Public Administration Con ID Midterm

"No decision in government is only made once" -Nathan

An aspect of government noticed by Nixon officials. When bureaucrats didn't get their way, they tried again through different channels. In large agencies, there are many different political/appointed officials who can be co-opted to argue for a bureaucrat's position. These political officials turn around and push back on decisions made by higher-ups in the OMB, the White House, or by the department secretary.

Psychology -Follett

Heavily influenced Follett's work, and she was part of the scientific management principles school, so she thought that understanding the psychology of workers and managers would lead to more efficiency. She used psychology to explain the most effective way to give orders. She is part of the scientific management approach but relates to the human relations approach, in that she thinks that the worker is not a machine, and will be the most productive through forming mental attitudes and having circular communication, which is meaningful dialogue going both ways, between employee and manager. She believes that People obey orders only if previous habit-patterns are appealed to or new ones created. Instead of coercing, which is a classical approach to influence, orders should be depersonalized, to unite all concerned in a study of the situation and obey that. This means that you should appeal to the goals of the organizational as a whole, which gives purpose and therefore motivates the individual to work towards a goal. This was influential because she wrote in an era dominated by classicalists, and proposed that the average person is capable of self-direction, as long as the right workplace conditions are adequately met and an organizational vision is strategically implanted.

Fire alarm oversight -McCubbins and Schwartz

Less active and direct intervention than police-patrol oversight Congress makes rules and procedures that gives the responsibility to the people and interest groups to determine if the executive branch has taken things too far Looking for violations of legislative goals Used in sunrise and sunset legislation Fire alarm oversight is a decentralized model of congressional oversight. Instead of proactively looking for problems, congress establishes a system where individual citizens and interest groups can sound the alarm when they see the bureaucracy doing something they don't like. This system allows citizens access to information and administrative decision-decision-making process, and give citizens standing to challenge administrative decisions in the legal system. Congress occasionally intervenes, but most problems are resolved by other organizations. Proponents of this system say it's more efficient than police patrol - instead of looking for violations, congress responds as citizens report problems.

Staged Events -Hendrick Smith's film "The Power Game"

PR Tool: Nearly the entirety of Reagan's presidency, ex. Fireplace, walking across plaza, shaking hands, smiling, etc. Places President in a very specific place to subconsciously associate the picture/video with positive connotation. Hollywood. Reagan administration staged events or lines to look spontaneous while being thoroughly planned Wanted to promote a storybook telling of an event "hollywood in the white house" Trying to promote the image and idea you are trying to send Events with an irresistible appeal - create pictures the media had to display

Analogy to FDR style of presidential management -Landau

Richard Neustadt noticed the importance of redundancy when observing FDR's administration. He determined that the presidency cannot function effectively without competing sources of information.

Image Game -Hendrick Smith's film "The Power Game"

Using a certain type of image to change the perception of the issue with the people - the fireplace talks with Reagan on television Using certain type of image to change the perception of the issue with the people - the fireplace talks with Reagan with the Russian Secretary General (meant to symbolize a warm feeling, and thawing of the cold war)

Police patrol -McCubbins and Schwartz

see 54

Fire-alarm -McCubbins and Schwartz

see 55

Equipotentiality -Landau

"Fantastic number of parallel hookups of many different types" The same information can be received from multiple areas in a bureaucracy Redundancy leads to reliability Example of Stroke: if one portion of the brain shuts down another part of the brain can take over Martin Landau, on his writing of public administration, stresses the need for redundancy in bureaucracy. Redundancy, meaning excess of anything, usually has a negative connotation. Landau explains its many advantages though. This includes reliability, self regulation of bureaucratic bias, elimination of uncertainty, and also equipotentiality. Bureaucracies often have multiple channels of information flow, and with redundancy, the same information can flow through multiple channels. Then, if one channel should fail, the others can make up for it. Landau compares it to an organism with multiple connections. For example, sometimes, if a stroke occurs in a minor part of the brain, another part will begin to take on the tasks of the failing part. It's implications though include larger budgets for bureaus and larger taxation.

Role of campaign promises -Greider

"raise defense spending, cut taxes, and balance the budget" Greider emphasizes the problems of taking on such bold goals in an organization, specifically the White House administration They play a role in how the administration must react and be able to respond Greider emphasizes the problems of taking on such bold goals in an organization, specifically the White house administration They play a role in how the administration must react and be able to respond

Type Z Organizations -Ouchi and Jaeger

A hybrid organizational form for Americans that include the benefits of Type A-the traditional American/Western form to organizations-and Type J-the Japanese and mainland Chinese forms Its important facets are Long-term employment Consensual decision-making Individual responsibility Slow evaluation and promotion Implicit, informal control with explicit, formalized measures Moderately specialized career path Holistic concern, including family A hybrid organizational form for americans that include benefits of Type A- traditional american/western form to organizations and Type J - the japanese and mainland chinese forms Its importance facets are Long-term employment Consensual decision-making Individual responsibility Slow evaluation and promotion implicit , informal control with explicit, formalized measures Moderately specialized career path Holistic concern, including family

Administrative politician -Long

Administrative politicians requires a critical evaluation of the whole range of complex and shifting forces on whose support, acquiescence, or temporary importance the power to act depends. They demand that objectives be determined and sights set in conformity with a realistic appraisal of power position and potential. The bureaucracy under the American political system has a large share of responsibility for the public promotion of policy and even more in organizing the political basis for its survival and growth. Administrative rationality depends on the establishment of uniform value premises in the decisional centers of organization. Lifeblood of administration is power Administrators require evaluation of complex and shifting forces to decide how to act Political changes are difficult to implement into bureaucracy because they must be carried out through outside forces (like the legislatures) and inside forces (the hierarchical bureaucratic structure).

Issue Network

An issue network is an alliance of various interest groups and individuals who unite in order to promote a common cause or agenda in a way that influences government policy. An example if an iron triangle which is an example of an issue network where bureaucracy, private business, and congressmen team up to get laws passed that help their common cause. A example is military-industrial complex where Pentagon allies with congressman who allies with Boeing to make sure defense spending is always high. Implications for democracy are less democracy because people's votes are being diluted to outside money interests that are buying legislators; votes and getting spending approved for things they may not like The issue network in public administration deals with those outside the government with stock in selective issues and try to influence public policy and elected officials. These issue networks sometimes have collective goals, others are made up of individuals lobbying for various policies. These issue networks have a massive effect on American democracy and government, as they have made themselves apart of the iron triangle. This iron triangle represents the real everyday world of government and includes the presidential bureaucracy interacting with congressional committees, influenced by interest groups and the overall interest network. The issue network effects society and democracy greatly as it massively influences government and overall public policy. Many people imagine the congress members they elect at the polls follow their conscience and election platforms while they are in office, and while this might be true, they are also generally lobbied by outside organizations at the same time.

Presidency and shared power -Hendrick Smith's film "The Power Game"

Because the president shares power with congress, he needs to have a clear agenda to get their goals moving forward. Too broad of an agenda (Bush 41, Carter) will bog down congress. The president needs to establish goals quickly and choose only 2 or 3 priorities. Passing the buck- sharing the blame- he can blame the members of congress rather than those in the executive branch. The movie focuses on the President's overall ability to get his own policy initiatives into the Congress and using his clout to participate focally in the implementation and in fact creation of policy. His ability to get an agenda set that will dictate future initiatives was compared between Reagan and Carter. Also involved in this relationship was the topic pursued later in the moving deemed 'passing the buck' in which it is discussed that when a president can control Congress he has additional ability to push blame onto the members of congress. Sometime it may not even require a majority but the pure largeness of the number of people who could be blamed is enough to be beneficial for the executive branch to deflect to them in any situation.

Synergetic - Bennis

Bennis states that one of the more difficult challenges for the manager is promoting conditions for effective collaboration and synergetic teams. He defines synergy as individuals contributing more and performing better within a collaborative environment. The "zero synergy" strategy permits managers to hire qualified workers who "cultivate their own gardens", essentially creating no collaborative work. The zero synergy strategy is the best way to avoid synergy all together (hence the name). He cites universities as commonly having this problem. The other approach is the pseudo-democratic style, "in which a phony harmony and conflict avoidance persist". Bennis argues that a lack of synergy is something that is going to bring bureaucracy to a grinding halt, as it is far too individualized rather than a collaborative effort. He argues that although it can be expensive and time consuming, building synergetic, collaborative teams will be beneficial in the long run and essential to the success of an organization (problems are going to become too difficult for one man to handle alone). Collaborative and cohesive environments/ teams requires leaving behind the classical approach to bureaucracy, according to Bennis. It is essential in today's environment to blend skills, disciplines, and knowledge sets to solve ambiguous problems. This is highly contradictory to the hierarchical structure and high division of specializations and expertise within the classic model. Collaboration in the workplace can be more effective, but it requires having supra-organizational goals to alleviate professional biases and negative cooptative action.

