. This suggests that individuals can mold the environment that influences their development. Locus of Control = One's personal belief as to the degree to which one can control life events or outcomes. INTERNAL Locus of Control = I believe I primarily control and determine outcomes. EXTERNAL Locus of Control = I believe external events or influences beyond my control determine outcomes. Bobo Doll Experiment: Famous experiment in which Bandura exposed children to adults modeling aggressive and non-aggressive behavior. The aggressive adult models repeatedly punched, hit, kicked, and spoke violently to an inflatable "Bobo Doll." The non-aggressive models played quietly with non-aggressive toys. A control group was included with no models. Children were allowed to play in a similar room with the same toys after watching the models. Those exposed to the aggressive models mimicked the violent behavior toward the Bobo doll, while those exposed to the non-aggressive model did not. Boys were more aggressive than girls. Overall, children were more likely to model the behavior of a same- sex model. Girls were more likely to model the aggressive language they had seen and boys were more likely to model the physical violence.

MAX WERTHEIMER:

Gestalt Therapy = A humanist approach to therapy emphasizing the treatment of the individual as a whole, rather than reducing the person to a sum of their individual behaviors, drives, or neuroses.

GORDON ALLPORT:

Individuals exhibit three basic traits or dispositions. - Cardinal - Central - Secondary

Q26. Provide a conceptual definition for each of the eight defense mechanisms listed previously. Provide two unique real-life scenarios illustrating use of each defense mechanism.

Repression is an ego defense mechanism by which information is unconsciously pushed out of conscious awareness. While the individual may have no conscious awareness of the repressed memory, that memory will still affect conscious behavior. For example, an individual who was sexually abused as a child may report no memory of the abuse, yet they have difficulty in forming intimate relationships as an adult. Another example of repression might involve someone who nearly died in a car accident not remembering the incident itself but always experiencing high levels of anxiety when driving in the future. Regression involves reverting to patterns of behavior that were used at earlier stages of life in order to deal with stress. For example adults throwing temper tantrums after being denied a job promotion or a teenager sucking his/her thumb after being dumped by their significant other would be examples of regression as an ego defense mechanism. Reaction formation involves behaving in ways that are in direct contradiction to one's true feelings. For example, a homosexual politician who actively pursues legislation to limit the rights of homosexuals or a teacher who resents a student yet bends over backwards to provide an unfair advantage to that student would be using reaction formation as an ego defense mechanism. Denial is an inability to accept some reality. In situations in which individuals deny something despite the fact that there is an abundance of evidence to suggest that it is true or is occurring, we might say that individual is "in denial." A student who has no mathematical chance of passing a course, yet studying furiously for a final exam could be described as using denial to protect themselves from the reality of a poor course grade. Alternatively, a woman who refuses to recognize that her husband is having an affair despite clear evidence to the contrary would also be using denial as an ego defense mechanism. Projection involves attributing your own unwelcome thoughts/feelings to someone else. For example, a teacher who dislikes a student may think that she likes the student but insists that the student doesn't like her/him would be using projection. Another example of projection might involve a man being angry with his wife because he believes that she is bored in their relationship, when in fact he is bored with their relationship. Displacement involves diverting unacceptable feelings onto someone or something other than their source. For example, a child who is angry at her parents for disciplining her may bite her little sister or a man who was just admonished by his boss may come home to start a fight with his neighbor. Rationalization involves creating excuses to justify something that is unacceptable. For instance, a student who fails a class may claim that the class instructor was impossible to understand or a woman who was just dumped by the man of her dreams may claim that she was never really into him to begin with would be using rationalization as an ego defense mechanism. Sublimation involves channeling unacceptable thoughts or urges into something that is more acceptable. Sublimation might be used by artists who use some personal tragedy to energize them to create a new work of art. People may also use humor as a way to channel their unacceptable thoughts into a lighthearted joke.

ABRAHAM MASLOW:

Known best for Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

GEORGE KELLY:

Personal Construct Theory = Personality is composed of the various mental constructs through which each person views reality.

Situational Personality Theory:

Personality (and behavior generally) is the result of external, situational factors rather than internal traits or unconscious motivations.

Humanistic Personality Theories:

Personality consists of the conscious feelings we have for ourselves as we strive to reach our individual needs and goals (i.e., self-actualization). Fundamental to humanism is the idea that people are inherently good.

Biological Personality Theory:

Personality is predominantly the result of the expression of genes. Personality traits are the result of heritable biological characteristics.

Social Cognitive Personality Theories:

Personality is the result of observational learning, self- efficacy, situational influences and cognitive processes. UNIQUE ASPECTS: (Relative to other perspectives such as Behaviorism or Humanism) People learn from observing and modeling others: NOT only personal experiences or conditioning (See Bobo Doll Experiment, below). People do NOT always apply what they have learned; perceived and actual consequences influence individual choices. People are most likely to model the behavior of someone with whom they identify closely. Self-Efficacy directly impacts learning. A person's belief in their ability to learn and implement new behaviors is closely associated with their ability to do so.

Trait Personality Theories:

Personality is the sum of broad, relatively-stable characteristics or dispositions, called traits. More focused on unique differences between individuals, whereas psychoanalytic or humanistic perspectives focus more on commonalities among all people (e.g., common needs, common neuroses)

Behavioral Personality Theory:

Personality is the sum of those behaviors that have been reinforced over time. B.F. SKINNER = Father of Behaviorism Environment (reinforcement) --> Behavior Therapy for negative aspects of personality or any other neuroses should focus on operant conditioning to reinforce more desirable behaviors rather than focusing on some underlying cause as would be suggested by the humanists or psychoanalysts. Token Economy = Positive behavior is reinforced with tokens that can be exchanged later for prizes, treats, or other reinforcers.

Type A vs. Type B Personality Theory:

Proposed by two cardiologists, Friedman & Rosenman, as a way to predict one's likelihood of developing coronary artery disease. Strongly criticized because the subjects were all male and early studies were funded by tobacco companies who had a strong interest in the outcome. Type A Personality (later changed to Type A Behavior Pattern)= Competitiveness, time urgency, hostility. Type B Personality (later changed to Type B Behavior Pattern) = More relaxed and reflective; lower anxiety levels and higher imagination/creativity.

HANS and SYBIL EYSENCK:

The PEN Model Psychoticism Extraversion Neuroticism The PEN Model --> "Big Five" or ""THE BIG FIVE FACTOR MODEL of Personality"" (McCrae & Costa): Openness to Experience Conscientiousness Agreeableness Extraversion Neuroticism

SIGMUND FREUD: Id, Ego and Superego Ego

Operates in the conscious, PRE-conscious and UNCONSCIOUS realms. Responsible for helping the desires of the Id to be realized in a way acceptable in real- life scenarios. Also helps balance the perfectionist tendencies of the Superego. NOT present at birth; develops from the Id Secondary Process and the Reality Principle

Behavior and Natural Selection:

Innate Behavior = Behavior thought to be predominantly genetic and present regardless of environmental influences. Learned Behavior = Behaviors thought to be predominantly environmental (i.e., learned via experience), and independent of heredity.

Methods Used to Study the Brain:

NON-INVASIVE: Electroencephalography (EEG), Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (TDCS), Regional Cerebral Blood Flow (rCBF) INVASIVE: Direct Electrode Stimulation (open cranium, during brain surgery), Human Brain Injury Case Studies, Lab Animal Extirpation.

SIGMUND FREUD: Id, Ego and Superego Id

100% UNCONSCIOUS Responsible for all instinctive and primitive behaviors. The only one of the three components present from birth. Primary or most important component of personality, the "source of all psychic energy." Primary Process and Wish Fulfillment Libido = The "psychic energy" created by the survival and sexual instincts. It is part of the Id, and was considered by Freud to be the driving influence of all behavior.

