Public Speaking Final
Either-or
Forces listeners to choose between two alternatives when more than two alternatives exist
) Attention
Gain the audience's attention
Terminal Credibility
speaker's credibility AFTER the speech
Initial Credibility
speaker's credibility BEFORE speaking
Derived Credibility
speaker's credibility DURING the speech
○ (5) Action it
state exactly what you want the audience to do and how to do it
Use antithesis
the juxtaposition of contrasting ideas usually in parallel structure
Use imagery
the use of vivid language to create mental images of objects, actions, or ideas
Parallelism
→ similar arrangement of a pair or series of related words, phrases, or sentences
Causal reasoning
(cause and effect)
Analogical reasoning
(comparison of 2 similar cases)
Pathos
(emotional appeal)
Question of policy
- a question about whether a specific course of action should or should not be taken
Comparison
- a statement of the similarities among two or more people, events, ideas, etc.
(2) Need
- make the audience feel a need for change
Monroe's motivated sequence
- method of organizing persuasive speeches that seeks immediate action.
Plan
- second basic issue in analyzing question of policy; is there a problem with current policy, does the speaker have a plan to solve the problem?
Practicality
- the third basic issue in analyzing a question of policy; will the speaker's plan solve the problem? Will it create new and more serious problems?
As your textbook explains, if you want to sound eloquent, you should use words that are unfamiliar to your audience?
FALSE
Appeal to Tradition
Assumes that something old is automatically BETTER than something new "I don't see any reason to abolish the electoral college. It has been around since the ratification of the U.S. Constitution in 1789, and we should keep it as long as the United States continues to exist."
Bandwagon
A fallacy which assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore good, correct, or desirable "The governor must be correct in his approach to social policy; after all, the polls show that 60 percent of the people support him."
Questions of Value
A question/judgment about the worth, rightness, morality, etc of an idea or actions Justify claims by defining the based on established standards Organized topically Use first main point to establish standards and the second to apply them
False Cause
A speaker mistakenly assumes that because one event follows another, the first event is the CAUSE of the second "When a team from the NFC wins the Super Bowl, economic growth during the next year is stronger than when a team from the AFC wins the Super Bowl. Therefore, if we want economic growth, we should root for a team from the NFC to win this year's Super Bowl"
Adapt your nonverbal communication
Adjust your pacing to keep the audience more focused
Fallacies
An error in reasoning
Questions of Fact
Answers can be ABSOLUTE, involve prediction, or be murky/inconclusive Similar to an informative speech Present ONE VIEW of facts Arranged topically
Appeal to Novelty
Assumes that something new is automatically BETTER than something old "Our church should adopt the updated New International Version of the Bible because it is 400 years newer than the King James Version"
Slippery Slope
Assumes that taking a first step will lead to subsequent steps that CANNOT BE PREVENTED "Now that everyone is texting, posting on social media, and sending video messages, it's only a matter of time before people forget how to write complete sentences and the whole English language falls apart."
Ad Hominem
Attacks the person rather than dealing with the real issue in dispute "The head of the commerce commission has a number of interesting economic proposals, but let's not forget that she comes from a very wealthy family."
Monroe's Outline Method
Attention Need Satisfaction Visualization Action
Objects and Models
Brining in the object can be an excellent way to clarify ideas and give them DRAMATIC IMPACT Based on size of object
Extemporaneous speech
Carefully prepared and rehearsed speech presented from a brief set of notes Sounds spontaneous and not rehearsed Has a conversational quality ; does not sound the same as when you are talking to your friends
Guidelines for Online Speaking
Control the Visual Environment Speeches should be formal and polished Setting (quiet room and plain background) Lighting Framing (chest-up view) Make eye contact with the camera Dress presentable and avoid wearing white Adapt your nonverbal communication Adjust your pacing to keep the audience more focused
Real-Time Online Speeches
Created specifically for an audience that will view it online as its being delivered
Speaking to Persuade
Creating, reinforcing, or changing people's beliefs or actions Persuasion accounts for up to 30% of the US GDP Act as an advocate Be honest in what you say Do not quote out of context or only tell parts of the story Know ALL SIDES of the argument ; ethical responsibility to do thorough research Must not only contend with your audience's knowledge, but also their attitudes and beliefs
Recorded Online Speeches
Delivered and recorded before being uploaded
Speaking to Inform
Designed to convey knowledge and understanding Ex: describe an object, show how something works, explain a concept A speaker should avoid abstractions for informative speeches
Guidelines for Informative Speaking
Don't overestimate what the audience knows Relate the subject directly to the audience Don't be too technical Avoid abstractions Personalize your ideas Be creative
Imagery Create word pictures that allow the audience to see, hear, or smell what you are describing to them Use concrete words, similes, and metaphors Rhythm Created by the choice and arrangement of words Repetition Parallelism → similar arrangement of a pair or series of related words, phrases, or sentences Antithesis Alliteration
Imagery Create word pictures that allow the audience to see, hear, or smell what you are describing to them Use concrete words, similes, and metaphors Rhythm Created by the choice and arrangement of words Repetition Parallelism → similar arrangement of a pair or series of related words, phrases, or sentences Antithesis Alliteration
Red Herring
Introduces an IRRELEVANT issue to divert attention from the issue being discussed "How dare my opponents accuse me of political corruption at a time when we are working to improve the quality of life for all people in the United States."
Hasty Generalization
It occurs when a speaker jumps to a conclusion on the basis of too few cases or on the basis of atypical cases College dropouts always make excellent business leaders. Just look at Mark Zuckerberg, Bill Gates, and Steve Jobs. They all dropped out and went on to create powerful companies
Using Language Appropriately
Language needs to be appropriate to a speaker's topic, as well as to the audience.