Budget impoundments -Nathan

Budget impoundment is curtailing programs to reduce costs and centralization. It was one of Nixon's four prongs in taking over the bureaucracy. By cutting out waste and redundancy which Landau warns against doing, Nixon believed bureaucracy would become more efficient. He would do this by appointing loyalists to his cabinet instead of professionals from the field. Nathan wrote a seminal piece in public administration on the Administrative Presidency. Going into President Nixon's second term, his team set up a new strategy to run the bureaucracy. He hired an entirely new Cabinet and set to have a high level of control over the rest of the bureaucracy and the Congress. Given the events of his second term, his plan was not fully implemented, but modified and carried on by President Reagan in the years to come. The Administrative Presidency included personnel shifts, budget impoundments and reductions, reorganization, and regulation. The specific budget impoundments used strong fiscal powers of Nixon's new management strategy. Whole programs were stopped on the grounds of Executive Authority, later taken away by the Supreme Court as a separation of powers issue. These ideas massively grew the office of the presidency and the bureaucracy as a whole. The expansion and question of the powers of the office of the presidency changes American governance and modern democracy. The great significance of the Administrative Presidency is still felt in everyday life in America all over the country.

Bureaucracy and Democracy- Weber

Bureaucracies are an inevitability of mass democracy. Mass political parties of democracies with the exception of the older liberal and conservative parties tend to be highly bureaucratized Democracy actively attempts to prevent the development of a closed status group of officials in the interest of universal accessibility of the offices, it also tries to minimize authority of officialdom and expand the influence of public opinion Democracy is inevitably in conflict with the bureaucratic ideal Democracy takes an ambivalent approach to specialized examinations, like it does with many other phenomena of bureaucracy

Organic-adaptive -Bennis

Bureaucracy, which means the typical organizational structure that coordinates the business of most human organization (e.g., industry, government, university, R & G labs, military, religious, and voluntary), will end with the rise of new social systems better suited to 20th Century demands of industrialization. Modern industrialized world caused the decline of bureaucracy and needs a reconsideration of new organizations called "organic-adaptive structures" by rapid change, hurried growth, and increase in specialists. Important features of organic-adaptive structures included their temporary nature, their organization around particular problems to be solved, their conceptualization upon organic rather than mechanical models, and their differentiation on the basis of flexible criteria related to skill and professional training rather than hierarchy and role. The transformation of man, power, and values have gained wide intellectual acceptance in managemental quarters and been used as a basis for policy transformation by many large-scale organization. The change in managerial behavior stems from not only humanization of organization, but also the use of organization as a crucible of personal growth and development for self-realization. Training administrators to work with change instead of teaching only the job at hand. Training "learning men" Productivity fostered through group norms. Individuals take their cues and form identities from the people around them. Social inventions are implemented for aiding social desires Continuous education for adults allowing to continue learning and adapting

The administrative presidency -Nathan

Bureaucratization of executive branch Nixon Did not work first term but was implemented more in second term Unable to evaluate effectiveness/efficiency due to Watergate Hierarchical Management to implement campaign promises Richard Nathan writes on the administration during the Nixon presidency. During his first term, Nixon struggled with being the true chief executive. Up until his reelection, he could dramatize and persuade the bureaucracy, but he could not direct orders effectively. In his second term, Nixon took on a new role as the chief executive, and he became effective through what Nathan describes as the "Administrative Presidency". Nixon based this idea off of the classical hierarchical bureaucratic model. He carried out his policy preferences through the administration in two ways: relying upon strong, Presidentially-appointed domestic-program managers and working through White House and Executive Office. His plan was implemented with four principal facets: personnel shifts, budget impoundments and reductions, reorganization, and regulation. During his presidency, he used management as a way to implement his own preferences. In Wilson's mind, all of the "discretion" within administrative decision making was left to Nixon. Therefore, even if the policies of Congress did not match his beliefs, he could still implement his own campaign promises, etc. We will not ever know if this was effective though due to the Watergate scandal.

Tendency Towards Secrecy - Weber

Bureaucrats' power comes from their expertise and knowledge. They know very specific information about very technical parts of their bureaucracy/organization. When they are before Congress members (their supposed superiors) bureaucrats hold quite a bit of power by being the only ones to hold the majority of facts about any situation that Congress is interested in. Their knowledge, if it is secret, gives the bureaucrat the power of discretion over matters that they have knowledge about. Being the only one with the knowledge about how the bureaucracy works gives the bureaucrat legitimacy and power as well as nearly assured employment. Modern bureaucracy constantly leans toward having expert bureaucrats who usually are the only ones that have the majority of information. Bureaucracy also seeks to hide their actions from everyone else in order to avoid criticism. "The tendency towards secrecy in certain administrative fields follow their material nature: everywhere that the power interests of the domination structure toward the outside are at stake, whether it is an economic competitor or commercial enterprise, or a foreign, potentiality hostile polity, we find secrecy," (Weber 17). Bureaucracy prefers an uniformed government so they can continue to hold all the cards, they invented the "official secret" and will forever defend it. Follet believes in circular reasoning and information-sharing, which is the opposite of Weber. Weber was a Classical Model theorist and his work was published in 1922 after his death. Weber was one of the founders of the study of administration. Weber argued that in democracies there is a tendency towards secrecy. Weber said that bureaucrats appreciate poorly informed legislatures and public officials. Bureaucratic receive more power if legislatures and public officials don't know the information because the bureaucrats then have the ability to sway the public officials to make decisions in their favor because of the public officials lack of knowledge. This creates a tendency towards secrecy because if they do not share the information they have more power over the legislature. This goes against later scholar's ideas of public administration, particularly Follet (1926) who argued that there should be circular and decisions should be derived from the situation, not power. This has significant implications on democracy, because hiding from the public and not giving them the ability to make well-informed decisions and puts power into the hands of unelected officials.

Reagan/Stockman Strategy With Department Heads - William Greider

Catch them alone while being supported by 5-6 people who support Reagan/Stockman's ideas. Also, catch them early so they have not gone off and "married the natives"/become ingrained and loyal to their departments/bureaucracies. This causes them to become pliable/confused and easy to take down/convince to follow Reagan/Stockman's ideas. Traditionally, the President has faced all the heads at the same time and the heads would close ranks and be a cohesive fighting force against the President. Basically, a divide and conquer strategy. Stockman wanted to push budget cuts with cabinet secretaries quickly before they got close to their departments, to avoid conflict when the needs of the department and the needs of the cabinet heads became unavoidably aligned in favor of the department (Follet 1926; Grieder 1981; Nathan 1976). Nathan (1976) discusses this idea, stating that cabinet secretaries get "married to the natives", meaning that the secretaries ideals and the department's ideas often become one and the same. Stockman wanted to get the cabinet members to get their departments ideals aligned with the Reagan administrations but he was unable to do so. Block, who was the Secretary of Agriculture, could not get his department's ideals to align with Reagan's (Greider 1981). While Stockman was sympathetic, Stockman denied Block's requests for subsidies to farmers (Grieder 1981).

Relationship of a fragmented congress to the decentralized nature of the bureaucracy - Moe

Congress is bogged down by the collective action problem so they don't get anything done, which presents an advantage to the president, who has unilateral authority and doesn't need to solicit opinions. The decentralized bureaucracy makes the president's job harder because he cannot oversee all agencies; he must limit his authority to only the departments he is able to oversee. Presidential review of regulatory rules Relationship of a fragmented congress to the decentralized nature of the bureaucracy (Moe): (Nick) This issue in general leads to the bureaucracy being able to grow consistently and without congressional control being exercised. Congress is, by design, made to be filled with separate interests and loyalties to local constituent bases. Also by design, congress is granted the ability to use the power of the purse to grant or not grant funding to executive agencies, as well as other oversight committee functions. The fragmentation comes from the large divide and separation of interests both with policy and ideals, leading to no substantive check or action being executed on most issues. However, a notable time that congress came together to use its oversight power is during the Nixon impeachment trial; which differs from the rest of the executive as a whole in that this was widely covered by media and is centered around a leading figure. A majority of the time, however, it is not this straight forward. The decentralized nature of the bureaucracy makes specific sub areas favorable to specific individual representatives, creating a perfect climate for political compromises. This leads to the inability to limit funding to specific interests, and therefore the inability to stop the growth of the agency and the bureaucracy itself, due to the political fallout that a rep would face from his peers.