ClusterB:

Antisocial Personality Disorder = Persistent pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others. May be accompanied by cruelty to animals, lack of concern for others, difficulty feeling empathy for others, impulsivity, aggressiveness or irritability, failure to conform to social norms, etc. Symptoms usually begin in childhood and include such things as setting fires, legal trouble, and difficulty with authority. Never diagnosed before age 18. Must include some symptoms before the age of 15. Severe cases are further classified as a sociopath or a psychopath. Sociopath = severe deficit of conscience. Psychopath = complete lack of conscience. Borderline Personality Disorder = Characterized by pervasive instability in moods, interpersonal relationships, self-image, and behavior. This instability often disrupts the individual's sense of self-identity. May be accompanied by self-destructive behavior, intense episodes of anxiety, depression, or irritability, irritability, or anger when other people fail to meet unrealistic expectations. Histrionic Personality Disorder = Characterized by excessive but shallow emotions, attention-seeking, and manipulative behavior. May be accompanied by fleeting moods, opinions, or beliefs, excessive suggestibility, a desire for others to witness their emotional outbursts, exaggeration of symptoms, and threats of suicide as a form of manipulation. Narcissistic Personality Disorder = Characterized by an excessive sense of self- importance, an extreme preoccupation with oneself, and a lack of empathy for others. May be accompanied by a constant need for attention, affirmation, or praise, a belief that one is "special" and should only associate with others of the same caliber, fantasies about success and power, a sense of entitlement, or expectations of special treatment.

Cluster C:

Avoidant Personality Disorder = Characterized by extreme shyness, sensitivity to criticism and rejection, low self-esteem, and avoidance of social situations—including school or work. Individuals may desire closeness with others but have difficulty forming relationships outside of their immediate family. Dependent Personality Disorder = Characterized by a chronic, pervasive pattern of dependent, submissive, and needy behavior. Individuals may seek excessive approval, advice, or encouragement. May include sensitivity to criticism or rejection, low self-esteem, low self-confidence, an inability to make decision without others, feelings of helplessness, and extreme devastation when close relationships end—with the need to immediately begin a new relationship. Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder (OCPD) = Characterized by a chronic and significant preoccupation with perfection, control and order. May include rigid behaviors, resistance to change, inflexibility, stubbornness, and a sense of helplessness in uncontrollable circumstances.

Superego

Operates in the conscious, PRE-conscious and UNCONSCIOUS realms. Responsible for judging action based on internalized moral standards obtained from parents and society. Often called the "perfectionist" portion of Freud's personality theory. Further suppresses impulses of the Id and influences the Ego to be more idealistic than realistic. Develops around age five Two Components: the "conscience" and the "ego ideal."

Embryological Brain Regions: Swellings of the neural tube.

Proencephalon --> telencephalon + diencephalon Mesencephalon Rhombencephalon --> metencephalon + myelencephalon

Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders:

Somatic Symptom Disorder (SSD) = Characterized by physical symptoms of illness or injury that cannot be explained by a general medical condition or another mental disorder. Individuals often feel severe anxiety or distress about their undiagnosed condition and are preoccupied with its symptoms. The problem is not being fabricated by the patient, but is perceived by them as real. Illness Anxiety Disorder (IAD) = Characterized by heightened bodily sensations and intense anxiousness about the possibility of an undiagnosed illness. Individuals may devote excessive time and energy to health concerns, often obsessively researching them. Conversion Disorder = Characterized by the "conversion" of psychological stress into actual neurological deficits; usually numbness, paralysis, or blindness.

Nature vs. Nurture: "The Grand Debate," Heredity vs. Environment

Synopsis: For every psychological, sociological, or biological characteristic or behavior, scientists have asked the question: "Is this primarily the result of genes (nature), or the influence of the environment (nurture)." The answer is most often (but not always) "both." INTERDEPENDENCE: The influence of genes and environment on biology and behavior goes well beyond the simple fact that BOTH factors influence most traits. The two influences are often interdependent—literally changing each other.

Classifying Psychological Disorders:

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Volume 5 (DSM-5) The official reference manual mental health professionals and physicians use to diagnose mental disorders in the United States. DSM-5 is based on symptoms ONLY, not causes or treatment. Most disorders are a list of possible symptoms and an exact criteria is predetermined for diagnosis (e.g., 3 or more of the following persisting for a period of at least six months).

Hippocampus (forebrain, limbic system)

= Memory consolidation (short-term --> long-term) explicit emotional memory Location: Part of the Limbic system, in each temporal lobe Function: Responsible for processing of long term memory and emotional responses The hippocampus has a unique shape, similar to that of a horseshoe. It not only assists with the storage of long term memories, but is also responsible for the memory of the location of objects or people. We would not even be able to remember where our house is without the work of the hippocampus. Alzheimer's disease, (a disease that effects elderly people and often results in loss of memory) has been proven to have affected and damaged this area of the brain.

Q30. Describe the most basic components of the personality theories of ALFRED ADLER and KAREN HORNEY. Concepts you may wish to address in your description include: [Adler] creative self, style of life, fictional finalism, inferiority complex; [Horney] neurotic needs, basic anxiety, and basic hostility.

A Neo-Freudian, Adler espoused a much more optimistic view of human nature than did Freud. As such, Adler believed that all human behavior was guided through a process of self- improvement and success and that each individual's personality was forged through his/her choices and was often motivated by feelings of inferiority that each of us experiences in some aspect of our lives. This is known as the concept of creative self and it helps to forge a person's style of life, or unconscious patterns of behavior in dealing with all aspects of life. Adler believed that Freud's focus on childhood experiences and their role in establishing adult personality represented fictional finalism because this approach ignores the active role that individuals play in determining their own personalities. Individuals who fail to use their feelings of inferiority as motivation for self-improvement may experience an inferiority complex by which they feel entirely overwhelmed and powerless as a result of their shortcomings. Karen Horney was another Neo-Freudian who parted with Freud's views on a number of counts. For one, Horney refused to accept that sexual and aggressive urges were the key factors in determining someone's personality, and she rejected the emphasis that Freud and his follower's placed on the male sex organ. As such, she took a much more humanistic view of personality. One of Horney's major contributions to psychology involved her theory of neurosis. According to Horney, neurosis results from basic anxiety which results from troubles in personal relationships that stem from childhood. If a child perceives that they did not have their needs met by their parents, then they would experience basic hostility towards them. This hostility would serve as one source of the basic anxiety that they feel in other relationships. As people try to cope with this anxiety, they may fall into a rut in terms of their coping mechanisms of choice which could be construed as a series of neurotic needs (e.g. the need for approval, the need for power).

Q12. Describe in detail how the following problems would be addressed using primarily a biomedical approach, and alternatively how they would be addressed using primarily a biopsychosocial approach: a) Patient A is morbidly obese and has a history of failed dieting and weight loss attempts, b) Patient B suffers from severe depression after having multiple pregnancies end in miscarriage, c) Patient C recently survived a major cardiac arrest and underwent multiple bypass surgery. He has a very high blood cholesterol level.

A biomedical approach assumes that all health-related problems arise from some physiological dysfunction or pathology. The biopsychosocial approach on the other hand suggests that health- related problems are influenced by both physiological dysfunction as well as a host of psychological and social factors. A) A morbidly obese individual would probably be referred for gastric bypass surgery from someone coming from a biomedical perspective. While a healthcare provider taking a biopsychosocial approach might also recommend gastric bypass surgery, this would be done in conjunction with some sort of psychological evaluation and counseling to help the patient overcome unhealthy patterns of behavior that contributed to and maintained the morbid obesity. B) The patient might be treated with antidepressant medications and/or medications that would stabilize future pregnancies by someone coming from the biomedical perspective. Again, these things would be done in conjunction with counseling on the grief and loss felt by the woman in the biopsychosocial approach. C) Biomedically speaking, the patient would be treated with medications to help lower cholesterol. From a biopsychosocial perspective, this drug therapy would be combined with an attempt to help the patient understand and process the fear that they might feel as a result of these experiences. In addition, they might receive counseling on how to reduce stress and live a healthier lifestyle in the future.

CARL JUNG:

A contemporary and supporter of Freud who later developed his own psychoanalytic perspective. Jung differed significantly from Freud in his interpretation of the following: Libido Freud = Driving psychic energy of the Id that is primarily sexual. Jung = Generalized psychic energy, not exclusively sexual. Ego: Freud = Conscious, preconscious, AND unconscious. Jung = Conscious mind ONLY Unconscious: Freud = Storage place of unacceptable, repressed desires. Parts of the ego and superego are unconscious, as is all of the Id. Jung = Storage place of repressed memories, both good and bad. Ego is not part of the unconscious mind, it is 100% conscious. Two Subdivisions of the unconscious: personal unconscious and collective unconscious. Behavior: Freud = Caused by repressed desires from childhood Jung = Caused by past experiences (from childhood or adulthood) and future aspirations.

