quiz #2 material

long-term memory

-"storehouse" of memories, mostly stored away/forgotten and can pull certain memories out

perirhinal cortex

-1st part of chain, information goes in (ex: sensory→visual, etc.)

entorhinal cortex

-2nd part (middle) of chain; -gateway in hippocampus (major)

brain (how it works)

-A vast network -Particular functions (e.g. "conscious" memory) are supported by sub-networks (ex: hippocampus) -Particular brain region may support more than one function because it may be part of more than one sub-network (sub-networks are doing something different)

Processes of memory experiment (encoding, consolidation, retrieval):

-Experiment: fear conditioning with rat in box, tone and then foot shock then repeat; back to home cage (24 hour elapses)→ back to tone, if they freeze then they remember the meaning of the tone; oEncoding= tone oConsolidation= time elapsed, no stimulation o retrieval= tone again, remembering it

medial temporal tones (back half of the brain)

-Found in humans and primates (vary slightly) -Basically contains 3 structures: perirhinal cortex, entorhinal cortex, and hippocampus -NOT found in rodents (rodents have hippocampus and surrounding cortex→ postrhinal cortex; homollogus regions -Important for retaining recent declarative memory and forming new declarative memory; Recent= vague (ex: last year, college)

K.C.: hippocampus for forming new episodic declarative memories

-Had bilateral lesion of hippocampus due to motorcycle accident -Unusual memory test: many sessions, presented with picture-sentence pairs from National Geographic: •3 word sentences (ex: medicine cured hiccup paired with picture of man in hospital setting) •Episodic test: showed pictures OR sentences and asked if he had seen them before→ unable to recognize either •Semantic memory test: presentation of pictures, or subject or verb words of sentences and asked to recall object word of sentence (ex: hiccup) → able to produce correct word -Conclusion: hippocampus is important for 1 type of declarative memory (episodic) but not the other type (semantic) (NOT LOOKING AT NEW OR OLD BUT NEW SEMANTIC VS. NEW EPISoDIC)

R.B.: hippocampus for forming new declarative memories

-Had bilateral lesion of hippocampus due to surgery -Post-lesion (new) declarative memory: first study done, asked to read short passage and then recall it 10 minutes later→ R.B. scored extremely low compared to controls and alcoholics -Pre-lesion (old) declarative memory: 2nd study done, asked for short answer to questions about public events→ R.B.'s memory NORMAL (could argue better than controls) -Conclusion: hippocampus (part of medial temporal lobes) is important for new, BUT NOT OLD, declarative memories

brain structure orientations:

-Horizontal Plane ←-> ; Rostral (anterior or front); Caudal (posterior or back); top half of brain -Sagittal plane (top) and Ventral (bottom); left/right side of brain, up and down -Coronal plane and Vetral; front and back of brain split down the middle

factors that affect retrieval: 2

-Match between conditions at encoding and conditions at retrieval (between encoding and retrieval) ; only part of the story •Enhances retrieval •Transfer-appropriate processing- retrieval is easier when cues, context, and cognitive processes during retrieval match those during encoding •Experiment: recognition retrieval better for deep encoding, rhyme retrieval better in shallow encoding •State-dependent (ex: studying when drunk, remembering better when drinking)

factors that affect retrieval:1

-Number of cues available at the time of retrieval •Free call: ex) the term for the type of memory that encompasses episodic and semantic memory is? •Cued recall: ex) the term for the type of memory that encompasses episodic and semantic memory is dec___ memory •Recognition: ex) the term for the type of working memory that encompasses episodic and semantic memory is: a) working memory; b) short-term memory; c) declarative memory

factors that affect retrieval: 3

-Practice at retrieving the memory (enhances later retrieval) •Immediate free recall test (right after study phase)→ read-recite-review group did best (retrieving) •Delayed free recall test (1 week after study phase) →read-recite-review group did best again

Comparing cognitive strategies (in experiment):

