Religions in World Cultures: Final

The Coral Rosary of Indian Antiquities

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Salat

__________ is a ritual prayer said five times a day: a sunrise, at noon, in mid afternoon, at sunset, and one hour after sunset. Prayers must be performed whenever one finds oneself at the hours of prayer. A mosque is a building for prayer. Each mosque typically has a tower, called a minaret.

Ashura

"The Tenth" of Muharram, day of Husain's death, observed by Shi'as as a day of mourning

Adam's Peak

A mountain in south central Sri Lanka, regarded as sacred

What is ritual? In addition to at least one paragraph offering your definition of ritual, compare and contrast one ritual of Islam to two rituals from any other traditions we have studied this semester.

Define Ritual: A ritual is symbolic action in worship, meditation, or other religious ceremonies. It is symbolic and often abstract, but meant to achieve very practical goals. Ritual includes formal and informal prayer, sacrifice, chanting of scriptures, public processions, and even travel. Ritual can be long, elaborate ceremonies performed by religious specialists or simple daily acts such as a short prayer before eating a meal or going to sleep. Rituals are directed to one God, many gods or spirits of deceased ancestors. Ritual is not only symbolic but also effective, helping to reenact and reapply the deep truths of a religion to people in the present. Pilgrimage -- travel to a special destination to increase one's devotion or improve one's religious status. One Ritual of Islam: Journey to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, during the Month of Pilgrimage. Mecca is seen as the very center --geographically and spiritually-- of Islam. Before entering Mecca, one must be physically and spiritually cleaned. A man will shave his head, take of his clothes, and put on two large triangular pieces of linen. A woman will not shave her head; however, she will bathe and wear a traditional Muslim full body veil, and will remain in a women's group, apart from the men, apart from men for the pilgrimage. During the pilgrimage ritual restrictions are observed in dressing, acting, speaking, and eating. The pilgrims then walk seven times around the cube-shaped shrine, the Kaaba, at the open-air center of the Grand Mosque, becoming closer with each circle. The ritual ends when the sacred stone, is touched, a meteorite embedded in the shrine by Abraham himself three thousand years ago. Following the touching of the stone, the pilgrims run seven times back and forth between the two hills, just as Abraham's wife Hagar ran between them until an angel gave her water from the Zamzam well. These two hills are now inside the Grand Mosque and are connected by a long hallway. The pilgrims then drink water from the Zamzam before leaving this area. Next, the pilgrims move out of the city of Mecca and gather on the Plain of Arafat, near the Mount of Mercy. From the afternoon prayer, to the sunset prayer, the pilgrims stand in the presence of Allah by praying, meditating, and reading the Qur'an, the holy scripture of Islam. That evening, the pilgrims walk back to the village of Mina, where they live in an enormous tent for three days. Sheep and goats are slaughtered in the evening as offering to God, then roasted and eaten in happy feasts. These sacrifices commemorate Abraham sacrificing an animal to God instead of his son Ishmael. The next day, the pilgrims throw small stones at three pillars representing the devil. Every pilgrim is expected to do this, symbolizing the rejection of evil, a life-long task. Then, the pilgrims go back into Mecca and walk the Grand Mosque one more time, thus completing the pilgrimage. "No one who goes on the pilgrimage will ever be the same again". Note: The Hajj is pilgrimage to Mecca & a Hajji is a man who has recently made the pilgrimage to Mecca. Ratijagas (Hinduism) are celebratory night wakes that women perform in conjunction with important rights of passage, especially births and marriages, and refutes the premise that the impact of women's performed at home is contained and circumscribed by location. Attended by women traveling between households, they breach walls and influence social life in realms beyond their domicile. Passover celebrates the escape of the Hebrews from Egyptian slavery. A special meal called the seder, with various foods including unleavened matzoh bread, is the highlight. The Haggadah is the text used at the seder, the festival ritual holiday meal of Passover. The Haggadah (literally, "the telling") provides instructions for the rituals performed by each family at its own seder. This popular observance is held on the first, or both the first and the second nights of Passover. The seder is an exercise in responsibility that extends to one's family and beyond, to the local and even worldwide community of Jews.