Q11. Do the following hypothetical findings, if true, most support a genetic influence on behavior (nature), or an environmental influence on behavior (nurture)? Why? a) Bipolar Disorder is more likely among individuals who have a sibling who has been diagnosed with Bipolar Disorder, b) Adopted children who exhibit aggressive behavior are more likely to have a biological parent who also exhibits aggressive behaviors than they are to have an adoptive parent who exhibits aggressive behaviors, c) The concordance rate for alcoholism among MZ twins raised together is higher than the concordance rate for MZ twins raised apart, d) MZ twins raised together have more similar IQs than do DZ twins raised together, e) Strain X of MZ twin rats had a hereditary disposition toward obesity, while Strain Y did not. Both strains were divided into groups and fed either a below-average amount of food, or an above-average amount of food; the amount of food fed to the rats was a more effective predictor of life span than was Strain X or Y.

A) Arguments could be made for both nature and nurture. Given the genetic relatedness among siblings, one could argue that there is a strong genetic component involved in bipolar disorder. However, given that most siblings are raised in the same family environments, there could be key shared experiences in that context that increase the likelihood of being diagnosed with bipolar disorder. B) This would support a nature argument....if aggression levels are more similar to biological relatives compared to adopted relatives, then this would suggest a genetic underpinning. C) This would support a nurture argument. MZ twins are genetically identical, and therefore, one would argue that differences in alcoholism could be attributed to different environmental contexts in which these individuals are raised. D) This would support a nature argument. Given that both sets of twins are raised in similar environments, one would assume that the higher concordance of IQs among MZ twins would be attributable to genetics. E) This would support a nurture argument. Amount of food available was more predictive than genetic predisposition to obesity.

PSYCHOLOGIAL DISORDERS REVIEW Q21. Identify the psychological disorder that is most likely to be diagnosed given the following symptoms: a) alternating periods of high energy/impulsive behavior and depression, b) hearing voices that urge the individual to hurt himself, c) significant periods of memory loss for events that others claim the individual was present for but they also indicate that he was behaving oddly, d) persistent thoughts that harm would befall his parents if he failed to take a flight of stairs two stairs at a time, e) avoiding situations in which social interaction would occur because of an intense feeling of social inferiority, f) an intense need to be the center of attention at all times, g) significant issues with maintaining balance and pronounced tremors.

A) Bipolar disorder B) Schizophrenia C) Dissociative identity disorder D) Obsessive-compulsive disorder E) Avoidant personality disorder F) Histrionic personality disorder G) Parkinson's disease.

Q8. For the following twin study experimental design types, identify the dependent variable, independent variable, any obvious study limitations, and—if present—the control: a) Family Studies, b) Adoption Studies, c) Twin Study-[MZ vs. DZ, both raised together], and d) Twin Study-[MZ and MZ, raised together vs. apart].

A) Dependent variable= rates of neurodegenerative disease, independent variable= degree of relatedness (please know this is not a true independent variable because it cannot be actively manipulated, and therefore, this research is correlational in nature with all the inherent problems of correlational research. This is usually referred to as a quasi-independent variable). Family studies are limited because families in which the disease occurs will be selectively recruited which makes sample representativeness problematic. B) Dependent variable= IQ, quasi- independent variable=adopted vs. biological. These types of studies are difficult to do because of the relatively small population to select from and because of difficulty in attaining information about biological relatives of adopted individuals. C) Dependent variable= aggression level, quasi-independent variable= degree of relatedness (MZ vs. DZ twin). Potential limitations lie again in generalizability. D) Dependent variable= obesity, quasi-independent variable= reared together or apart. These studies are difficult because access to these populations is very limited.

Positive vs. Negative Symptoms of Schizophrenia Q17. Identify each of the following as an example of either a positive or a negative symptom of schizophrenia: a) thought broadcasting, b) flat affect, c) delusion of grandeur, d) disturbance of affect, e) thought insertion, f) disorganized behavior, g) avolition.

A) positive symptom B) negative symptom C)positive symptom D) positive symptom E) positive symptom F) positive symptom G) negative symptom.

Bipolar Disorder Q13. Describe the basic diagnostic symptoms of Bipolar disorder according to DSM-5. Use the descriptions given above for Depressive Disorders as a guide to indicate the level of detail necessary for the MCAT.

According to DSM-5, the following criteria would be used in diagnosing an individual with bipolar disorder. 1) At least 1 week of abnormally elevated or irritated mood during which the individual also experiences at least three (four if mood is only irritable) of the following characteristics: inflated sense of self, decreased need for sleep, increased talkativeness, racing thoughts, increased distractibility, increased psychomotor activation, excessive involvement in pleasurable, yet risky, activities. 2) This change in mood significantly impairs work or family functioning or leads to hospitalization to prevent harm to self or others. 3) These changes are not better explained by the use of some drug or some other medical condition.

Two Components: the "conscience" and the "ego ideal." Q25. Provide conceptual definitions for conscience and ego ideal as they relate to Freud's theory of personality.

According to Freud, the superego comprised of both conscience and the ego ideal. The ego ideal sets lofty standards for the ego to conform with. In other words, the ego ideal serves as a model for what a person should and wants to be. The conscience on the other hands serves as a system of rules and admonishments for "bad behavior."

Acetylcholine Epinephrine (a.k.a., Adrenaline) Norepinephrine (a.k.a., Noradrenaline) Dopamine Serotonin y-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) Q7. For each of the six neurotransmitters outlined above, describe a) where the neurotransmitter is most likely to be found and/or act, b) its primary regulatory function(s), and c) any correlates to disease or psychological disorders. (Hint: Some parts of this question will require multiple responses. For example, acetylcholine is located (a) in BOTH the PNS and CNS, and (b) has multiple functions in various divisions of the nervous system. Low levels of some neurotransmitters are associated with multiple diseases or psychological disorders).

Acetylcholine is found in both the CNS and the PNS. In the CNS, acetylcholine is involved in arousal and attention. Depletions of acetylcholine centrally is associated with the memory deficits associated with Alzheimer's disease. In the PNS, acetylcholine is the primary neurotransmitter of the neuromuscular junction and is also found in both the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system. Included among catecholamines are: epinephrine (adrenaline), norepinephrine (noradrenaline) and dopamine; all of which are produced from phenylalanine and tyrosine. Epinephrine (aka adrenaline) is found primarily in the PNS and is associated with the stress response elicited by activation of the sympathetic nervous system. Norepinephrine (aka noradrenaline) is found in both the CNS and PNS. Centrally, norepinephrine is associated with attention and emotional processing. Anxiety disorders and depression are associated with decreased norepinephrine activity. Peripherally, norepinephrine contributes to the stress response associated with activity of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system. Norepinephrine is an excitatory neurotransmitter, High levels cause fight / flight reactions and low levels are associated with lack of alertness, an increase in depression and memory deficits. Increasing norepinephrine (SNRI's) is used to treat GAD, ADHD and depression. Dopamine is found in the CNS and is associated with sensorimotor integration and in reward processing. Parkinson's disease, Tourette's syndrome, Huntington's chorea, and Schizophrenia are all associated with abnormal activity in the dopamine system. Dopamine is associated with both reward processing and motor behavior. Serotonin is found in the CNS and is associated with homeostatic regulation of sleep and appetite. Serotonin is also involved in regulation of mood. Lowered serotonin levels are associated with depression. Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is the chief inhibitory neurotransmitter of the CNS. GABA is a neurotransmitter that decreases stress and excitatory responses. So a GABA agonist should increase GABA and thus reduce anxiety and stress. Glycine is an inhibitory neurotransmitter of the brain stem and spinal column.

Personality Disorders:

An enduring pattern of personal experience and behavior that deviates noticeably from the expectations of one's culture, is pervasive and inflexible, has an onset in adolescence or early adulthood, is stable over time, and leads to personal distress or impairment.

Posterior Pituitary (forebrain) =

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin.

Q29. Provide a conceptual definition and real-life example for each of Jung's archetypes.