Informal cooptation -Selznick

Cooptation is a way to ward off external threats to a company's stability by assimilating those ideas/practices into their administration to appease the threatening party. They engage in informal cooptation to appease certain people, not the public as a whole (so it's not democratic), because if the company was seen to recognize the authority of external groups, it would weaken their legitimacy. The open systems approach focuses on external forces, while the classical approach focuses on the organization itself. Informal cooptation is the process of appeasement and adaptation of policy in response to local power sources. Basically, it is the representation of interests though administrative constituencies. This process has emboldened the tradition of iron triangles, which is the relationship between interest groups, congressional committees, and agencies, that end cutting agreements that mutually benefit each other and continue to leave the average citizen out of the equation. This sort of informal, adaptive change is important because without it, there would be mostly dysfunctional policy coming into local districts that just ends in waste. This is part of the open-systems model in that it creates multiple points and opportunities for points of information travel and redundancies throughout the governmental system. This approach highlights the purpose of this approach, in that it uses broad hierarchies to create a system that is able to work effectively and practically. This is a democratic conundrum, and can be looked at differently depending on an individual's pessimism or optimism relating to human nature. It is positive in that it gives more people a seat at the table, and therefore increases the chance for an average person to have a voice in often disconnected Washington policy, such as the TVA not being practical. However, as inevitable as it is, it gives community leaders and the interest groups that they may represent a stronger voice than the mass or general community interest. So as a pessimist, this tradition can worsen democracy in that it offers symbolic participation rather than actual substantive action. This system relies on citizen organization and being informed participants, which then incentivizes the withholding of programs that could inform and enable citizens by large interest groups that only care about their agenda. As a whole, and as an optimist, this is a positive and pragmatic process that highlights the strength of federalism and makes representatives accountable to local areas.

Congress' relationship to bureaucracy

Creation of executive units, Creation of government programs, Appropriation of money, Adaptation to programs. Also oversight and Moe surmises that congress is at a distinct disadvantage when facing down executive actions that expand the power of the administrative branch. Multiple examples are cited as times when congress was not successful in preventing the expansion of executive power due to the institutional limitations that a house faces in consensus decision-making like party constraints, and ease at which bargaining can be attempted on individual members of a coalition. A high amount of the legitimacy of the new executive rise in power is that the Executive Branch is fully staffed by experts and have a much more specialized role than that of a congressional official that will feel responsible with understanding a massive range of issues. It is specially noted that even the example of Watergate could not convince the Congressional Office to make any statutory changes to the way that the executive was able to operate discretely and with high levels of cronyism.

Operations constitute policy -Nathan

Essentially, operations constitute policy originates from the belief that the president ought to be an active head of the bureaucracy and impact what they are doing. The president can accomplish this by making orders throughout the bureaucracy that then can impact and implement new policy and in effect bypassing congress to get presidential objectives done. This idea was posited by Richard Nathan in his article The "Administrative Presidency" (1976). This idea impacted the understanding of how presidents operate in a modern bureaucracy. As the bureaucracy is forever in place and the president changes at least every eight years. The president is put into a position where they may decide to tackle the bureaucracy through a strict management system in order to ensure that the president's interests are met. The core idea was that there are two strategies, one was to grapple with the bureaucracy directly and drive their processes in the same direction of the president's policy goals and the other was to leave them be until the president has policy that must be implemented by the bureaucracy. This idea identifies a primary struggle with the ability of the president to tackle governing. Idealistically the president has all the power of governing and that produces a bureaucracy that works for him. However, in reality, it appears that the president must at least grapple with the in-place bureaucracy, regardless of democratic mandate.

Long-distance v. face-to-face order -Follett

Follet argues that face to face orders are far more effective than long distance orders within a hierarchy. There are several reasons for this. The first of these is that it is far easier to interpret the meaning of an order when given face to face. A second is that circular communication is enabled when face to face communication occurs. Lastly, the meaning of the order is not watered down by being passed through multiple layers of the hierarchy before reaching the individuals that the order is intended for. Mary Parker Follett was concerned with the giving of orders in such a way that produced the most beneficial outcome. This idea led to the development of the human relations approach to public administration and the impact of giving orders on efficiency. She surmised that hierarchical systems tend to make individuals less efficient as they deliver orders from much higher levels on the hierarchy. The result was the feeling of distance between the leader and the worker. This distance made workers largely less interested in completing their orders as efficiently as possible because their product would never truly be seen by the boss. She finds that the development of a "bossing-pattern" would make workers oppose the orders they were given and essentially result in inefficiency. The longer distance orders that were given were more likely to produce an unfavorable response from workers. Whereas the face-to-face orders were much more favorably received due to their proximity to the boss. This happened because the boss could then identify the person completing the project and that helped the workers be motivated toward the goal of the project.

Habit patterns of people -Follett

Follett Discusses how to get people to behave in certain ways "we see that people can obey an order only if previous habit-patterns are appealed to or new ones created " "Business is so organized and administered that it tends to form certain habits, certain mental attitudes. It has been hard for many old-fashioned employers to understand that orders will not take the place of training" Integrating people properly so they are prepared to behave in certain way to certain stimuli - this includes for taking

Formal cooptation -Selznick

Formal cooptation is when an organization publicly takes on new elements Contracts signed, appointments to new positions, new organizations made Signals the participation in the process and decision making Conditions which lead to an organization to resort to formal cooptation though they are closely related: Legitimacy of authority of the governing group is called into question Winning consent of the governed can be attempted by coopting elements that reflect the views and opinions of the populace Coopting native leaders into colonial authority is an example of this Attempts to correct formal imbalances of power Cooptation is the formal sharing of responsibility to lead not actual power to other groups in this instance When the use of self governance is advisable, establishing orderly and reliable mechanisms for reaching client public or citizenry are important the function of sharing responsibility with public is the goal thus bolstering legitimacy no transfer of actual power voluntary associations to gain participation in local administration of authority's programs

Constitutional concerns about the "administrative presidency" -Nathan

Four elements of the "administrative presidency": personnel shifts, budget impoundments and reductions, reorganization, and regulation. The strong executive leadership will make presidents gain too much power and cause a concentration of power in bureaucracy. The essential question: whether we need to have more and stronger checks and balances within the federal executive branch. The task of government is not to make decisions for citizens, but to enable them to make decisions for themselves; government job is to get resources to people in need and let them run their own lives. A managerial strategy is appropriate for the American Presidency to enhance popular control over the Executive branch of the American national government, which is fully consistent with democratic values. Strong bureaucratic control by presidents can destabilize checks and balances Bureaucracies are not subject to the give and take traditions of politics (like how stockman had to adapt his budget to get votes for it) allowing them to implement orders without political opposition Bureaucratic tendency towards secrecy also would allow the executive to secretly implement actions without the approval of the legislative or judicial branches Nixon aims to manipulate bureaucracies after his political attempts were unsuccessful

Haldeman rule

Haldeman rule refers to the strict scheduling of H.R. Haldeman, who was seen as the "gatekeeper" for President Nixon. Haldeman worked in what he thought was Nixon's best interest of valuable information and saving time. An example of this was when Reagan was returning from Berlin after the meeting with Gorbachev, and made a stop in Brussels, just so he would get back in the U.S. at the "right time" The Haldeman rule followed a criticism by Gulick that the office of the presidency was too accessible, and that he had to deal with non-relating issues that reduced the general efficiency of the executive office. This rule established a single-line of information travel up the hierarchy that would lead up to an exact memo of what would go on in Reagan's office, which he would then have to sign off on before the person is allowed in. If the person strayed away from what was on the passed off sheet, then he would punish the person with a lack of access back into the administration.

Hierarchy- Weber

Hierarchy is necessary for efficiency. Also this was how businesses ran, and Weber wanted PA to be run like a business. Orders flow from the top-down, which can lead to diluted and incorrect information, and creates communication problems. Weber's ultimate goal was efficiency, so each worker knows their exact role. Main ideas: Efficiency, continuity, strict subordination, discretion, reduced friction of material and personal costs. Weber and Wilson share a vision of the American bureaucracy operating as a machine, which idolizes efficiency and continuity, and to combat problems that compromise these tenets (i.e. public opinion, worker values/biases), with little regard for the fallout on the individual. They envision a business-like administrative body that operates and tests public policy in an empirical manner, and to constantly strive for better ways to carry out the functions of government. This would contend with the open systems model in that redundancy is the only way to have a truly effective administrative capacity, and that no organization can be efficient, as the classical approach strives to be, without first being effective at task completion and dealing with human errors such as mistakes or information slippage. The human relations approach would mainly critique this strict hierarchy in that they believe it is important to an organization to at least appear as responsive to hierarchy of needs, which would call for a broad hierarchy. It implies that redundancy should be eliminated, that executive power should be extended, and therefore that the legislative process and media should be avoided. This is a large democratic implication in the fact that it seeks to avoid several important institutions that are distinct features of our democracy that separated us from other trials before.

Iron Triangle (Congress, Interest groups, and Bureaucracy)

In the United States politics, the Iron Triangle consists of interest group, members of congressional subcommittees, and agency bureaucrats. Agencies and departments usually keep close contacts with interest group lobbyists who want to influence their actions. Interest groups may provide valuable statistics to government agencies, and they are motivated to have their point of view heard. Both lobbyists and bureaucrats value contact with congressional subcommittees that shape the laws that govern their interests. Working together, these three groups set most government policies. An example of the Iron Triangle is the American Association for Retired People (AARP), the House Subcommittee on Aging, and the Social Security Administration all working together to set government policy on Social Security.