Using Inclusive Language
Language that does not stereotype, demean, or patronize people on the basis of gender, race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, or other factors Avoid the generic "he" Avoid the use of "man" when referring to men and women Avoid stereotyping jobs and social roles by gender
What is the most commonly used graph?
Line graph
Using Evidence
Listeners want speakers to justify their claims ; especially when they aren't experts on the topic Use SPECIFIC evidence Use novel/new evidence that your audience may not be aware of
Speaking impromptu
Little to no preparation Usually done when answering questions
Powerpoints/slides
Minimal text Theme that isn't distracting PDA: Prompt, Describe, Apply
Using Language Appropriately
Mistakes can diminish credibility and reduce the effectiveness of the speech Use dictionaries and thesauruses to choose between words with similar meanings to make sure your speech is conveying what you are trying to.
Online Speaking
More difficult to gauge the responses of your audience Online Environment→ the elements of internet communication that can influence an online speech Remote audience Factors of technology Forms of interference
Speeches about concepts
Most abstract of the 4 About a belief, theory, idea, notion, principle, etc
Photos and Drawings
Need to be LARGE ENOUGH for the audience to see without straining Do not want to pass things around because it takes time and attention away from the speaker Effective way is to put these items on a slideshow
Speeches about objects
Objects are anything visible, tangible, and stable in from Speeches are on a specific purpose that focuses on one aspect of the object Ex: Medical uses of 3D printers If your specific purpose is to explain the object's history and evolution, the speech will in CHRONOLOGICAL order Everything else is spatial order
Emotions
Pathos (emotional appeal) Make listeners feel something Use emotional language Develop vivid examples
Using Visual Aids
People find a speaker's message more INTERESTING, grasp it more easily, and retain it longer when presented visually and verbally Heightens audience interest Shifts attention AWAY from speaker Gives speaker confidence
Graphs and Charts
Shows statistical trends and patterns in a way that's easier to understand than a bunch of numbers Most commonly used is line graph
Building Credibility
Source credibility/ethos Notable people speaking about the problems being faced in their field Competence→ how an audience regards a speaker's intelligence, expertise, and knowledge of the subject Character→ how an audience regards a speaker's sincerity, trustworthiness, and concern for the audience's well-being
Control the Visual Environment
Speeches should be formal and polished Setting (quiet room and plain background) Lighting Framing (chest-up view) Make eye contact with the camera Dress presentable and avoid wearing white
Degrees of Persuasion
Strongly Opposed Moderately Opposed Slightly Opposed Neutral Slightly in Favor Moderately in Favor Strongly in Favor
Speeches about processes
Systemic senses of actions that lead to a specific result or product Explains how something is made, how something is done, or how something works Either helps the audience UNDERSTAND the process or PERFORM the process Speech is arranged in chronological order
According to your textbook, using inclusive language in a speech is a matter of personal courtesy?
TRUE
As your textbook explains, you should use presentation software to insert well-chosen slides ONLY when they are needed to clarify a specific idea?
TRUE
Good speech delivery conveys a speaker's ideas without calling attention to itself?
TRUE
Methods of Persuasion
The listeners perceive the speaker as having high CREDIBILITY The listener is won over by the speaker's EVIDENCE The listener is convinced by the speaker's REASONING The listener's EMOTIONS are touched
Reasoning
The process of drawing a conclusion based on evidence Reasoning from specific instances→ general conclusion made from particular facts Reasoning from principle→ general principle to specific conclusion Causal reasoning (cause and effect) Analogical reasoning (comparison of 2 similar cases)
Invalid Analogy
The two cases being compared are not essentially ALIKE "Employees are like nails. Just as nails must be hit on the head to get them to work, so must employees"
Speeches about events
Use chronological order
Reciting from memory
Usually shorter speeches Make sure you are not focusing too much on REMEMBERING the words
Reading verbatim from the manuscript
When speeches need ABSOLUTE ACCURACY Ex: a President's message to Congress
Questions of Policy
Whether a specific course of action should be taken Involves question of fact Either gain passive agreement or motivate immediate action Problem-solution order or problem-cause-solution order
Using Language Clearly
You CANNOT assume that just because something is clear to you that it is clear to the audience "You can ensure this by using familiar words, by choosing concrete words over abstract words, and by eliminating verbal clutter" Use familiar words Choose concrete words Concrete words refer to tangible objects More likely to claim the attention of the audience "call up mental impressions of sights, sounds, touch, smell, and taste" Eliminate clutter Using more words than are necessary to convey an idea to the audience
Description -
a statement that depicts a person, event, idea, or the like with clarity and vividness
Use similes
an explicit comparison introduced with the word "like" or "as" between things that are essentially different yet have something in common
Use metaphors
an implicit comparison not introduced with the word "like" or "as" between two things that are essentially different yet have something in common
Non-verbal Communication
based on a person's use of voice and body language Recognize that eye contact affects an audience's perception of the speaker
○Need -
first basic issue in analyzing question of policy; is there a serious problem or need that requires a change from current policy?
Competence
how an audience regards a speaker's intelligence, expertise, and knowledge of the subject
Character
how an audience regards a speaker's sincerity, trustworthiness, and concern for the audience's well-being
○ (4) Visualization
intensify the desire for your plan by visualizing its benefits
○ (3) Satisfaction
provide a solution to the problem
Use repetition
reiteration of the same word or set of words at the beginning or end of successive clauses or sentences
Use alliteration
repetition of the initial consonant sound of close or adjoining words