-Rehearsal- repeat word to yourself -Imagery- mentally picture each word -Link- mentally link picture of each word with picture of previous word by having them interact -Peg- link each word to a number/rhyme combination by having them interact (ex: 1 is bun; picture the word interacting with a bun) -Loci- method of loci -Best methods in experiment: peg and loci ****

H.M: Medial Temporal lobes for declarative memory

-Severe seizures, had bilateral (both sides) of medial temporal lobes removed -Could not remember new (post-surgery) events and facts (except briefly) → he was impaired regardless of what type of information (ex: visual, auditory) he was asked to recall = AMNESIA -He could not remember old (pre-surgery) events and facts (except for WELL before his surgery)→ most of his intact memories were from before the age of 16 (preserved memories) -Motor skills completely normal, very self-aware -Conclusion: medial temporal lobes are important for somewhat old (but not really old) declarative memory and for forming new declarative memories (ex: me→ would not remember anything beyond elementary school)

Serial-position effect (presentation of material)

-beginning and end portions of a list of items are encoded more easily -Primacy effect- enhanced recall of first items in list -Recency effect- enhanced recall of last items in list -Experiment: students viewing 15 commericals in 2 different lists→ first test showed evidence of serial-position effect, both showed on primacy effect, final test only showed only primacy

neuropsychology

-branch of psychology that studies relation between brain function and (usually human) behavior; looks at brain function -Often examine pattern of impaired and spared abilities in patients who have suffered brain damage; BUT since lesions are accidental, no 2 are identical and they usually encompass multiple brain regions

techniques for assessing brain structure: (how brain is put together)

-dead tissue--> histology -live tissue--> CT, MRI

Depth of processing (cognitive strategies):

-encoding is better when you try to encode the meaning of the material -Shallow processing- surface-based encoding; repeating over and over; "surface" processing (e.g. look or sound rather than what it means) -Deep processing- meaning-based encoding; organizing information (e.g. categorizing), using imagery, relating information to existing knowledge

meaningfulness (characteristics of material):

-encoding is stronger when the material is meaningful to you -Chunking- grouping "bits" of knowledge into larger "bits" (prior knowledge reduces what we must encode) -Ex) chess game→ master vs. random

processes of memory:

-encoding, consolidation, retrieval

hippocampus

-found in medial lobe, important for declarative memory; sausage-like shape -Last part of "chain", sends lots of information back up chain to entorhinal cortex -Important for retaining recent declarative memory and forming new declarative memory; Recent= vague (ex: last year, college) -Important for encoding NEW EPISODIC memories -Important for keeping 2 similar sequences of events separate, which is necessary for encoding new episodic memories oCan represent common and unique elements of overlapping experiences (ex: coming to psyc 104→ same class but different memories of each class→ learning different material each time) -Experiment: subjects asked to encode 2 sequences of 12 faces while undergoing fMRI; overlap condition (4 faces repeated), non-overlap condition, and control; in overlap condition, hippocampus particularly active in response to the face that had appeared in both sequences (new episodic memories→ had already seen the 4 faces because and recognized this) -Experiment 2: rats in "T" maize, alternate left and right turns to get reward (food), while hippocampal neurons being recorded→ single-cell recording of individual hippocampal neurons revealed that sometimes did 1 thing and sometime another (distinguishing)→ ex) trial TYPE (left or right), different RATE on one trial compared to other, different LOCATION on the trial type compared to other •" I just turned right to receive reward so this time I've got to turn left"

Standard consolidation theory (systems consolidation of episodic memories):

-hippocampus is required only for the initial storage and retrieval of an episodic memory -Contribution of hippocampus diminishes over time until the neocortex is capable of retrieving the memory without help from the hippocampus -Hippocampal damage impairs retrieval of newer, but not older, episodic memories because older episodic memories do not require the hippocampus -Experiment: macaque monkeys trained to discriminate between pairs of objects; ocorrect pair was rewarded; ohalf monkeys underwent lesioning of hippocampus at 2,4,8,12,16 weeks after training; other half unoperated (control) o→ monkeys tested for memory of correct pairs→ lesioned monkeys did not remember correct objects if lesion made in 2-4 weeks. But not affected if lesions made 8+ weeks after training oconclusion: in macaque monkeys, hippocampus supports retrieval of object discrimination for 4 weeks after object discrimination learning osupports standard consolidation theory (after 8 weeks, hippocampus not required because by then the memory had been "stored")

anterograde amnesia (looking at consolidation):