Archetypes are universal mental images or concepts within the collective unconscious that influence behavior and thought. Jung identified several different archetypes and listing them all would be beyond the scope of this exercise. However, some of the better known examples include the self, shadow, the anima/animus, and the persona. The self is an archetype in which the entire mind (both conscious and unconscious) is unified. Circles, squares, trees and holy figures all serve as representations of the self. The shadow is an archetype that embodies uncertainty and danger and it is often alluring in some way. Any dark figure that appears in a dream might represent the shadow (e.g. the devil). The anima represents the female in a male, and animus represents the male in a female. The image of the Virgin Mary might represent anima, while Jesus Christ might serve as an example of the animus. The persona is how one presents themselves to the world and is often represented by the symbol of a mask.

The Biological Basis of Nervous System Disorders: o Depression

Biological Correlates: Decreased monoamine levels in the brain (i.e., the neurotransmitters: serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine). Increased cortisol level and glucose metabolism in the amygdala. The hippocampus of chronically depressed patients atrophies (shrinks) compared to healthy individuals. Having a family member with depression is a risk factor.

The Biological Basis of Nervous System Disorders: o Bipolar Disorder

Biological Correlates: Increased monoamine levels in the brain. Increased risk for persons with multiple sclerosis or who have a family member with bipolar disorder.

The Biological Basis of Nervous System Disorders: o Schizophrenia

Biological Correlates: Strongly associated with increased dopamine levels in the brain. Most anti- schizophrenic drugs are competitive antagonists that bind dopamine receptors. Having a family member with schizophrenia is a risk factor.

Understanding Psychological Disorders:

Biomedical vs. Biopsychosocial Approach: Two approaches to categorizing and understanding psychological disorders. Biomedical Approach = Psych disorders caused by biological or chemical dysfunction (e.g., genetic predisposition, abnormally low hormone or neurotransmitter levels); Treatments are primarily biochemical (e.g., surgery, drugs). Considered more narrow by psychologists; Focused more on relieving symptoms. Biopsychosocial Approach = Psych disorders caused by a combination of biochemical (e.g., genetic defect, low hormone level), psychological (personality, unhealthy behaviors), and sociological factors (culture, peer pressure). Treatments should include interventions in all three of these areas to be most effective; Considered more broad and generally more "accepted" by psychologists; Focused more on solving underlying causes and problems.

Dissociative Disorders:

Characterized by an apparent escape from one's identity as a means of avoiding stress. Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) Dissociative Amnesia

Lateralization of Cortical Functions Q4. Provide a conceptual definition for each of the following terms: contralateral, ipsilateral, left hemisphere, right hemisphere, dominant hemisphere, non-dominant hemisphere.

Contralateral literally means opposite side. In this context, contralateral refers to the idea that sensory and motor functions of the left side of the body are processed in the right side of the brain. Ipsilateral would refer to the same side. For instance, the temporal portion of each hemiretina projects ipsilaterally because it receives information from the contralateral visual field. The dominant hemisphere is the side of the brain that is used in controlling the preferred arm or leg. Most individuals are right handed, and therefore, the dominant hemisphere for most people is the left. The left hemisphere is also thought to be more important for linguistic processing in most individuals. Generally, the right hemisphere is considered the non-dominant hemisphere for most individuals, but that is not to say that the right hemisphere is not important for a variety of functions. For instance, the right hemisphere is thought to be much more important in visuospatial processing and in the processing of certain kinds of emotional information.

Regulatory Genes and Behavior

DEFINITION: Regulatory genes are genes that code for a substance that regulates the transcription of another gene (up or down, promotion or inhibition). Example #4 from the previous section on nature vs. nurture is a perfect example of how regulatory genes influence behavior. In this case, a certain gene influenced an individual's ability to cope with stress. However, it wasn't this "stress coping" gene that was regulated. It was the REGULATOR of the "stress coping" gene that was "turned off" via methylation of the DNA sequence (gene) coding for the regulator. Under normal conditions, the regulator promotes transcription (and therefore translation) of a glucocorticoid membrane receptor. By preventing the synthesis of the promoter, the behavior of the mother effectively altered the genetically-determined behavior of the child (i.e., the child's ability to cope with stress).

Lateralization of Cortical Functions Q5. Suppose a person sustains major injury to the dominant hemisphere, but not to the non-dominant hemisphere. What losses of function are most likely? What if the injury is to the non-dominant hemisphere?

Damage to the dominant hemisphere would likely result in language difficulties and loss of control of movement to the right side of the body (again, assuming that for most people the left hemisphere is dominant). Damage to the non-dominant hemisphere would lose some control of movement in the left side of the body and might result in difficulties in spatial navigation and emotional processing.

The Biological Basis of Nervous System Disorders: o Alzheimer's Disease:

Discussed in detail in the Psychology 1 chapter. Biological Correlates: Women are at higher risk than men; Family history of Alzheimer's is a major risk factor. Alzheimer's disease, has been proven to have affected and damaged the hippocampus of the brain.

Subdivision: FOREBRAIN

Embryological Origin : Proencephalon (superior neural tube) STRUCTURES: Cerebral Cortex = Executive functions, complex perception and cognition Thalamus = Consciousness (sleep/ wake), relay between subcortical areas and cerebrum.The thalamus is a sensory relay center that receives projections directly from all sensory modalities (except smell) before relaying that information to higher cortical centers. Hypothalamus = Hunger, thirst, emotion (2) ; major endocrine f(x) via releasing hormones to the pituitary gland Limbic system = emotion (1), memory. The limbic system is incorrect as it is responsible for emotion and other core functions, think hypothalamus. Basal Ganglia = Voluntary motor control, procedural. Primarily responsible for voluntary motor control.

IMPORTANT NOTE: Nature vs. Nurture:

Genetics vs. environment was an MCAT favorite on the pre-2015 form. Psychology strongly emphasizes the nature vs. nurture debate, so with the addition of the PsS section this is now more likely than ever to appear on your exam. Usually, you will be asked to decide if a finding most supports nature or nurture. Watch for the control. If environment is controlled AND genetic differences cause a result, NATURE wins. If genes are controlled AND environmental changes cause a result, NURTURE wins. If a clear effect is observed, it is going to be the controlled variable that "loses."

Amygdala (forebrain, limbic system) =

Emotion, motivation, implicit emotional memory Location: Part of Limbic System, at the end of the hippocampus Function: Responsible for the response and memory of emotions, especially fear When you think of the amygdala, you should think of one word. Fear. The amygdala is the reason we are afraid of things outside our control. It also controls the way we react to certain stimuli, or an event that causes an emotion, that we see as potentially threatening or dangerous. Fun fact : Numerous studies have been performed where researches have used deep lesioning (procedure where a thin wire is inserted into the brain to remove or terminate a part of the brain) to remove the amygdala of rats. After this procedure, the rats were said to have no fear of anything, even cats. The removal of the amygdala had taken away the rats' memory of fear, therefore the rats did not fear anything!

Example 4: Same Genes, Different Environment, Environment --> Covalent Modification of the DNA --> Dramatically Different Physiology.

Evidence exists for cases where the gene (i.e., DNA structure) itself is covalently altered by the environment. One study showed that increased licking behavior by a mother rat resulted in methylation of a segment of DNA (preventing transcription) that codes for a regulatory protein which upregulates transcription of a membrane receptor. This direct change in physiology persisted into adulthood. Amazingly, the methylation occurred within one week and could be reversed if the mother's licking behavior was reversed.

DEFENSE MECHANISMS:

Freud theorized that as the Ego attempts to resolve anxiety between the Ego (instinctual) and the Superego (Idealistic), it resorts to unconscious falsifications or distortions called defense mechanisms. Psychology texts differ in the number of defense mechanisms cited. You should know the most common ones for MCAT-2015: Repression Regression Reaction Formation Denial Projection Displacement Rationalization Sublimation

Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex

Frontal Lobe = Conscious movement (motor cortex), executive functions, language [1] (Broca's area), reasoning, judgment, problem-solving, etc. Parietal Lobe = Tactile sensation, spatial reasoning, some language [2] Temporal Lobe = Hearing/language [2] (primary auditory cortex), memory (hippocampus) (SPEECH PRODUCTION) Occipital Lobe = Vision (primary visual cortex) The auditory centers of the CNS are located in the temporal lobes, the frontal lobes are involved in motor planning, executive functions etc, the occipital lobes are devoted almost entirely to vision, while the parietal lobes are involved in language, attention and higher level visual processing.