Sawm

In commemoration of Muhammad receiving the Qur'an, Muslims are required to observe fasting, called in Arabic, __________, during the daylight hours throughout the month of Ramadan. This is designed to cultivate a greater submission to God. Not a bit of food or drink may be taken for the entire daylight hours. Sexual intercourse during the daylight is also forbidden, as are some types of amusement. Eating, drinking, and sex are permissible in the morning while it is still dark and after sunset. When the month of Ramadan is finished, Muslims celebrate the Eid-al-Fitr festival with a special service at the mosque. Families feast together during the day and exchange gifts in decorated homes.

Imam

Literally, "He" who stands before; Spiritual leader of the Shi'a tradition beginning with Ali and continuing through a line of his descendants. The leader of prayer at a mosque.

Muhammad

Muhammad Ibn ("son of") Abdullah was the founder of Islam. Muhammad was born around 570 C.E. in Mecca, the largest city in the Arabian Peninsula, into a relatively humble family of the Quraysh tribe that controlled Mecca. He was orphaned as a boy and raised by relatives. Eventually he came to work for a widow engaged in trade, Khadija. When she suggested marriage to him, he agreed, even though she was fifteen years older than he. Muhammad and Khadija were devoted exclusively to each other; while she lived, he didn't take another wife. They had six children together, four girls and two boys, but the boys died in childhood. Muhammad prospered and became a wealthy merchant, and his extensive travel for business brought him into contact with Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians as well as Hanifs and believers in many gods. In 610 C.E., Muhammad was meditating continually for days and nights in a cave outside Mecca. There he saw visions that came in a dream-like state and revealed the word of God to him. When he fell into a trance, the angel Gabriel spoke to him. "Recite!" the angel commanded, and Muhammad submitted to this command, reciting Gabriel's words to others. In a short time, the uncertain speaker of truth became a bold prophet. He had been transformed by submitting to one true God who spoke to him, and in his submission he found freedom and courage. According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad received his first revelation from Gabriel the night of the twenty-seventh day of the month of Ramadan, and the month-long fast all Muslims undertake for Ramadan celebrates the giving of the revelations. Most of Muhammad's early prophetic message to the Meccans had two main themes. First, only one God Exists, Allah, Arabic for God, who commands people to believe in this one God and to submit to God's holy will. Second, a day of judgment will certainly come, when those who have submitted to God will be regarded forever, and those who have not will be punished eternally. In 622 C.E. the Prophet and his followers fled Mecca for Medina, about 200 miles north. This relocation is called the Hijra, "flight", and is used to mark the year 1 A.H., "in the year of the flight". Muhammad would live in Medina for the rest of his life. There, Islam developed into a well-organized religious-political community called the umma, a complete way of life for its followers. In 624 C.E. the Muslims had a large military victory over Mecca in the Battle of Badr. Finally in 630 C.E. Muhammad's army caused Mecca to surrender without a fight. Muhammad now had control of Mecca, removing all idolatrous images from the city, leaving behind only the sacred cubic building and its holy stone that was believed to have come directly from God. In 632 C.E. Muhammad died bringing into question who would be the caliph, the "representative" or "successor" of Muhammad. This successor would not receive new revelations from Gabriel or change Islam in major ways, but would lead the community in its political and religious life. Since Muhammad had no surviving sons, the leading choice from his family was his cousin Ali, who was also his son in law, married to Muhammad's daughter. Abu Bakr, Muhammad's father in law, becomes his successor. Division grew over who was the rightful successor. The groups that grew form this division are the Shi'as or Shi'ites, "followers" or "party" of Ali, and the Sunnis, the "people of the tradition", who formed the majority of Muslims. When Abu Bakr, and subsequently Umar, died, Uthman, a member of the Umayyad tribe, became caliph in 644 C.E. Uthman gathered all of Muhammad's revelations, which were recorded on parchment, palm leaves, and even pieces of wood, kept what was authentic and destroyed the rest, resulting in the Qur'an, as it is known today. In 656, Ali finally becomes Caliph. Ali had two sons, Hassan and Hussain, and when he died in 661 C.E., the Shi'as claimed them to be the rightful successors. Hassan fell ill and died soon after. In 680 C.E. Hussain's army battled the Sunnis near the town of Karbala in present-day Iraq. The Sunnis cut of Shi'a army's water supply and proceeded to destroy them, cutting of the head of Hussain in the process, and throwing it over the wall of Karbala, later became known as the Karbala Massacre. The day of Husain's death, the tenth of of Muharram, is observed by Shi'as as a day of mourning -- called Ashura, "the tenth". Husain's death is now viewed as a martyrdom, a holy death, for the true form of Islam. On Ashura, many Shi'a men connect with Husain's martyrdom by lashing themselves with chains and whips until their blood flows. In Short: Muhammad is believed to be the human conduit of God's revelations.