Underloaded v Overloaded -Ouchi and Jaeger

Influenced by the HR approach, they drew on Maslow to explain how workers in companies with high levels of societal affiliation will have a satisfied sense of belonging and will hardest for the company's benefit, while those in companies with low levels of societal affiliation will have an unsatisfied sense of belonging, and will only work as hard as they need to to receive a paycheck. These people are externally motivated, while the ideal worker is internally motivated. Overloaded is when a worker has too many affiliations and are distracted from their work, while underloaded workers are depressed and don't work very hard. 'Overloaded': High affiliation in society and organization 'Underloaded': Low affiliation in society and organization; unfulfilled, no standards 'Integrated' or 'balanced': High in one area, low in another This is a 2x2 design that pictures that the work affiliations as supported by the type J approach, and home relationships as supported by the type A approach and represents the status quo in America at the time of this writing. He is part of the human relations approach, and pushed for collectivism within American workplaces as seen in Japan. He pushes for, counter to Weber's optimal approach of having workers completed isolated from each other in order to reduce waste, to have close relationships, as were previously seen between neighbors and church-goers, within the workplace. With close relationships, it is theorized to give more purpose and satisfaction of upper level needs in maslow's hierarchy, and therefore influence better work performance. I believe this makes American society worse because it promotes insincere relationships, but I have no empirical evidence of this, although the depression and suicide rate in the Japanese is substantially higher than it is in the US, so that has to count for something. This does have negative implications on democracies, however, because these relationships give the leverage to the employer to dictate the specialties and relationships that the employee will have. In a democracy, having a homogeneous society should be looked upon as bad, and any rollback of individualism and individual thought should be condemned.

Integration - McGregor

Integration, as brought up by McGregor during the Human Relations Period, was contradictory to the Classical Model's view of individuals in the organization. While the Classical Model viewed the individual as a cog in the machine, the Human Relations Model saw the individual with unique needs and goals of their own. Integrating an individual's higher order needs, such as ego and self-fulfillment, with the needs of the organization is an effective way to manage an organization. This could be done through decentralization and delegation, job enlargement, participation and consultative management, and performance appraisal. Bennis takes this a step further, supporting the idea of problem solving teams and circular communication. McGregor's new idea for organization is known as theory Y but the primary foundational principle of this theory is called the principle of integration. Outlined in the principle is that the best way to efficiently manage organization is by allowing for the needs of employees and subordinates to be met in a way that is objectively different than the managerial approach. In McGregor's view forcing employees to abdicate the feeling of self in order to be completely installed into the organization is not a productive aspect of group membership. This goes against what classical theorists have long asserted to be the best way of producing outputs quickly and efficiently because it allows subordinates some measure of self-control in that many of their needs that are not met fall into the category of 'self-fulfillment' and 'emotional needs' many of which could not even be entertained without a very strong feeling of self. Integration also allows that important decisions within organizations involved certain subordinates, especially when these subordinates would be directly impacted by such a decision. The result is that members of the organization not in typically executive level offices will be more fulfilled by their position, have higher motivation to seek out higher positions or at the very least perform their own role at a higher capability than under a managerial system, and high overall commitment to the organization itself in what could be called a symbiotic relationship, 'you value me so I value you.'

Integration - Bennis

Integration, as introduced by Bennis during the Neoclassical Period, is highly similar to McGregor's suggestions about integrating individual needs with organizational needs. Bennis claims that how to effectively do this integrating is a major problem with contemporary organizations. He says that traditional bureaucracies have no solutions for it because it doesn't see it as a problem in the first place. However, with the rise of human sciences and understanding man's complexity, it has become a problem that requires addressing by changing motivations to accommodate higher order needs. "...it is the ratio between individual needs and organizational demands that creates the transaction most satisfactory to both." Bennis and McGregor both refer to integration in similar fashions and both agree on the priority it should be granted in the organization of the government. In that both of these writers were originators of the human relations approach integration was seen as a strategy to make organizations more democratic and provide for the needs of their employees. Bennis even takes this strategy one step forward in that he supports the idea of problem-solving teams which grants credence to the idea that not only is it necessary to fulfill the needs of employees but that they are capable to make important decisions.

Type J - Ouchi and Jaeger

Japan/Mainland China. Lifetime Employment, Consensual Decision-Making, Collective Responsibility, Slow Evaluation/Promotion, Implicit/Informal Control, Non-Specialized Career path, Holistic (interconnected/parts explained by the whole) Concern Ouchi and Jaeger (1978) are within the Human Relations approach and argued that there has been a disappearance of organizations for humans to feel a part of (such as churches, farms, neighborhoods, etc). They said that humans need to be able to have a workplace that they feel a part of and belong to. They said that they must discover the ideological unique solution to America which allows individual freedom while using the work organization to support and encourage the stability of associational ties. In order to do so, they compared Type A (The American system) and Type J (the Japanese system) to come up with Type Z - the perfect combination for American culture. This was created in reaction to the Classical Models "Type A" system - that believed there should be a strict separation between the workplace and friendships because of the needs of the business being put above the needs of the individual. This has an overall impact on society because people need an association from others, and other areas of life are no longer providing for it, so people need it from the workplace. Type J (Japanese): Low individual mobility, a culture which supports norm of collectivism. Lifetime employment Consensual decision-making Collective responsibility Slow evaluation and promotion Implicit, informal control Non Specialized career path Holistic concern

Temporary systems (problem solving teams/task forces) -Bennis

Large organizational heads often do not consider the demands or actions of employees that affect the entire organization, they think more about their own unit Task forces-temporary-focus on a problem and seek solutions to that problem Primary way to take on issues that affect the whole organization Large organizational heads often do not consider the demands or actions of employees that affect the entire organization, they think more about their own unit Task forces - temporary focus on a problem and seek solutions to that problem Primary way to take on issues that affect the whole organization

Unity of command and span of control- Gulick

Luther Gulick, originally from the private sector, was assigned to a team by FDR to report on how the President can more effectively manage the administration. Later, he studied the public sector, and created terms that were derived from scientific principles. These were specialization, unity of command, and span of control. Unity of command was the idea that people should only have one boss, and span of control meant that one boss should not have too many subordinantes. Gulick preferred for every boss, they must only have around seven to ten subordinantes. He also believed that if a single worker specializes too much, their work will become insufficient. During this time was the movement towards the Human Relations Approach, where employees were looked at as more than cogs in a machine. Gulick, in his studies, implies that working in a team with broader specialites may produce a better product, yet he also stressed the strict hierarchy of the classical era. The managers, with a smaller team, and total control, can then adjust the workers goals to fit the goals of the organization (ie integration). This not only promotes efficiency but also worker satisfaction.

Classical Bureaucracy Model (Class and Pre-Reading)

Machine like People are cogs Positions based on merit Hierarchical Written rules Impersonal Unbiased Rosenbloom writes on the different approaches to the study of public administration, differing with their origins, values, organizational structure, and view of the individual. The first approach, the classical model, or managerial approach, of bureaucracy, according Max Weber and Woodrow Wilson, would be exactly identical to the great efficiencies of the private sector. Wilson believes that the study of public administration should not be looked through political study but the study of business. Weber identifies these efficiencies of the private sector as hierarchical, with written rules and permanent files, fixed jurisdictional areas, impersonal, tendency towards secrecy, and also the work provided often leads to a career, and employees do not own the means of production. Vasu identifies the five similarities between the structure of private and public sector businesses: planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating, and controlling. This study was the basis of all public administration study, lasting from 1880 to the 1940s, . It provided the important concepts of effectiveness and efficiency in how a task is carried out in the public sector. The structure of the administration also kept it completely separated from politics and policymaking

Linear v Circular Behavior -Follett

Mary Parker Follett writes in the style of the scientific principles school, but then helps to bring social sciences to the study of public administration (then known essentially as the study of business). While in the classical style, orders are given from a superior, they are then passed down through the hierarchy, from superior to subordinate and then again, until it reaches the worker that must complete the task. This is called linear behavior, or linear communication. Follett believes the most effective way of communication is circular. This communication includes questions and answers, clarifications, modifications, and agreement from the superior and subordinate. If a worker does not understand the task or why they were given the task, then they are able to ask the superior to clarify, and then it creates a conversation around the task. This encourages the worker to become more motivated to do the task, and also to do the task well as the superior wanted. With circular behavior, the goals and passions of the worker can be integrated with the goals of the company. While in theory, this method seems less efficient, Follett would argue the opposite. Without questions, an employee is more likely to mess up the task at hand and then must restart, with circular behavior, they are able to correct their mistakes quicker. Linear: orders are accepted passively Employee performs orders without response to manager Circular: order receives "comeback" Questions/answers, clarifications, etc

POSDCORB- Gulick

Originally coined in 1937 by Luther Gulick, POSDCORB is an acronym that refers to the steps or stages of a typical administrative process. The letters stand for Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, Co-Ordinating, Reporting, and Budgeting respectively. At its inception POSDCORB was used in the Scientific Principles School by scholars such as Gulick, Urwick, and Fayol, and has since become more incorporated into the classical management approach. This is because POSDCORB creates a framework of structure and control for entities that have bureaucratic inclinations i. E. businesses or government organizations An acronym outlined by Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick which encompasses: Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, Coordinating, Reporting, and Budgeting. These traits help to create an organizational structure for a manager, which follows the characteristics found in the scientific management approach, a mixture of Weber's Classical Approach and the Principles School. The Principles School was a set of principles associated with administration and organizational behavior and POSDCORB follows these attributes while functioning under the Classical Model. Specialization, a boss' "span of control" (hierarchies), and the Unity of Command are all stressed by POSDCORB.