-inability to form new memories -Inability to form new declarative memories after injury -long term memories before event stay intact

spreading activation theory (attempt to understand semantic memory):

-items in semantic memory are distanced depending on frequency and contiguity in experience; Activation spreads from item to item (looks like a web) (ex: sunsets connected to car)

functional neuro-imaging

-looks at brain function -Positron emission tomography (PET): measures brain activity by detecting radiation from the decay (positron emission) of a radioactive tracer associated with the brain's use of glucose; not direct measure -Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI): measures brain activity by detection of oxygenation levels of blood, which changes when neurons are active (shows different colors for oxygen) -PET and fMRI rely on difference images; can be used on alive humans but shortcomings -Difference image- difference in activity (e.g. glucose levels; oxygen levels) at each point in a brain image when person is doing an experimental task of interest vs. when they are doing control task; lights up particular task compared to control; brain is never "silent"; difference image= imagine - control; -Well designed control- differs in one way from the experimental task; (ex: face processing→ vs. complex objects which means better experiment, certain area of brain for face possessing "lights up"

histology

-looks at brain structure -microtome- brain "cutting machine", similar to deli meat slicer

structural neuro-imaging

-looks at brain structure -computerized tomography (CT/cat scan): images created by taking multiple x-rays at multiple angels and using a computer to integrate the various signals -magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): images created from temporary disruption of alignment of atoms of tissues (brain), which emit energy as they settle back into stable state

retrograde amnesia (looking at consolidation):

-loss of memories formed before onset of disorder -Most difficultly with declarative memories from immediately before injury (ex: football player that can't remember game that just occurred, or getting old and forgetting) -new memories can still be created

techniques for assessing brain function: (how it works and what it does)

-manipulation: accidental brain damage, experimental lesions, stimulation, intracranial infusions -measure: record activity of brain structure and determine whether and how it responds during a behavioral task-> single-cell recording, EEG, PET, fMRI

episodic-like memory (in non-human animals):

-may be able to remember the "what, where, and when" of events, which are the basic components of episodic memory; (ex: anxiety in humans vs. anxiety-like symptoms in rats) -Ex: scrub jay experiment→ allowed to store worms (decay after 24 hours) and nuts (do not decay) and hide in various locations; where, and what (worm or nut); tested 4 hours and 124 hours later to see what birds remembered→ if <24 hours since storage= worms, if > 24 hours since storage- nuts (worms had gone bad and remembered that)

single-cell recording

-measures changes in action potentials of a neuron during behavior; looks at brain function -Measures action potentials of one neuron at a time (ex: stereotaxic surgery in mouse head)

electroencephalography (eeg)

-measures electrical activity generated at synapses in the brain; Measures combined electrical activity of any thousands of neurons -Difficult to determine exact brain region that changes in activity originate from -Event-related potential- average EEG in response to many presentations of a stimulus (wired-netting around head) -Kind of local field recording

different levels of study of the brain to understand function and structure:

-molecular level (neurotransmitter receptors) -cellular level (neurons) -network level (interactions between groups of neurons) -systems level (interaction between brain areas) -determine whether psychological constructs capture real distinctions (ex: more than 1 type of memory)

retrieval (con't on next slides)

-process of searching for and accessing a memory in long-term storage (ex: remembering answer to multiple choice question on exam) -Retrieval cue can elicit 2 different kinds of declarative memory retrieval: (full episodic reaction) → not only remembering answer to question, but what (ex: the slide), when (ex: Friday), and where (ex:class) oRecollection- episodic memory that includes where and when this stimulus was encountered oFamiliarity- knowing that you've encountered this stimulus before, but not being sure where or when

consolidation

-process of strengthening a memory in long-term storage -Long-term memory takes time for the "pieces" to be "joined" together firmly (consolidated) -While being consolidated, memories are fragile and easily lost -Ex) football player receives blow to head, forgets most recent game but remembers last week's game→ consolidation disrupted -Newer memories more sensitive to disruption -Sometimes return after time

encoding (see next slides)