Qur'an

Muslims believe that the archangel Gabriel divinely revealed to Muhammad the __________, the perfect copy of an eternal, heavenly book. The name __________ means "recitation", which reflects the main origin and use of the scripture, oral communication -- first from Gabriel to Muhammad, then from Muhammad to his followers. The __________ is divided into 114 chapters called surahs, and each chapter is divided into verses. Note: The __________ gives virtually no historical narratives, being mostly made up of teaching and commands.

Sikhism

Sikh means disciple or student. Because the religion was founded by a line of gurus or "teachers", it is appropriate that those who follow it are called "students". __________ is the common everyday name for the religion of the Sikhs. The early Sikh community called it the Panth, meaning "path".

Guru Nanak

Sikhism was established by __________ around 1499 C.E. and then led by nine other gurus. Sikhs believe that all ten gurus had the same soul, that of __________. The tenth guru, Gobind Singh, led a change in Sikhism from pacifism to militarism. When he died in 1708, the soul of these gurus was believed to have gone into the scripture of Sikhism, the Guru Granth. Now this soul is believed to reside in each and every true copy of this scripture -- the soul of the Guru became the soul of the Granth

Islam in Kenya & East Africa

The Giriama people of coastal Kenya are routinely possessed by Muslim spirits which hold their bodies hostage, afflicting them with illness and vomiting until they agree to abandon their customary practices and embrace Islam. Those possessed apparently somatize a hegemonic system of oppressive meanings according to which Giriama ethnicity is essentially different from, and polluting to, Islam. Yet the same individuals who embody hegemony in this way may reflect upon their possession experience by articulating a defiant ideology of resistance against both the possessing spirit and the Muslim ethnic groups that the spirit represents. These observations thus highlight the complexity of the relationship between hegemony and the individual; they also provide a reminder that the idiom of possession does not necessarily articulate with power structures in a predictable and straightforward fashion. Note: Hegemony occurs when those in social power use their influence to convince less powerful people it is in their best interest to do what is actually in the people of power's best interest Note: Giriama have long been pressed to convert to Islam by Swahili and Arab patrons.

ISIS

The Islamic State of Iraq & Syria (ISIS) is a radical militant group founded in 1999 by former religious and military leaders in the Iraqi government of Saddam Hussein. Similar to the Taliban, ISIS tries to conquer and hold territory. It regards itself as a nation even though no other nation in the world does. At the end of 2015, ISIS had control of over ten million people in large parts of Iraq and Syria, as well as more limited power in parts of Libya and Nigeria, where the Muslim militant movement known as Boko Haram, literally "western schooling is evil", joined with ISIS in 2015. ISIS has recently declared itself a worldwide caliphate, with its founder Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi as its caliph. It claims religious, political, and military authority over all Muslims worldwide. and its violent activities supposedly protect and expand its authority. ISIS has been consistently ferocious in applying its extreme interpretations of Muslim law to its territories. This includes barring women from public life, enforcing strict dress codes for men and women, large scale killings of religious minorities in Syria and Iraq who refuse to convert to Islam. ISIS often posts graphic videos of beheading of prisoners of war and captured Western aid workers and journalists. ISIS also forces thousands of minority women and girls to be sex slaves for purchase by the ISIS military. ISIS encourages Muslims throughout the world to engage in "lone wolf" terror attacks in their own lands. Notable attacks include the bombing of a Russian airliner over Egypt and the terror attacks in Paris. How can we understand ISIS in the interpretive, political, and cultural history of Muslims?

Eid al-Adha

The Muslim festival that marks the end of the annual pilgrimage to Mecca.

Zakat

The Qur'an urges all Muslims to give generously to the poor, such as orphans and widows. The Shari'a made this generosity a formal obligation with specific rules, and it has become so important that it is the fourth pillar of Islam, called __________, "almsgiving" or "charity". Although it is an obligation, Muslims are expected to be generous from the heart, out of liberty. In most Islamic lands it is a monetary obligation collected by a representative of the umma, often a department of the government. It is then distributed to poor families, widows and orphans, stranded travelers, and others in need. Zakat is one-fortieth or 2.5% of the value of one's assets.