(Maslow's) hierarchy of needs -McGregor

Physiological needs: needs for food, water, air, rest, exercise, shelter, and protection from the elements. Safety needs: needs for protection against danger, threat, and deprivation. Social needs: needs for belonging, for association, for acceptance by one's follows, and for giving and receiving friendship or love. Ego needs: Needs that relate to one's self-esteem such as needs for self-confidence, for independence, for achievement, for competence, and for knowledge. Needs that relate to one's reputation such as needs for status, for recognition, for appreciation, and for the deserved respect of one's fellows. Self-sufficient needs: needs for realizing one's own potentialities, for continued self-development, and for being creative in the broadest sense of that term. The fact that management has provided for lower-level needs (e.g., physiological and safety needs) has shifted the motivational emphasis to higher-level needs (e.g., social and egoistic needs). While money has limited value in satisfying many higher-level needs, it can become the focus of interest if it is the only means available. The carrot-and-stick theory It works reasonably well if the means for satisfying man's physiological and safety needs can be provided or withheld by management (e.g., wages, working conditions, and benefits). It does not work at all once man has reached an adequate subsistence level and is motivated primarily by higher needs (e.g., self-respect, self-fulfillment, and the respect of his fellows). The philosophy of management by direction and control is inadequate to motivate because direction and control are essentially useless in motivating people whose important needs are social and egoistic. People who are deprived of opportunities to satisfy their needs at work behave with indolence, passivity, resistance to change, lack of responsibility, willingness to follow the demagogue, and unreasonable demands for economic benefits. Physical needs- basic survival (food, water, sleep) Safety/Security- protection of self from violence, disaster, and also financial security Love/Belonging- Friendships, intimacy, and family Esteem/Ego- needs for prestige, recognition, importance Self-Actualization- the fulfillment of prior needs

Police patrol oversight -McCubbins and Schwartz

Police Patrol Oversight is centralized, active, and direct: at its own initiative, Congress examines a sample of executive-agency activities, with the aim of detecting and remedying any violations of legislative goals and, by its surveillance, discouraging such violations. Congressmen tend to prefer fire-alarm oversight than police-patrol because, according to the motivational assumption, the congressman is to take as much credit as possible for net benefits enjoyed by their supporters and police-patrol is too timely and costly. Schwartz and McCubbins found that Fire-Alarm Oversight has had more effectiveness in detecting violations in legislation that could harm an individual or group. Police Patrol is one of McCubbins and Schwartz's two forms of oversight, the other being fire-alarm oversight. Police patrol consists of congress themselves review individual incidents within the executive branch, further setting rules and precedents to be followed in the future. Police patrol activities can consist of (but are not limited to) reading documents, commissioning scientific studies, conducting field observations, and holding hearings of both officials and citizens relating to the issue at hand. In line with motivational approach (in which congress is simply seeking to get reelected) police patrol would be a waste of time, as it is not a direct reflection of what their constituents might be concerned with (this aligns more with the fire alarm approach to oversight). With police patrol oversight, congress can only oversee so much, so many legitimate violations slip through the cracks. McCubbins & Schwartz's conclusion is that congress has not completely ignored their responsibility of oversight, but rather has shown a preference for fire alarm oversight, which is incredibly selective compared to the overarching blanket that is police patrol oversight.

Presidential Power of Discretionary Action - Moe

President's power as a chief executive is to have unilateral power to determine structure and policy. The limit of presidential power is nearly unstated in the Constitution (447). This gives the president the ability to "win by default" by being able to change an agency to fit his needs and desires. President's have also used the vague discretionary powers to push for more specific powers, that Congress cannot remove though the courts can but have chosen not to do. Presidents are also an extremely powerful figure in the legislature. Once a law is passed, the Congress does not have nearly as much authority as the president has over the law. Congress has no control over "firing" or "hiring" the President. The power of regulatory review is also given to the President. Moe (1996) argued that Presidents have a legal argument for imposing presidential priorities and expanding the scope of their own discretionary action. Franklin D. Roosevelt created the Executive Office of the President. The EOTP is responsible for white house relations, media, scheduling, press relations, cabinet relations, legal counsel, national security - basically anything that is important. OMB is in here, makes budgetary decisions. Basically, the president has the power to make A LOT of decisions. Congress find is very difficult to push back (collective action problem). Congress can write laws that put restrictions on presidents but it doesn't really work because people in the executive will fight for laws that give them as much discretion as possible, the bureaucracy is too complex not too. When new statutes are passed, almost regardless of what they are, they increase the president's formal responsibilities and gives them a formal basis for extending power. Statutes give power to the president because despite the conflicts with in-laws this gives the president substantial discretion which they use to impose their own priorities. This has significant implications for democracy - decisions aren't made through elected officials.

"Go native" -Nathan

Presidents appoint cabinet secretaries and other high-level bureaucrats because they want someone on their side running the agency. But if an appointed leader is at an agency long enough, spending all of his or her time around career bureaucrats at that agency, he or she might "go native," that is, adopt the culture and opinions of the other people at the agency. This could lead to the appointed leader doing things the president might not like.

Advantages of redundancy -Landau

Redundancy is good within an administration for several reasons. The first of these is that redundancy decreases the chance of an error. A second is this increases interdependence within an organization, and thus a more holistic understanding of how an organization operates. Redundancy allows for equipotentiality which then allows for a more adaptive organization than one without redundancy. Redundancy also gives a safety net to an organization if one part of the administration is failing. The role of redundancy in an organizational system was explained by Martin Landau's article Redundancy, Rationality, and the Problem of Duplication and Overlap (1945). In the article, Landau points out several advantages to having redundancies in a system. These advantages include the fact that many redundant systems ensure "reliability" (p. 285). Reliability is ensured by having systems that either review another part of the system's results or simply repeat the job at a different time. In the case where there is no redundancy the whole system is at risk of developing a defunct product or service. The absence of a review process guarantees that the system develops and produces something to its end and then reveals the problem. In this sense, redundancy is not viewed as a pathology, but rather a safety feature. This idea of redundancy coincides with Philip Selznick's idea of cooptation and the approach of bureaucratic systems to expand themselves. Redundant systems develop as organizations expand and begin producing a more complicated product or service.

Structural (Managerial) Approach -Rosenbloom

Rosenbloom first examines the managerial aspect of public administration. He describes its values in words such as "businesslike" and "efficient" and draws on other authors such as White, Simmons and Dvorin, and former president Wilson. The attitude and language used to describe show examples of the mechanical and robot-like efficiency of the bureaucracy. One which transforms natural actions and consequences into simple inputs and outputs. Those values then introduce the many structural aspects, several are easily recognizable by Weber's description of the "ideal-type bureaucracy": specialized, hierarchical, small overlap, rational, etc. Finally, Rosenblooms focuses on the individual and how the bureaucracy depersonalizes them. When efficiency is the primary goal of a public administration, people are treated less like humans and more like cases. Inputs and outputs are easy to compute in the vast system of the bureaucracy. However, when jobs and cases are position-oriented and focused on being as efficient as possible, cases-by-case needs and wants get swept under the rug. Since the structural approach does not exist, I can only assume she means the managerial approach. The managerial approach emphasizes effectiveness, efficiency, and economy. According to the managerial approach, a positive outcome involves minimal input and maximal output. This approach utilizes hierarchy and aspires to minimize overlapping responsibilities. Administrators should be hired and promoted on the basis of merit and should appear politically neutral. This approach views the individual as a single cog in the machine, and seeks to "depersonalize" individual situations by treating them as "cases". The managerial approach is affiliated with thinkers such as Woodrow Wilson, Fredderick Taylor, and Luther Guilick. Rosenbloom equates the managerial approach with the executive branch of the federal government

Social Affiliation Needs - Ouchi & Jaeger

Society relies upon community ties such as family, church, etc. to maintain a stable life; urbanization, mobility, and division of labor caused by factory system production and rapid technological advancement have weakened these ties. These weakening of ties can lead to alcoholism, divorce, crime, and other mental illnesses. Work organizations can be used as replacements for lost systems of community. Employment effects socioeconomic status, children's education, vacations, health care, and retirement. Each of these has a direct impact on quality of life and in turn the social affiliation needs of the employee. Ouchi & Jaeger's solution is to create an American system which promotes ties within the work organization while still maintaining individual freedoms. The most community intensive is in Type J, and the least in Type A. Type Z is a sort of hybrid between the two that is argued to be beneficial for Americans in modernization, as there's little to no chance they could go straight to a Type J system. Social ties were once heavily bonded to communities, church, family, etc. Rapid technological change produced high mobilization and division of labor that led to urbanization, weakening the traditional institutions and causing social ills. According to Abraham Maslow, all people have needs for affiliation, belongingness, or love. Organizations must provide basic stability to produce higher mental health and meet the affiliation needs that people are no longer receiving outside of work if they wish to remain relevant and effective.