Behavioral Genetics:

Genes, Temperament, and Heredity Temperament = Somewhat ambiguous term describing one's general emotional disposition Temperament has been shown to be established at birth and relatively persistent across the life span.

Monozygotic Twins =

Genetic influence is CONTROLLED (same); Studies examine twins raised in different homes so that environmental influence is VARIABLE (different) Twins can either be monozygotic ("identical"), meaning that they can develop from just one zygote that will then split and form two embryos, or dizygotic ("fraternal"), meaning that they can develop from two different eggs, each are fertilized by separate sperm cells.

Dizygotic Twins =

Genetic influence is VARIABLE (different); Studies examine twins in the same home, so that environmental influence is CONTROLLED (same)

Q9. Suppose you are asked to design a study to investigate the degree to which Behavior X is heritable. Rank the studies outlined above according to their increasing ability to produce accurate results without confounding variables. Discuss the individual limitations of each study for this purpose.

Heritability refers to the percentage of trait variability that is attributable to genes. Twin studies involving DZ twins raised together compared to MZ twins raised together would be one of the best tools available to estimate a given trait's heritability because it is generally assumed that the shared environments would be so similar as to be inconsequential to contributing to trait variability. Family studies would be another way to get at this question, but as one moves outside of one's immediate family, larger variations would be expected in terms of tenvironmental factors. Adoption studies are also potential tools provided that information is available about the trait of interest from the biological parents. If the adopted child is more similar to biological parents than to the adopted parents then one could argue that there was substantial heritability for that trait.

Anxiety Disorders:

Higher frequency among women than men. Anxiety disorders are the most common psychological disorders in the United States. Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) = A prolonged and exaggerated sense of worry that has few or no verifiable causes. May be accompanied by an exaggerated startle reflex, trouble sleeping, headaches, nausea, fatigue, excessive sweating, etc. Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD) (a.k.a., Social Phobia) = An overwhelming feeling of anxiety and excessive self-consciousness in everyday social situations. It is characterized by a fear of being judged and feelings of inadequacy, inferiority, embarrassment, humiliation, and depression. May be accompanied by blushing, nausea, excessive sweating, trembling, difficulty speaking, etc. Specific Phobia = An irrational and excessive fear of an object or situation. May be accompanied by dizziness, nausea, difficulty breathing, a sense of unreality, or a fear of dying. In extreme cases it can induce a full-scale anxiety attack. Agoraphobia = A persistent fear of any place or circumstance from which escape might be difficult. Individuals are usually fearful of being outside of their homes, traveling in a car, in a crowd, or in public spaces. May be accompanied by depressed mood, anxiousness, fearful behaviors, or panic attacks.

Example 3: Same Genes, Different Environment, Environment --> Disease OR No Disease

In many cases, a gene will remain phenotypically irrelevant in the absence of disease-inducing environmental conditions. Genetic mutations that result in loss of enzymatic function (e.g., PKU, galactosemia) are prime examples. A child born with galactosemia lacks one or more enzymes specific to the metabolism of galactose. The results can be fatal. However, if the child is kept on a low-galactose diet (environmental change), the disease has essentially no harmful effect.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) Q19. Describe the basic diagnostic symptoms of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder according to DSM-5. What is the difference between an obsession and a compulsion?

In order to be diagnosed with obsessive-compulsive disorder, an individual must exhibit obsessions and/or compulsions. Obsessions involve repeated occurrence of unwanted thoughts which generate significant anxiety such that the individual experiencing them will try to make these thoughts stop. Compulsions are repeated patterns of behavior or thought that the individual engages in to make obsessions go away. The purpose of these ritualized patterns of behavior/thought is to reduce stress or avoid some feared situation. Aside from exhibiting obsessions and/or compulsions, these disturbances are time consuming (i.e. at least an hour of each day is devoted to them) or significant impairment in the individual's daily activities. These disturbances are not better explained by the use of some substance or some other medical condition. Finally, obsessions/compulsions cannot be only related to the symptoms of some other disorder.

Schizophrenia: Q15. Describe the basic diagnostic symptoms of schizophrenia according to DSM-5.

In order to diagnose an individual with schizophrenia, the following criteria must be met. A) The individual must exhibit for at least one month, two (or more) characteristic symptoms which include delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, grossly abnormal psychomotor behavior, and negative symptoms and at least one of those symptoms has to be an active symptom (i.e. delusions, hallucinations, and/or disorganized speech). B) The individual has experienced significant impairments in their ability to engage in day-to-day activities and in interpersonal relationships as a function of the onset of symptoms. C) Signs of the disturbance are present for at least 6 months (including the 1 month of symptoms in part A) and may include periods of less pronounced symptoms that may be dominated by negative symptoms or by less severe symptoms described in part A. D) Alternative diagnoses (i.e. Schizoaffective and Mood Disorders) have been ruled out. E) Symptoms are not better explained by substance use and/or some other medical condition. F) In individuals with Autistic disorder or another pervasive developmental disorder or problem with communication must present prominent delusions or hallucinations for at least one month in order to be diagnosed with schizophrenia.

The Influence of Neurotransmitters on Behavior:

In the biology chapters we discussed the physiological action of neurotransmitters at a chemical synapse (nerve-nerve or neuromuscular). Psychology texts place a special emphasis on the most common neurotransmitters and their associated functions. You will need to be familiar with the primary characteristics, functions, locations of action, and any disease correlates, for the following neurotransmitters: Acetylcholine Epinephrine (a.k.a., Adrenaline) Norepinephrine (a.k.a., Noradrenaline) Dopamine Serotonin y-Aminobutyric acid (GABA)

Lateralization of Cortical Functions Q6. Predict the likely repercussions of a rare congenital defect resulting in a person with a normally-functioning brain, but no corpus callosum?

Individuals who suffer from congenital agenesis of the corpus callosum have difficulty transferring information between the two hemispheres. As a result, they experience difficulties in problem solving. In addition, they also exhibit impaired social behavior, a variety of sensory impairments, and problems in muscle tone and motor behavior.

STEM CELL THERAPY:

It was assumed for years that neurons never regrow; that once dead, a neuron could never be replaced. Recent research has shown that the brain of healthy individuals does occasionally form new neurons out of pluripotent stem cells in the CNS—cells similar to neurologically-bound fetal stem cells. This has provided hope for treating diseases like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's and holds out the promise of someday being able to regrow or replace nerves damaged or malfunctioning in any neurodegenerative disease or paralysis.

Q28. Provide a conceptual definition for the personal unconscious and the collective unconscious as they relate to Jung's theory of personality. Include comparisons and contrasts.

Jung viewed the personal unconscious as those parts of our minds that we are not consciously aware of but that affect our behavior and can be revealed to us in our dreams. In this way, Jung's view of the personal unconscious was very similar to Freud's ideas about the unconscious mind. The collective unconscious is the portion of the unconscious mind that is inherited and contains universal themes through all of our lives. The personal unconscious is what allows us to be creative and original in our thoughts. The collective unconscious, on the other hand, represents a virtual repository of all of human history and experience inside each of us.

The Most Common Psychological Disorders:

Listed in approximate decreasing order of one-year prevalence among adults in the United States. Source: 2014 National Institutes of Health Survey. Anxiety Disorders (GAD, SAD, Phobias, Panic Disorder; ~ 18%) Depressive Disorders (MDD, Bipolar, Dysthymia; ~ 10%) Substance Use Disorders (~ 7%) Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD; ~ 3.5%) Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD; ~ 1.5%) Schizophrenia (~ 1%)

Corpus Callosum

Location: Above the Thalamus, under the cortex Function: Connects the right and left hemispheres of the brain The Corpus Callosum is the part of the mind that allows communication between the two hemispheres of the brain. It is responsible for transmitting neural messages between both the right and left hemispheres.

Hypothalamus

Location: Above the pituitary gland and below the thalamus Function: Responsible for behaviors such as hunger and thirst, as well as the maintenance of body temperature The hypothalamus is mainly responsibly for motivational behavior. It is the reason we know when we are hungry or thirsty. The hypothalamus also helps our body maintain a constant temperature. This part of the brain also controls the pituitary gland, which is the master gland that controls all the other endocrine glands in the body. Thus, the hypothalamus plays a key role in connecting the endocrine system with the nervous system.