Hadith

The __________ is a traditional report recording a saying or action of Muhammad. Literally translated to "traditions" the __________ point to Muhammad's life and teachings as indications of how Muslims should act. It is viewed as an important context through which to understand the more difficult material in the Qur'an. The __________ include many saying that are attributed to Muhammad, which can be used to clarify the Qur'an, and thus their authority comes close to that of the Qur'an itself. Among the __________ are various stories, including Muhammad's Night Journey from Mecca to Jerusalem and back to Mecca, as well as his ascent to heaven while in Jerusalem to receive revelations.

Shahada

The __________ is the "confession" of Islam; here, "confession" means a formal statement of faith, not a confession of sin. It runs: "There is no god by God, and Muhammad is God's prophet".

Five Pillars of Islam

The core practices of Islam are all related to worship and ritual and form what is known as the Five Pillars of Islam (Shi'a generally recognize ten pillars). The pillar include the practice of confession of faith, prayer, fasting, almsgiving, and pilgrimage to Mecca. More specifically, Shahada, Salat, Sawm, Zakat and Hajj.

The Five K's

The five items of appearance and dress for Khalsa members: Kesh (uncut hair), Kanga (comb), Kirpan (sword), Kara (bracelet), and Kachha (underpants)

Khalsa

The tenth guru, Gobind Singh, who died in 1708, was the most important guru since Nanak. His portrait and that of Guru Nanak are prominently displayed in Sikh homes. The son of the ninth guru, he brought Sikhism to the basic form it has today. Gobind Singh finished the compilation of the Adi Granth, and it was named the Guru Granth. He then formed the __________ as a selective society within Sikhism in 1699, so that Sikhs would be soldier saints, able and willing to defend their religion. The __________ has been a select and influential society within the main body of Sikhs since its inception, but not all Sikhs have belonged to it or even desired to belong.

Guru Granth

The tenth guru, __________, led a change in Sikhism from pacifism to militarism. When he died in 1708, the soul of these gurus was believed to have gone into the scripture of Sikhism, the __________. Now this soul is believed to reside in each and every true copy of this scripture -- the soul of the Guru became the soul of the Granth

Eid-al-Fitr

When the month of Ramadan is finished, Muslims celebrate the __________ festival with a special service at the mosque. Families feast together during the day and exchange gifts in decorated homes.

Shari'a

__________ developed to guide the implementation of Qur'anic and Hadith interpretation. __________ is simply God's law for the regulation of all Muslim life, translated literally as the "way" or "path". The formal system of traditional Islamic law that deals with many aspects of day to day life, including politics, business, family life, sexuality, hygiene, and social issues. Four different schools of Shari'a arose in Sunni Islam between 750 and 850 C.E., and still exist today. A part of Muslim law is the fatwa, a religious ruling by an imam trained in Shari'a urging particular course of action for Muslims that may or may not be binding on them.

Jihad

__________ means "struggle" for God and Islam. Many Qur'anic passages about Jihad refer to spiritual striving within individual Muslims. A Hadith calls this the "greater jihad" and military conflict the "lesser jihad". The basic meaning of jihad for most Muslims is the struggle against one's own evil to fully submit to Allah. Nevertheless, jihad as a military action is important in the Qur'an. Muslim scripture repeatedly commands Muslims to take up arms and fight when necessary on behalf of the Islamic community, and it treats jihad as a military struggle more often then nonmilitary. The basic principles of the military aspect of jihad were drawn up by Abu Bakr from the Qur'an and the practice of Muhammad. Main common points include: A general prohibition on suicide, the justification of using military forces to defend itself, the sparing of women and children, the use of jihad to wage war against a nation thought to have departed from the faith, liberation of Muslims by the force of arms, and waging jihad to bring a maintain the Islamic state of a country.

Islam

__________ means "submission" to God, especially to God's will. Followers of Islam are known as Muslims, "submitters". Explanation of Islam today sometimes imply that it comes from salam, "peace", but the great majority of Muslims correctly understand the name of their religion as submission to God. Islam is considered to be both a religion and a state.