"There are no real conservatives in Congress." -Greider

Stockman wrongly predicted the bull market and his plans weren't working out as he had hoped, so he lost faith in the system, and he blamed Congress as not having any real conservatives because Congressmen were more concerned with their constituents than any real ideology. Like the classical approach, mhe saw the legislature as a roadblock, if they wanted anything real to happen they needed to avoid Congress This stems from Stockman's fundamental cleavage from the majority of representatives in that he is ideologically motivated rather than policy motivated. Ideologically, conservatives generally vote to reduce government size and spending, and would sacrifice local benefit programs for their respective district in order to promote this belief. Now, according to Stockman, this does not exist. This leads to the only realistic way to reduce deficits being to avoid the legislative, and therefore popular and democratic process, because any sort of cut no matter how small or minute will be opposed by some interest group or representative. That being said, this promotes the major concern of the classical approach, in that the legislative process is a roadblock, leading to the dismissal of democratic norms because they are inefficient and have no benefit to an executive agenda and 'execution'.

Power and Limitations to Expertise - Greider

The Education of David Stockman follows the tell-all nature of David Stockman's conversations with William Greider, in turn causing controversy within the Reagan administration and resulting in a direct blow to Stockman's credibility. One of the main reasons Stockman was able to keep his job was that he carried an immense weight on his shoulders and had the expertise to complete the three goals that Reagan had promised during his campaign: to increase military spending, decrease taxes, and balance the budget. The other reason was that Reagan's forgiveness of Stockman bolstered his public image, in turn re-establishing his power and legitimacy as president. Though Stockman had this expertise (at a relatively young age), these contradictory goals that Reagan presented were not an easy feat to accomplish. Hence, the limitation of Stockman's expertise comes into play. It was Stockman's transparency about these limitations that landed him in hot water with the president (and the public), leading Reagan to "take him to the woodshed", as Stockman put it. David Stockman's expertise gave him power, in the form of director of the OMB for Reagan, but this power was still limited by the democratic and bureaucratic fragmentation that makes up american government. His expertise was also perhaps too specialized, as he did not perform very well in the political environment in which he attempted to strategically adjust. His narrow expertise worked against him in politics, but favored him after Reagan "took him to the woodshed", and he was able to keep his job because no one else really knew what was going on with the budget management policies and calculations. Reagan in turn, used Stockman's poor performance in budget cutting as a PR opportunity and publicly forgave him, using spin control/damage control to maintain his own power over his public image (since public opinion heavily influences executives). Power of interest groups- represents further fragmentation of power, political pressures, and the effects of $ on public officials

Human Relations model

The Human Relations model is a view that is most evidently seen in the works of Douglas McGregor's The Human Side of Enterprise, Mary Follett's The Giving of Orders, and William Ouchi and Alfred Jaeger's Type Z Organization. The Human Relations Model was a response to the Classical Model and A counter-model to Weber's Classical Model which hoped to remedy many of the antipersonal outcomes that the Classical Model lead to. The Human Relations Model focused on socialization of the manager with the employee through formal events and work-related parties. There was a heavier focus on individualism and the stress that can come with higher-up jobs. Collective responsibility to make the individual feel more integrated with the group and not so afraid to be incorrect and right their wrongs. McGregor, Ouchi, and Jaeger are some of the key figures that prescribe to the Human Relations Model.

Legal Approach -Rosenbloom

The Legal Approach used to be fully eclipsed by the managerial approach, but, now it is more relevant. It is derived from three sources. First, Administrative Law is a part of the law which fixes the organization and determines the competence of executors of law. (Roger Goodnow). Marshall Dimock says it is the expectations, limits, and sets forth rights of individual and group. Second, Judicialization is similar to admin law but more concerned with safeguarding individual rights, bringing legal procedure and agencies are like courts. Finally, Constitutional Law: vast expansion in the requirement that administrators afford procedural due process, equal protection was strengthened. It gives administrators incentive to stay away from corruption and to individual rights. The three values are Procedural due process, individual substantive right from Bill of Rights and 14th amendment, equity (fairness). Legal approach downgrades zero-sum game of managerial and instead focuses on individual and securing rights to individuals. Rosenbloom was a key author for the classical approach to public administration. With Wilson and Weber he was integral to the field and laid groundwork for others to go off of. In his major work dealing with public administration and separation of powers Rosenbloom outlined three separate approaches to public administration: managerial, political, and legal. In the legal approach, administrative law and judicialization of administration are both critical elements. Administrative law defines the nature of public administrators and the practices of public entities. While judicialization of administration concentrates heavily on the establishment of procedures designed to safeguard individual rights. The largest take away from the approach has many larger implications for the field, and democracy itself: The legal approach downgrades the cost/benefit reasoning of the managerial approach. This approach focuses on individual rights, instead of the cost to society of securing those rights. This focus on individual rights is critical for modern democracy and life in America, as the focus on the individual drives many modern policies.

Orders from the situation -Follett

The concept of "orders from the situation" comes from Mary Follet's 1926 essay "The Giving of Orders." The idea is that orders should be derived from the situation in which the orders must be given. Meaning that orders should not come from far away, upper management rather it should come from those who are directly dealing with the situation. This facilitates Follet's overall idea that "depersonalizing the giving of orders, and to unite all concerned in a study of the situation" is the goal of a good administrative body. A manager exercising either too much or too little of their authority against their subordinate can lead to the depersonalization of the subordinate. Using excessive authority can lead to a "bossing" or tyrannical view of the manager from the subordinate. Too little authority being exercised by a leader can make the worker feel as though there is no direction or structure to the work they do. If those in supervisory positions should depersonalize orders, then there would be no overbearing authority on the one hand, nor on the other that dangerous laissez-aller attitude which comes from the fear of exercising authority. This is why Follett makes the case to replace the face-to-face suggestion with the long-distance.

Administration and power -Long

The lifeblood of administration is power. Power does not come from an agency's laws and powers given to them, it is how they use it accordingly, and expand on that power. For example, the OMB under Stockman was meant to only give financial help on a president' budget proposals but stockman took it a step further to actually design it it himself so it could be in accordance with his formula he made. He didn't have to do that but he chose to. Norton E. Long wrote about the interaction of administration and power, changing the field of public administration. To Long, the entire purpose of administration is to have power. In this power struggle, Long introduces the secretaries, and who he calls the natives. The natives are permanent employees in the bureaucracy, and often have very close relationships with interest groups as they have been cultivated over time. In this power struggle, the secretaries often "marry" the natives, creating a therefore closer tie with interest groups. To Long, the most effective secretary acts as an entrepreneur. This unique mindset is immensely helpful in not only the bureaucracy but overall public administration theory. The struggle for power within government administration changes democracy and the idealist theory of government to a much more corrupt and many would say, dirty, system.

Magic asterisk -Greider

The magic asterisk was a budgeting tactic used by the Reagan administration to hide possible cuts to an organization. This allowed for the Reagan administration to then transfer funds from one organization to another without many people realizing what had happened. This was also used to promise good numbers that would help balance a budget, but did not have to be given to the public yet. The Magic Asterisk concept is from William Greider's article The Education of David Stockman. This refers to David Stockman's strategy of moving the goalpost of "future deficit problems" to a later date. It was a recognition that in order to get the proposed budget through congress, there had to be public support and answers to questions about the impact of radically changing government spending. This tactic was used to specifically target political leaders in the legislature. It was useful in that it ensured Stockman and other administration officials would not and could not answer questions about deficit struggles in the future. By saying that other major deficit-related programs would be altered at a later point, this made it very difficult for lawmakers to get specific answers and therefore form an opposition to President Reagan's budget.