Pons

Location: Area of the hindbrain that sits directly above the medulla Function: Connects upper and lower parts of the brain The Pons serves as a message station between several areas of the brain. It helps relay messages from the cortex and the cerebellum. Without the pons, the brain would not be able to function because messages would not be able to be transmitted, or passed along. It also plays a key role in sleep and dreaming, where REM sleep, or the sleeping state where dreaming is most likely to occur, has been proven to originate here, in the pons.

Cerebellum

Location: Lower area of the brain, below the pons Function: Responsible for balance and coordination of muscles and the body The cerebellum is one of the most identifiable parts of the brain due to its unique shape and location. It is extremely important for being able to perform everyday voluntary (done with purpose and intent) tasks such as walking and writing. It is also essential to being able to stay balanced and upright. Patients who have suffered from damaged cerebellums often struggle with keeping their balance and maintaining proper muscle coordination. The cerebellum is thought to be the storage site for implicit memories

Medulla Oblongata

Location: Lower part of the brain stem Function: Carries out and regulates life sustaining functions such as breathing, swallowing and heart rate The medulla is easily the most important part of the brain. It's functions are involuntary, or done without thought. We would not be able to live without the medulla because of the myriad of crucial tasks it performs including regulating blood pressure and breathing. As a part of the brain stem, it also helps transfer neural messages from the brain to the spinal cord.

Cerebral Cortex

Location: Outermost layer of the brain Function: Responsible for thinking and processing information from the five senses The Cerebral Cortex is made up of tightly packed neurons and is the wrinkly, outermost layer that surrounds the brain. It is also responsible for higher thought processes including speech and decision making . The cortex is divided into four different lobes, the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital, which are each responsible for processing different types of sensory information. Fun Fact Over time, the human cortex undergoes a process of corticalization, or wrinkling of the cortex. This process is due to the vast knowledge that the human brain accumulates over time. Therefore, the more wrinkly your brain, the smarter and more intelligent you are!

Thalamus

Location: Part of the forebrain, below the corpus callosum Function: Responsible for relaying information from the sensory receptors to proper areas of the brain where it can be processed The thalamus is similar to a doctor that diagnoses, or identifies, a patient's disease or sickness. It diagnoses different sensory information that is being transmitted to the brain including auditory (relating to hearing or sound), visual, tactile (relating to touch), and gustatory (relating to taste) signals. After that, it directs the sensory information to the different parts and lobes of the cortex. If this part of the brain is damaged, all sensory information would not be processed and sensory confusion would result.

Bipolar Disorder Q14. Provide a conceptual definition for the following terms as they relate to Bipolar Disorder: manic episode, Bipolar I, hypomania, and Bipolar II.

Manic episodes are disturbances of mood described that are used to diagnose bipolar disorder. Many individuals who are diagnosed with some sort of bipolar disorder often experience alternations between manic episodes and depressed episodes; however, depressed episodes are not part of the diagnostic criteria. The severity of the manic episode will often dictate the specific diagnosis that is made. For instance, individuals with full blown manic episodes are diagnosed as Bipolar I. However, if the individual experiences less intense mania, or hypomania, then they are more likely to be diagnosed as Bipolar II.

NEUROPEPTIDES:

Neuro-active peptides whose function is similar to that of neurotransmitters. Endorphins are one example. Comparatively speaking, neurotransmitters = faster, shorter-lived effects; neuropeptides = slower, longer-lasting effects.

Cluster A:

Notice that all disorders in this cluster have a very common general description pertaining to either DISRUPTIVE or DISTORTED patterns of thought, behavior, and functioning. Paranoid Personality Disorder = Characterized by DISRUPTIVE patterns of thought, behavior, and functioning. May be accompanied by pervasive distrust or suspicion, a feeling one is being lied to or exploited, a belief that friends and family are untrustworthy or unfaithful, attributing hidden meaning to everyday gestures or conversations, etc. Schizotypal Personality Disorder = Characterized by DISTORTED patterns of thought, behavior, and functioning. May be accompanied by eccentric perceptions, thoughts or behaviors, "magical thinking," reported ability to read minds or foretell the future, talking to oneself, difficulty forming relationships, severe social anxiety, etc. Schizoid Personality Disorder = Characterized by DISRUPTIVE patterns of thought, behavior, and functioning. May be accompanied by severe detachment from others, little or no desire to form relationships, a sense of indifference to praise, affirmation, criticism, or rejection, etc. These individuals rarely participate in fun or pleasurable activities and are described by others as cold, uninterested, withdrawn, or aloof.

Q20. Clearly differentiate between Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder (OCPD) and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD).

Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) and obsessive compulsive personality disorder (OCPD) are two distinct diagnoses. As described above, OCD involves obsessions that generate anxiety and compulsive behaviors that are engaged in an attempt to alleviate anxiety. These thoughts and behaviors are generally unwelcome. The experience of an individual with OCPD is quite different in that they tend to be preoccupied with rules, regulation, and organization. They tend to demand perfection in all of their endeavors and are quite inflexible in their patterns of thoughts and in the way that they approach new problems. Unlike someone diagnosed with OCD, the OCPD individual views their perspective as an efficient way to deal with the challenges of life and are much less likely to seek professional help to address these issues.

Parkinson's Disease:

Parkinson's is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by slow, halting movements, tremors, muscle rigidity, and a shuffling gait. Dementia and language difficulties are common, but not always present. Biological Correlates: Decreased stimulation of the motor cortex by the basal ganglia due to a decrease in dopamine production by the substantia nigra. The basal ganglia is necessary for producing smooth motor movements. Parkinson's is often treated with L-Dopa, a precursor changed into dopamine in the brain.

Theories of Personality:

Personality = Individual differences in one's characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling and behaving.

Psychoanalytic Personality Theories or Psychodynamic Theory:

Personality is mostly a function of underlying, internal, unconscious influences. The theories of Freud and Jung.

Trauma and Stressor-Related Disorders:

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) = A stressor-induced disorder developed after experiencing or witnessing a traumatic event such as a natural disaster, violent crime, or war. May include hyper-vigilance, reliving the event, anxiety, and avoidance.

PSYCHOLOGIAL DISORDERS REVIEW Q22. For each of the following symptoms, list ALL of the psychological or neurological disorders discussed in this section that can include this symptom: a) delusions of grandeur or a sense of grandiosity, b) depressed mood, c) significant impairment of normal daily functioning, d) hallucinations, e) loss of appetite, f) guilt, g) avoidance of social interaction, h) significant weight gain or loss, i) suicidal thoughts or attempts, j) onset linked to trauma, k) fluctuations in mood l) memory loss, m) impaired sensory or motor function.

Psychological disorders vary tremendously from individual to individual. It could be argued that all of the issues listed here could occur in most, if not all, of the disorders discussed in this section. That said, the answers that follow list disorders most often associated with these symptoms, but they are by no means exhaustive. A) Delusions of grandeur have been described in individuals suffering from bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and Parkinson's disease. B) Depressed mood occurs in individuals suffering from all types of depressive disorders (e.g. major depression, seasonal affective disorder, etc.), bipolar disorder, and schizophrenia. C) All disorders have the potential for significant impairment of normal functioning by definition. D) Hallucinations are most often associated with schizophrenia, but there are reports of individuals with degenerative diseases like Alzheimer's disease also experiencing hallucinations. E) Loss of appetite is often a symptom of depressive disorders and bipolar disorder. F) Feelings of guilt are common in depressive disorders and bipolar disorder. G) Avoidance of social interaction can be common in depressive disorders, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, social anxiety disorder, and avoidant personality disorder. H) Weight loss or gain are associated with depressive disorders, bipolar disorder, anxiety disorders (e.g generalized anxiety disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, etc.), and schizophrenia. I) Suicidal ideation is associated with depressive disorders, bipolar disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, any number of personality disorders, and schizophrenia. J) Post-traumatic stress disorder and dissociative identity disorder are probably most commonly linked with some sort of personal trauma. K) Depressive disorders, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, histrionic personality disorder, and borderline personality disorder are linked with emotional instability. L) Memory loss is a hallmark of dissociative disorders (e.g. dissociative identity disorder and dissociative amnesia) and Alzheimer's disease. M) Impaired sensory and motor function is associated with Somatic symptom disorder, Parkinson's disease and the latter stages of Alzheimer's disease.