-process of transferring a stimulus into a memory; info from environment into short term memory→rehearse→continues into long-term memory -Affected by: characteristics of material (meaningfulness), presentation of material (serial-position effect), cognitive strategies of subject (method of loci, depth of processing)

experimental brain lesions

-removal or deactivation of specific brain regions in to study relation between brain function and behavior -Can make precise, reproducible lesion of single brain region; BUT must infer what this means for human brain

hierarchical theory (attempt to understand semantic memory)

-semantic memories are composed of "nodes" (e.g. bird, ostrich) and "links" (relations between concepts) arranged in a hierarchy (ex: animal [very general]→ bird or fish, then more specific) -Should take longer to verify a sentence as true when it contains items separated by more links (e.g. ostriches lay eggs vs. birds have wings) -But a strict "hierarchy" doesn't always seem hold (e.g. an ostrich is an animal, can be faster to verify than, an ostrich is a bird)

episodic vs. semantic memory (related?)

-semantic memory is dependent upon episodic memory: Without episodic memory, no semantic memory, New info also part of an episode, Through rehearsal info can be abstracted from its original context and represented in semantic (fact) terms -Semantic memory is not dependent upon episodic memory: Without episodic memory, semantic memories can still be stored after much repetition (although these memories tend to be hyper-specific)

memory components:

-short term, long term memory

semantic memory

-type of declarative memory -can potentially loose one, but not the other; -memory system for facts about yourself and the world; facts, all of your other conscious memory (ex: old, tall, thing), (ex: taking an exam) -May be "built up" out of "commonalities" in many separate episodic memories (e.g. "dogs always look, act, and sounds a certain way") -Contains verbal and non-verbal knowledge in terms of meaning and concepts -Not necessarily tagged with spatial or temporal context -Can be personal or general info (ex: what was your home address while attending high school?) -Learned in a single exposure, but can also be strengthened by repetition -Organized by meaning→ organization allows us to retrieve the right memory out of the storehouse -not organized by location→ if they were, the types of retrieval errors you made would be unpredictable (ex: where is Rira's located? "It is blue and fuzzy.") ; types of retrieval errors we make are predictable in terms of being at least related to what we are trying to retrieve

episodic memory

-type of declarative memory -very disagreed upon -Memory system of personal events; Tulving→ believed only humans had episodic memory; memory system for a particular time and place, including your experience of "being there" and an awareness that it happened in the past -"I remember"; must be autobiographical; (ex: describe an incident that occurred to you while attending high school) -Learned in a single exposure; can be weakened by exposure to similar events -"What, where, when" (known as spatial and temporal context); allows us to "mentally time travel"; -More often impaired in amnesia that semantic memory that were not being studied in the laboratory at the time -Originally proposed simply as a description of other aspects of memory that were not being studied in the lab at the time; Evidence supporting a distinction between episodic and semantic memory came later and is largely based on patient studies and functional neuroimaging

declarative memory:

-type of long term memory -memories you can talk about; Conscious

non-declarative memory:

-type of long term memory -memory expressed in behavior, don't really talk about it; "muscle memory" (ex: movements your body makes); -unconscious

method of loci (cognitive strategies):

-when you have a list of things to remember, you mentally follow a well known route, imagining each of the to-be-recalled items at a location; recall involves "re-walking" the route -Ex: medieval scholars recalled thousands of facts by locations spread through churches, theaters, and cities; Matteo Ricci devised a memory palace to provide sufficient locations for teaching scripture; using locations along familiar city streets, but also described "losing" objects that he "placed" behind objects or in the dark away from the street lights -Deeper the coding→ the better the memory; (ex: placing objects around the house, helps memory, objects represent different things)

Hippocampus regions in humans: 3 case studies (see next slides)

HM, RB, KC