Assumptions of human's desire to work -McGregor

The natural man is lazy, lacks ambition and responsibility, Selfish, Resistant to change, Gullible. This is part of McGregor's Theory X which is basically Weber's machine and Rosenbloom's Managerial Approach. It is a reason for why individual in workplace should be catered to more, so motivation can be improved. Relationships with bosses are important as Parker supports this view as self-actualization in Maslow's Triangle can be achieved with boss motivation. As a whole, McGregor's view of human behavior suggests that individuals should be personalized in bureaucracy more in order to make them more efficient. This benefits democracy because there is less waste and people can have a high voice in administrative duties. McGregor is a key scholar in the Human Relations model of public administration. McGregor along with Follett, Ouchi and Jaeger, and others formed this important model that would go on to affect all other major public administration theory. In McGregor's main work on human enterprise, mainly dealing with corporations, he began by outlining the conventional Theory X in public administration. This included a man who by nature was indolent. This average man automatically worked as little as possible. Next, McGregor explained Theory Y, differing greatly from Theory X. Theory X places exclusive reliance upon external control of human behavior while Theory Y relies heavily on self-control and self-direction. In Theory Y McGregor explains the importance of opportunities at work to satisfy higher-level needs so people will not be deprived of their higher levels of self-fulfillment. Offering opportunities for self development often increases intrinsic motivation. This idea had a massive effect on public administration at the time when managers were relying on the carrot-and-stick approach to motivate their employees, with little success. Consequently, new tactics in the workforce also affect the personal lives of everyday Americans, and therefore America itself. The application of human talents can enhance substantially achievements and bring humanity one step closer to the good society, and improve humanity as a whole.

Trojan Horse Remark -Greider

The new economics policy Reagan was trying to implement was not a new idea but simply new language to conceal Republican Doctrine David Stockman, a former representative from Michigan, was appointed as the director of the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) under Ronald Reagan. During this time, he was interviewed by William Greider, a journalist for the Atlantic. A staunch conservative, Stockman was tasked with three paradoxical campaign promises of Reagan to propose a budget. These were raising defense spending, cutting income taxes, and balancing the budget. In the end, he was unsuccessful in this, and created more federal debt than any previous President. In his interview, Stockman admitted to not completely understanding the numbers that he was tasked with. He also admitted that "Kemp-Roth (the 1981 tax cut) was always a Trojan horse to bring down the top rate". They told the public that the tax cut was a "supply side formula". There would be more investors in the economy if the government signaled that inflation would be lowered. While Reagan was still trying to push the "supply side" argument to Congress, Stockman admitted that the policy was simply only for the rich. This was one of the main points of controversy within the interview that lead to scandal and almost his firing. Woodrow Wilson's argument of the "information advantage" can easily be applied here. Stockman has more knowledge of the proposed cut, so he was able to use the information as a power advantage over Congress, and then he was able to use the information in, as some would argue, a manipulative way to get it passed.

Political Approach -Rosenbloom

The political approach to public administration grew out of Paul Appleby's observation during the New Deal, the Second World War, and developed from an analysis of apparent empirical reality. It stresses the value of representativeness, political responsiveness, and accountability through elected officials to the citizenry. It must be structured to enable faction to counteract faction by providing political representation to a comprehensive variety of the organized political, economic, and social interests that are found in the society at large. It tends to view the individual as part of as aggregate group, and identifies the individual's interests as being similar or identical to those of others considered to be within the same group or category. Origins and values Emphasizes the values of Representatives, responsiveness, and accountability Organization structure Emphasizes advantages and extent of public pluralism, they are led by interest groups that sustain them Bureaucratic growth over time is a response to political demand of organized groups for representation View of individual Individuals are as members of their groups Their views are assumed to be aligned with these groups they are party of

Role of Public Opinion-Wilson

The role of public opinion is to ensure the liberty and effectiveness of government, it creates the authoritative critic from the public which helps to keep government honest Wilson argues that democracies are harder to organize than monarchies due to the fact that democracies rely so heavily upon public opinion. Because of this, all advancements in the system must be made through compromise, as it is incredibly unlikely that the public will unanimously agree on one particular stance. Education is paramount, as in order for the participation of the public, they must first be educated on what it is they are participating in. Wilson argues that it is the executive's job to educate the public on his stance and persuade them to follow. Truth must become commonplace and plain before the public will act upon it. Wilson argues that mankind is largely unphilosophical and most of mankind votes. Since the executive is the most visible side of government (according to Wilson), it is also the most visible to the public, making it the main focus of public opinion.

Open-systems bureaucratic model

The systematic model which shows the external influences and their effects on the bureaucracy. The system itself contains what could be called the "Black Box", a figurative box which holds all the general and specific functions of public administration. Authors Bennis and Selznick help define the kinds of effects external influences can have on the system. Selznick in particular looks at the role of cooptation in government on the federal and state level using the TVA as a prime example. Bennis on the other hand looks at the almost chaotic nature of the system in its evolution from the classical model to present day. Key features include job mobility, further education, large scale functions, and ambiguity. Bennis (Cooptation guy) and Selznick are both associated with Open Systems Theory. Systems are evolving, they're dynamic and full of uncertainty. Open systems theory suggests taks will become too complex for any single person to oversee, and recommends the creation of temporary organizational structures to address these challenges. It is vastly different from the classical model, as it places a much greater emphasis on individual needs.

Congressional oversight -McCubbins and Schwartz

The traditional view of congressional oversight is that congress has neglected it leading to a loss in control over the bureaucracy. McCubbins and Schwartz argue that congress has not lost oversight power, but instead are employing a different type of oversight. Instead of using police patrol oversight to oversee every little detail (where they would not be able to get much else done and would likely miss actual problems) they use fire-alarm oversight, where problems are brought to them as they are noticed by the public so that they can be fixed in the public eye. A consequence of this is the increase in bureaucratic discretion. This article primarily focuses on the types of measures that a congressional house could undertake supervision of the Executive Branch of Government. Both of the following theories were suggested as potential ways this oversight could be carried out and it was determined that the fire-alarm type of oversight worked best because it effectively limited the amount of relative harm that a congressional official would take in the circumstance that an executive member was found to be guilt of maligning legislative goals by a collective action group. Oversight can be looked at a number of ways according to these two, among which are to look at who the type of oversight will favor, how easy it is to administer in a feasible way, and ease of application to/punishment of administrative officials

Theory Y -McGregor

Theory Y is a new theory of management created by McGregor. McGregor claims this theory is based on more adequate assumptions about human nature and motivation. Theory Y has 4 key elements. 1) Management is responsible for organizing the elements of productive enterprise (money, materials, equipment, people). 2) People are not naturally passive, or naturally resistant to organizational needs - they become passive and resistant as a result of their experiences within organization. 3) Management is responsible for encouraging employees to recognize and develop characteristics like motivation, the potential for development, the capacity for assuming responsibility, and the readiness to direct behavior toward organizational goals. 4) Management should arrange organizational conditions so that people can achieve their own goals by directing their own efforts towards organizational objectives. Theory Y is a response to theory X, or the classical view. Theory Y is associated with the human relations view of public administration.

Democratic implications of cooptation (class discussion) -Selznick

There are both positives and negatives with how cooptation impacts democracy. On the one hand, cooptation gives a voice to people that previously did not have an impact on the decision making matrix. This is turn increases participation, which is good for a democracy. On the other hand, if these individuals who now have influence over an administration are from outside the administration and are using their cooptation to get what they want at the expense of others this is not good for democracy. In addition to this, in informal cooptation individuals can have a much larger than proportional impact on a democracy and may not have the public's best interests at heart. Cooptation was discussed by Philip Selznick as a natural reaction to threats to power of bureaucratic institutions. Selznick used cooptation to explain how relatively small government programs could quickly branch themselves out and develop beyond their intended means. Cooptation in democratic systems occurred through the significance of local politics and the role representativeness. Branches of programs are developed as reactions to these ideas. Programs such as the Tennessee Valley Authority required the cooperation of local officials to be effective and efficient. The result was the development of smaller systems to afford the local officials their input.

Bureaucrat's power position relative to political leaders- Weber

There are several aspects of a bureaucrat's power in relation to a political leader. The first of these is that the bureaucrats are supposed to be subservient to political leaders, and often make sure to that, at least in appearance, this occurs. A second aspect of these is that bureaucrats often have far more knowledge on their specific area of expertise than an elected leader, and thus they have that over them in their power relationship. In addition to this, bureaucrats always have the upper hand in policy over elected leaders. The concept of bureaucrats having greater power relative to other political leaders was a key observation from Max Weber's Bureaucracy. Bureaucracy was one of the first works that identified the classical model of public administration and discussed its implications and structure. According to Weber, bureaucrats always have the upper hand in interactions between themselves and political leaders, regardless the appointment of those political leaders. This occurs through a process of bureaucrats exercising their expertise of a subject in a way that entrenches and maintains their own power. The primary way this is done is through keeping secrets of their expertise away from the political leaders that are interested in them. The bureaucracy is benefited greatly from dealing with an ignorant legislature then it can dictate more policy, and hence have more power. This concept states that despite deriving authority from the legislature and, to some degree, being beholden to the legislature and its constituents, the bureaucracy always seeks to mitigate the amount of information that it spreads to other public officials. In doing so, bureaucrats are able to make the policies that they think are correct as any serious questions about policy from the legislators would need to be deferred to the bureaucrats with an expertise in the area.