Pineal Gland (forebrain) =

Secretes melatonin, regulates sleep, receives input from retina re: circadian rhythms.

2) A researcher wishes to identify whether family social environment has an influence on the development of aggressive behavior toward animals, a common finding among adult sociopaths. Which experimental result most strengthens the hypothesis that family environment influences aggression toward animals? A) A group of orphans exposed to violent video games tested higher on a scale of sociopathic character traits than a group of non-orphans exposed to non-violent video games. B) A group of children whose fathers tested high on a violence and aggression scale tested higher on an animal aggression scale than a group of children with non-violent fathers. C) An analysis of lab results taken from adult sociopaths revealed a correlation between hippocampal desensitization to dopamine and high scores on an animal aggression scale. D) Children from homes where at least one domestic violence incident had been reported to police scored lower on a scale of sociopathic character traits than children from homes with no domestic violence reports.

Solution: Answer A is false because it would support the influence of violent video games on sociopathic character traits. First, violence toward animals (not sociopathic character traits) is what the stem specifically asked for, and second, violent video games is not directly equivalent to family environment. Answer C is false because it suggests an organic cause (nature rather than nurture). Answer D is false because it would actually weaken the hypothesis. Answer B is the best choice. If it were shown that children with violent fathers were more likely to be aggressive toward animals than children with non- violent fathers this would support the hypothesis given in the stem.

3) Which pair represents two psychological disorders that have opposite effects on neurotransmitter levels in the CNS? A) agoraphobia and obsessive-compulsive disorder B) major depressive disorder and Parkinson's disease C) schizophrenia and bipolar disorder D) schizophrenia and Parkinson's disease

Solution: Answer A is false because neither agoraphobia nor OCD have known direct influences on neurotransmitter levels. Answer B is false because both disorders are associated with decreased monoamine levels. Answer C is false because both disorders are associated with increased monoamine levels. Answer D is correct; schizophrenia is associated with an increase in dopamine and Parkinson's disease is associated with a decrease in dopamine.

Q18. Describe the basic diagnostic symptoms of DID and Dissociative Amnesia according to DSM-5.

The DSM-5 lists the following as diagnostic criteria for dissociative identity disorder: A) disruption of identity with 2 or more distinct personalities (as observed by others or as reported by the patient) B) recurrent periods of amnesia for both everyday events and important personal experiences C) these disturbances fall outside of cultural/religious practices and imaginary play of children D) the disturbances have caused significant impairment in the individual's occupational or social functioning E) the disturbance is not due to substance use or other medical condition.

1) Herpes Simplex Encephalitis (HSE) is viral infection of the central nervous system caused by the same virus responsible for cold sores. Symptoms include memory loss, confusion, and personality change. Which portion of the brain is most directly impacted by HSE? A)inferior colliculi B) limbic system C) medulla oblongata D) cerebellum

Solution: The symptoms given may or may not be precise enough to identify an exact brain region. Memory loss could result from a loss of function of many different regions, as could the rather general term "confusion." Personality change might infer emotional or motivational changes, which would lead one toward the limbic system, but the hypothalamus and the cerebral cortex also play important roles. This question is still fair, however, because all of the distractors are easily ruled out. Answer A, inferior colliculi, is very specific to auditory function. Answer C, medulla oblongata controls vital functions such as breathing and heart rate. Answer D is most commonly associated with balance and refined motor functions. Thus Answer B is the only possible answer. One may not feel confident it is the source, but it cannot be ruled out as Answers A, C and D were.

Nature vs. Nurture Study Methods:

Studies exploring the influences of nature vs. nurture. Family Studies: Compare frequency of behavior/condition/trait among related individuals to the frequency of that same measure among non-relatives. Adoption Studies: Compare the behaviors/conditions/traits of an adopted child to those of its adoptive parents; simultaneously compare that same child, on those same measures, to its biological parents. Twin Studies: Compare concordance rates between monozygotic (MZ) twins raised in the same family to dizygotic (DZ) twins raised in the same family; OR Compare concordance rates for monozygotic twins raised in the same family to those raised apart.

Example 2: Different Genes, Same Environment, Genes --> Environment.

Suppose you have a genetic predisposition toward high IQ and your adopted brother has a predisposition toward low IQ. You are raised in the same home and loved equally. One would assume environment will be controlled, or the same, for both of you. However, as your genes are expressed, they impact your mother. When she smiles at you, you smile back. You talk earlier than your brother and are more interactive. Almost unavoidably, your mother will begin treating you differently. While you do have the genes for higher IQ, those genes are not acting ALONGSIDE the environment, they are actually CHANGING the environment. The same is true of your adopted brother. He gets less attention and praise because he interacts less. In this case, the influence of genes on environment makes the disparity between you and your brother greater than one would expect based on the genetic differences.

Example 1: Same Genes, Different Environment, Environment --> Gene Expression.

Suppose your genes predispose you to a high IQ, but your environment includes a mother who is biased against people who "think they are smart." Your mother's reinforcement can actually CHANGE the way your genes are expressed. Suppose your identical twin is adopted by a mother with a PhD who constantly encourages learning. Your brain may perform neuronal pruning on underused synapses that are underused because your mom discourages learning. Your twin brother has those neuronal synapses strengthened because he uses them—under the influence of an encouraging mother. One would expect the same "IQ genes" to produce the same neurological structures and capacity, but that is not the case because environment altered gene expression.

Q27. Briefly describe the following psychoanalytical tests: Rorschach Inkblot Test, Sentence Completion Test, Thematic Apperception Test, and Word Association Test. Which defense mechanism is most closely associated with these types of tests?

The Rorschach inkblot test involves presentation of a series of inkblots which to a test taker who is asked to describe what they see. The idea is that in interpreting an ambiguous image the clinician will gain invaluable insight into the test taker's unconscious motives and desires. In the sentence completion test, respondents are provided with beginnings of sentences and are asked to complete the sentence in some personally meaningful way. In the Thematic Apperception Test, respondents are provided a series of ambiguous pictures and are asked to come up with a dramatic story about the picture. In the word association test, participants are provided a word and asked to provide a word that they associate with it. All of these tests are considered projective tests. In each situation, it is assumed that the task at hand (e.g. interpreting an ambiguous picture) would allow a clinician to gain invaluable insight into the test taker's unconscious motives and desires. Although any number of ego defense mechanisms might be associated, repression is probably the one that people using these approaches are trying to overcome.

Adaptive Value =

The degree to which a behavior increases evolutionary fitness. Traits with high adaptive value are more likely to be represented in future generations. Because natural selection favors the most fit individuals and behaviors, these behaviors will eventually result in a change in the gene pool—an increase in the more adaptive trait. This is adaptive evolution and it can occur with both physical traits (e.g., Darwin's Finches and beak structure) and behavioral traits (e.g., Different dog breeds bred for different behaviors).

Jung's Dichotomies:

The first example of "Personality Types" Extroverted vs. Introverted Sensing vs. Intuiting Thinking vs. Feeling Combining Extroverted or Introverted with each of the two remaining dichotomies gives eight (8) personality types often called "Jung's Eight Cognitive Processes." Extroverted-Sensing, Introverted-Sensing Extroverted-Intuiting, Introverted-Intuiting Extroverted-Thinking, Introverted-Thinking Extroverted-Feeling, Introverted-Feeling Jung's Eight Cognitive Processes are the basis of the widely-used personality test, Myers-Briggs Type Inventory. Myers-Briggs adds a fourth dichotomy: Judging vs. Perceiving. Each personality type is dominant in one of the two sides of each of the four dichotomies, resulting in sixteen different personality types: E = Extroverted, I = Introverted, S = Sensing, N = Intuiting, T = Thinking, F = Feeling, Judging = J, Perceiving = P (Note: The lists that follow are for illustrative purposes to show the four- letter designations given to each personality type. DO NOT memorize all 16 abbreviations. You can translate them if you understand each dichotomy and its abbreviation). ESTP, ESTJ, ENTP, ENTJ, ESFP, ESFJ, ENFP, ENFJ. ISTP, ISTJ, INTP, INTJ, ISFP, ISFJ, INFP, INFJ.

Genetically-based Behavior Variation in Natural Populations:

The following observations provide evidence for the influence of genetics on behavior. Species-Specific Behaviors: Behavior observed only among members of the same species. Animal Breeding: Animals can be bred to exhibit target behaviors, such as aggression being genetically-selected for in rodeo bulls, or hunting skills being genetically-selected for in certain dog breeds. Familial Concordance: Behaviors shown to run in families or be more frequent among children of parents with that behavioral trait.