Need for Professionalization of Bureaucracy -Wilson

There is not one thing in government that was simple that is not now complex-need more specialty to properly do your position (36). The responsibilities of government are increasing in complexity, difficulty, and multiplying in number every day (37). Improve public opinion by educating them about politics. Also, improve public opinion by training people specifically to work as bureaucrat (44). The new modern bureaucracy needs new "parts" and those need to be trained and professional individuals. Woodrow Wilson wrote on bureaucracy in 1877 and is one of the Classical Model theorists. Wilson argued that it is essential that the bureaucracy in the U.S needs to become a professional/business activity. Everywhere else in the world does it that way and so should we. Wilson says that administration should be removed from debates about politics. It is the job to follow through with laws, not decide on them. Basically, bureaucrats are implementing a program, not a agenda. Weber, another member of the classical model, would have agreed with this. Weber stated that people should just simply be "cogs in a machine", meaning that they should only be doing what their specified job is, not making decisions. Both Weber and Wilson would agree that they should be there for their career. This has implications on democracy, basically that the decisions should be made by those who are elected to do so.

Uncertainty, Reliability, and Redundancy -Landau

These three ideas come from Martin Landau's 1969 work "Redundancy, Rationality, and the Problem of Duplication and Overlap." The overall idea is that redundancy reduces uncertainty which results in less overall risk. A good example to think about are the safety features on an airliner. This idea has analogies to U.S. constitutional principles in that the philosophy of an organization is more important than the efficiency of said organization and the concept of checks and balances is similarly represented because uncertainty, reliability, and redundancy help to insure the stability of the system. Errors are bound to take place in a large-scale organization; however, the practice of redundancy can make the practices of the organization more known, thus diminishing the probability of those errors occuring. Mary Parker Follet vouched for person-to-person interaction in the workplace to help reduce a higher probability of miscommunication and error. This goes along with the positive effects that redundancy can have on a bureaucracy. More redundancy leads to a more reliable system with less uncertainty.

Policy-administration dichotomy -Wilson

This concept was introduced by Wilson during the Classical Period. The government (Congress, the President) makes decisions of value when making policy, and administration figures out how to carry it out. Administration is a business activity and administrators are there to get a job done- not to advocate for a position or to do politicking. However, administrators still have room for discretion in their jobs and Wilson claims that we should trust them with this discretion. The policy-admin dichotomy is important for democracy because it keeps the line of decision making clear - that the ultimate decision makers should be those elected by the people, not unelected bureaucrats. Civil service reform should change the way administration is done in a way that reduces political decision making within the administration. Wilson clearly distinguishes between those things that are political in nature and those things that are to be in the department of administration. He outlines that no political maneuverings or motivations should be the reason or call for action within bureaucracies. "Although politics sets the tasks for administration, it should not be suffered to manipulate its offices." There is a call and argument being made throughout Wilson's piece for administrative reform that will go further than the Civil Service Reform of the era had. The current reform had created an altogether better system of delegation but had not yet honed in its moral foundations on the very actions that the civil service carried out, and that was the call that Wilson successfully made. In so doing he contributed the first ever scholarly study on the actions and best practices of administrations in the government sector by clearly outlining that public administrations should not operate in a fundamentally different way than those administrations in the private sector; and they should in fact model themselves firmly in the mold of their private predecessors. In the same ways that congress is to make laws and the judiciary is to interpret them while assuring constitutional validity, the administration must ignore both considerations and solely implement and take action non-partisan-ly. His support for an administration that looked like business has been critiqued in that it seems like the value of employees and those who consume products are not being considered. Action without consideration is also what makes additional checks so necessary in the continued executive action of our bureaucracies.

Type A -Ouchi and Jaeger

Type A represents the forms used in north America and western Europe Type A organizations developed in societies with high individual mobility, self reliance, individual responsibility Due to the high mobility in societies that developed Type A organizations it becomes impossible to integrate in several dimensions due to regularity of turnover Type A has higher promotion rate due to turnover, and specialization is a premium to limit training costs of employees that come through

Threats to bureaucracy as we know it -Bennis

Warren Bennis was an important part of the open systems model of public administration. He and others paved a new way for the future of public administration. Bennis described bureaucracy as an ever changing, evolving, hierarchical organization. He predicted it to adapt to form around the industrialization of the 20th century, and many would expand that belief to the 21st century. But, Bennis saw bureaucracy as vulnerable. As it experiences rapid and unexpected changes with the times, bureaucracy with experience massive growth. When the volume of an organization's traditional activities is not enough to sustain this growth, quick changes are necessary. Bennis also saw the complexity of modern technology having an affect on traditional bureaucracy as scholars at the time knew it. In order to adapt, it is necessary to incorporate diverse persons when highly specialized concepts are required in an organization. This idea has a tremendous effect on the larger theory of public administration in the United States as a previously strict hierarchical organization. When individuals become more highly specialized, managers have a harder time understanding the details of the work of each of their subordinates. This is also happening in modern times, and being even more complicated by generational differences. In 2018 we have five different generations in the workforce, all with massively different training and understanding of technology. This creates a kind of technology gap between the old and the young and affects public administration at all levels. Development of technology has also affected the country as a whole, changing the way the government works and the federal, state, and local levels. The government is also expanded quickly as Bennis described, even outside the government as it continues to outsource to private companies, expanding specialization, growing the web of those involved even more. Change in managerial behavior Rapid and unexpected change Productivity per man hour doubles every 20-40 years 1965: federal government spent 16 bill in R&D, 1980: 35 billion Time lag between discovery and recognition in commercial form has decreased by 21 years from WWI to after WWII Huge population increases Growth in size: more complex organizations also Complexity of modern technology where integration of activities and persons of very diverse, highly specialized competence is required. Increase in educations= number of steel, copper, and aluminum industries in total Increase in health= number in automobile industry Increase in financial firms=toal in mining

Advantages of Bureaucracy - Weber

Weber speaks specifically to the technical advantages of bureaucracy, but throughout his work there are allusions to advantages throughout multiple aspects of bureaucracy. Bureaucracy has an immediate advantage in that it is governed by a strict set of laws, so the outcomes and expectations of the bureaucracy and those within it are virtually always the same. These laws are that (1) tasks are often delegated into official duties, (2) authority of command is distributed in a stable way [avoiding coercion of officials], and (3) only those who are qualified to serve do. This stability originally set out by laws is followed by a paper trail in which management is based on written files, so there is a clear presentation of how things are to be done within the bureaucracy. After establishment, bureaucracies are typically stable and difficult to destroy (due to habits and expertise formed by those within). There is hierarchy within the bureaucracy, so it is clear who has the authority to delegate activities as well as who must accept the tasks. Technically speaking, bureaucracies are superior to other forms of organization. Weber uses these terms to describe bureaucracy: precision, speed, unambiguity, knowledge of the files, continuity, discretion, unity, strict subordination, reduction of friction and of the material and personal costs.

Supra-Organizational Goals - Warren Bennis

Workers of an organization need to "wear the hat" of the organization and not "the hat" of their department/clique. The specialized positions form pseudo-species that can be closed off to hostile to those not within their group even if they are a part of the same organization. Training and development can help prevent this- identify people who are links between groups, organizations need to have their managers work with goals of the organization and not their departments, and need to create pathways of communication/integration between the pseudo-species Bennis (1967) was in the NeoClassical/Open Systems Approach. The Neo-Classical and Open-Systems approach to bureaucracy originated as a push-back to the Classical Model and focuses on the understanding that not everything that affects an organization is determined by the leaders of an organization. Bennis wanted there to be "supra-organizational goals" that looked at the goals of the entire company, not just the goals of individual committee's. He wanted there to be groups/ "problem-solving teams" that care about the whole organization and not just their department. There would also be "Linking pins" or individuals who have a facility for psychological and intellectual affinity with a number of diverse languages and cultures. There would be problem-solving teams, managers who should keep overall goals in mind. or individuals, and Inter-group understanding and interface articulation. This is, of course, different than the classical model, because the classical model thought that everyone should be incredibly specialized and focused on their specific task, not the needs of the whole. They also wouldn't have felt the need for people with a psychology affinity to work with others, as they only cared about the needs of the organization and not the individual.

"Cut weak claims, not weak clients" -Greider

wanted to cut those with the weakest arguments toward subsidies wanted to avoid cutting the smaller groups who had better claims to their budgets and subsidies realized cutting smaller clients would do far more damage than if cutting the larger ones

Congress' debilitating collective-action problems - Moe

· collective action problem in Congress · Executive prez. Sits alone at top making decisions while "make decisions only through the laborious aggregation of members' preferences" · "all might benefit if they could cooperate in defending or advancing congress's power, but each has a strong incentive to free ride if support for the collective good is politically costly to them as individuals "