Primary Process and Wish Fulfillment Q23. Provide conceptual definitions of the primary process and wish fulfillment as they relate to Freud's theory of personality.

The id is the unconscious portion of the human personality that operates on the pleasure principle. The id seeks to have all its needs gratified as soon as possible. The primary process would be a way that the id deal with the frustration of delayed gratification because it served as a memory of the object needed for gratification until the gratification could actually be realized. As the ego and superego come online and actively suppress some of the id's demands, a person might experience dreams that serve as wish-fulfillment. Denied its demands, the id seeks to satisfy them through unconscious thought process.

Secondary Process and the Reality Principle Q24. Provide conceptual definitions for the secondary process and the reality principle as they relate to Freud's theory of personality.

The secondary process is the ego's attempt to satisfy the demands that are represented by the primary process. Because the id's demands would often be inappropriate, the ego operates on the reality principle to delay the id's gratification until a more appropriate time.

Q1. During embryological development, the neural tube is divided into the prosencephalon, mesencephalon, and rhombencephalon. The rhombencephalon differentiates further into the metencephalon and myelencephalon. The prosencephalon differentiates further into the telencephalon and the diencephalon. Suppose that physical or chemical injury occurred to one of these embryological regions during development. In each case, which adult brain region and function would be lost or impaired?

The metencephalon will serve as a precursor to the pons, cerebellum, and reticular formation. Disruptions to these areas would impact sensory-motor processing and coordination, balance, and the sleep-wake cycle. The myelencephalon will give rise to the medulla oblongata which is important for basic functions like respiration and heart rate. The diencephalon would contain structures like the hypothalamus, thalamus, and pineal gland. It also provides connections to the peripheral nervous system and the endocrine system. Disruption of these systems would involve widespread effects including sensory processing, regulation of peripheral nervous system function, regulation of endocrine function, and homeostasis. The telencephalon contains olfactory bulbs, cerebral cortex, and the basal ganglia. Disruption to these areas would affect intelligence, language, motor function, and sense of smell.

Nucleus Accumbens

The nucleus accumbens definitely plays a central role in the reward circuit. Its operation is based chiefly on two essential neurotransmitters: dopamine, which promotes desire, and serotonin, whose effects include satiety and inhibition. Many animal studies have shown that all drugs increase the production of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens, while reducing that of serotonin. But the nucleus accumbens does not work in isolation. It maintains close relations with other centres involved in the mechanisms of pleasure, and in particular, with the ventral tegmental area (VTA). Located in the midbrain, at the top of the brainstem, the VTA is one of the most primitive parts of the brain. It is the neurons of the VTA that synthesize dopamine, which their axons then send to the nucleus accumbens. The VTA is also influenced by endorphins whose receptors are targeted by opiate drugs such as heroin and morphine. Another structure involved in pleasure mechanisms is the prefrontal cortex, whose role in planning and motivating action is well established. The prefrontal cortex is a significant relay in the reward circuit and also is modulated by dopamine.

Q2. From which embryological layer (ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm) does the pituitary gland develop? From which of the neural tube subdivisions listed in Q1 is the posterior pituitary derived? What about the anterior pituitary?

The pituitary gland is derived from the ectodermal layer. The posterior portion of the pituitary gland is derived from the diencephalon. The anterior pituitary actually arises from the oral ectoderm region.

Q10. A less-frequent twin study design type is to compare the frequency of a trait among DZ twins raised together to the frequency of that same trait among DZ twins raised apart. Why is this design less likely to be employed? What are its potential limitations?

The population of DZ twins raised apart is considerably smaller, so access to this limited population can be challenging. This particular design can also be problematic because DZ twins are no more genetically similar than any non-twin siblings and because there would be a host of potential confounding variables that might have contributed to the need to rear the twins separately.

Positive vs. Negative Symptoms of Schizophrenia Q16. Provide a conceptual definition for the following terms related to Schizophrenia: prodromal phase, disturbance of affect, flat affect, inappropriate affect, blunting, hallucinations, delusions, delusions of grandeur, delusions of persecution, delusions of reference, thought insertion, thought broadcasting, disorganized behavior, catatonia, echolalia, and echopraxia.

The prodromal phase of schizophrenia is essentially early onset of schizophrenia. At this stage, mild, nonpsychotic symptoms begin to surface. As a result, the individual in the prodromal phase may begin to exhibit behavioral differences (e.g. may lose interest in things that once brought pleasure or may begin to isolate themselves from others) that are a signal that something is wrong. Disturbance of affect refers to the emotional irregularities that can occur in individuals who suffer from schizophrenia. Such disturbances can manifest themselves as inappropriate emotionality (inappropriate affect), as significant reductions in emotional response (blunted affect), or as a complete lack of emotional responsiveness (flat affect). Schizophrenia is often marked by the presence of hallucinations (often auditory in nature) and delusional thinking. In both instances, the schizophrenic is not in touch with reality. Delusional thinking often involves an inflated sense of self-importance or power (delusions of grandeur), a belief that others are plotting to hurt or control them (delusions of persecution), seeing personal meaning in any variety of mundane events that occur around them (delusions of reference), believing that others are placing thoughts in their minds (thought insertion), or that others have access or can hear their thoughts (thought broadcasting). Aside from disordered patterns of thought, individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia often exhibit disorganized behavior in which they engage in bizarre, pointless behaviors. Others may exhibit catatonia in which they remain abnormally still for extended periods of time. In some instances the individual may automatically repeat anything that is said by others (echolalia) or imitate any movements made by someone else (echopraxia).

EXPERIENCE-BASED (Environmental) INFLUENCES ON BEHAVIOR:

This subject from the MCAT- 2015 topic list is very broad, and really deserves no separate treatment. The influence of experience on behavior would include everything that is not genetic. Learning, conditioning, socializing, one's environment, and any other experience you encounter in life, all impact your behavior.

Jung's Archetypes:

Unique to Jung, nothing comparable from Freud. Images and thoughts that have universal meaning across cultures. Perhaps arising from our shared ancestral past. Persona Anima Animus Shadow (similar to Freud's Id)

Other Psychoanalytic Personality Theories:

We expect the MCAT will primarily test examinees on the personality theories of Freud and Jung, perhaps emphasizing their differences. There are two other psychoanalytical theories of personality that could show up on MCAT-2015, but are likely to be low- yield subjects in terms of study time vs. testing frequency.

Selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors or serotonin-specific reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs):

are a class of compounds typically used as antidepressants in the treatment of major depressive disorder and anxiety disorders.SSRIs are believed to increase the extracellular level of the neurotransmitter serotonin by limiting its reabsorption into the presynaptic cell, increasing the level of serotonin in the synaptic cleft available to bind to the postsynaptic receptor. They have varying degrees of selectivity for the other monoamine transporters, with pure SSRIs having only weak affinity for the norepinephrine and dopamine transporters. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors block or delay the re-absorption of the neurotransmitter, serotonin, by the original (presynaptic) nerves it was released from. This effect increases the levels of serotonin in the synapses.Serotonin is found more in areas of the brain that regulates mood. Low levels of serotonin in the synapses in these areas cause mood disorders such as depression. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors are used to treat depression, stress and anxiety and panic disorder. Certain selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors may be used to treat other conditions such as obsessive-compulsive disorder, bulimia and so on.

Psychological Disorders:

o GENERAL DIAGNOSTIC RULE = To be diagnosed affirmatively, the symptoms of almost any disorder must cause clinically significant distress OR impairment in normal functioning (familial, social, occupational, etc). o Depressive Disorders: Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) = Mood disorder with at least one Major Depressive Episode. Major Depressive Episode (MDE) = Depressed mood or loss of interest in normally- enjoyable daily activities, that interferes with normal functioning, and lasts for at least two weeks. The MDE criteria are also an important part of diagnosing Bipolar Disorder. Seasonal Affect Disorder = MDD that occurs only at a specific time of year (season). Persistent Depressive Disorder (PDD) = Characterized by Dysthymia, which is depressive symptoms that are not severe enough to qualify as a MDE, but persist most of the time for at least two years.