Research ch 14-19

The key objectives to researchers using participation and observation methods include:

"Gaining entry" to the setting Negotiating and establishing a social identity in the setting Sustained engagement in the research setting over time and learning how to maintain good relationships in that community or group Active and genuine involvement with group members Development of useful observational measures Accurate documentation of observations in distracting conditions Managing requests to align oneself with one person or group versus another Simultaneously participating with and recording observations of study participants at the same time as experiencing the phenomenon itself and recording it in a complex environment Documenting additional field notes, questions, quandaries, and complexities after each data collection episode

accepted practices

- data collected must accurate to be of worth -statistical methods must be adequately employed

Informed consent

-A process in which potential human subjects learn about the purpose of the study and what is being asked of them as participants and to subsequently decide whether or not to participate -Typically requires prospective written consent -There are some circumstances where the requirement of prospective informed consent may be waived (e.g., retrospective review of de-identified data)

Thorough and comprehensive identification of all potential risks involved to participants within the study must be explained

-Explanation and demonstration of how experimenters will enforce assurances to minimize risk -Justification of how the expected benefits of the experimental procedures outweigh the potential risks

ensuring ethical research

-In the creation of new knowledge, there is an ethical obligation to conduct research with integrity -Standards for ethics in practice are derived from historical examples when ethics were grossly not maintained -Now, there are numerous institutions to ensure that ethical behaviors are maintained with regard to several areas of practice

institutional variation exisits though most applications require:

-Informed consent -Description of the research protocol -An assessment of the risks and benefits of the study -Assurance of adequate representation (by gender, race, age, and ethnicity) -Consideration of issues related to vulnerable populations -Evidence of the training of key personnel

Requirements for informed consent include:

-Making sure the prospective subject understands the study and the risks/benefits involved -Consideration of whether prospective subjects have the ability to give consent and whether others may provide consent on their behalf -Balancing any incentives or reimbursement for participation to avoid coercion

assurance of adequate representation of the sample

-Samples included within the study must represent the diverse demographics for the general population of interest -Any exclusions based on gender, race, ethnicity, age, income level, educational level, national origin, language, or any other variable must be explicitly justified through a grounded-scientific rationale

Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act

-The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) was signed into law in 1996 -Title II provides policies and procedures for ensuring the privacy and security of each person's medical records and other health information

the entirety of the research protocol should be described in lay language

-The intended audience is the interdisciplinary, cross-cutting review panel -Exactly what will happen to the subjects, and any risks or benefits, should be explicitly explained

respect for persons

-The most basic of the three principles of Belmont -Asserts that human persons must be respected in terms of their right to self-determination -Involves informed consent -Special protections for "vulnerable populations"

data collection

-if personal health information (PHI) is collected authorization or waiver must be obtained

the structure of PAR proceeds in the following steps:

1. A project begins with the initial identification of a problem by the researchers or the participants, or both together 2. Collaborative discussions and negotiations among all stakeholders serve to refine the sense of the problem 3. The research partners review what is already known and published about the issue and/or attempt to address a problem 4. Researchers work to redefine the problem more clearly and formulate an agenda for change 5. Methods for research and evaluation are selected 6. Research partners implement the change and collect and analyse data to evaluate their efforts 7. The results are prepared, including recommendations, and disseminated for wider audiences

social desirability bias/ Hawthorne effect

A bias that occurs when subjects change their behavior because they know they are being observed

principles of belmont

A code for basic ethical principles for human subject research, by the U.S. National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research The three principles it defines are: -Respect for persons -Beneficence -Justice

reflexivity

A deliberate and systematic process of self-examination used in qualitative research -In observational and participation studies, these are the only data that will be collected and analyzed -The reactions and views of the qualitative researcher have the potential to color the data collection and analysis processes

computer-assisted qualitative data analysis (CAQDA)

A high-tech (i.e., computerized) method for qualitative data analysis Allows for high-technology data storage and management (as opposed to low-technology data storage and management) where data is managed/organized via computerized software

Institutional review board (IRB)

A mechanism for regulatory oversight that exists within a university, medical center, or other industry in which one or more committees of informed individuals review research proposals to ensure that the study is safe and ethical for all participants

human subjects

A person who is invited and consents to participate in any kind of research Any study involving human subjects must recognize potential conflicts of interest and commitment

Step 4: develop a sampling approach

A plan should be devised that specifies how sampling will be conducted It will reflect the study design, including utilization of statistical methods for quantitative designs Sample size should be determined

probability based: cluster sampling

A probability-based sampling method in which groups or programs, rather than individuals, are randomly selected, and every member of that individual group or program is invited to participate in the study

member checks

A process whereby investigators check out their assumptions and emerging interpretations about the data with the original stakeholders who provided the information

grounded theory

A qualitative design that attempts to generate a theoretical understanding of a phenomenon by extracting meaning from social interactions, without direction from existing constructs or theory about the phenomena

proximity connectors

A search logic that analyzes the spatial relationships between coded segments

boolean connectors

A search logic that uses a form of algebraic terms to connect search terms, allowing more control over the information retrieved than when using individual search terms

Semantic connectors

A semantic relationship indicator that specifies a hierarchical or other type of relationship between codes

how to report the analysis

A sequence used by Williams and Irurita (1998) to describe and elaborate on the data patterns they analyzed is an effective format for reporting qualitative analyses This format consists of: -A name or label for the category -The authors' description of the meaning attached to the category -A quotation from the raw text or original data to elaborate on the meaning of the category and to show the type of text coded into the category Researchers should try to keep their reports of qualitative analysis as simple as possible; this means presenting very few themes or findings in each report

tuskegee experiments

A series of experiments that led to public outcry and the implementation of human subjects regulations on research Unethical practices included: -Deceptive practices and withholding treatment without regard to subject well-being or consent -High levels of risk without regard to pain and suffering, and without outweighing the potential benefit

Through the inductive process of active reading, conceptual labels become more systematic and consolidated, developing into index codes:

A set of conceptual labels that indicate places in a text where one can retrieve information on a particular topic These are compiled into a code directory: -A directory that includes operational definitions, as well as inclusion and exclusion criteria (i.e., instructions about circumstances under which the code should or should not be applied)

conflict of interest

A situation in which the researcher derives personal benefit from the research at the expense of subjects and/or the institution in which the research is being conducted Includes suppression of findings that would have an unfavorable impact on the investigator

audit trails

A systematically maintained set of documentation; it allows a researcher the means of managing record-keeping and encouraging reflexivity about a project and its goals, which typically includes: -All data generated in the study -Explanations of all concepts and models that shaped the study design -Explanations of procedures used in data collection and analysis -Notes about technical aspects of data collection and analysis as well as decisions taken throughout the study to refine data collection procedures and interpretations -Personal notes and reflections -Copies of all instruments and interview protocols used to collect study data

Step 3: compare and contrast data sources utilizing a particular code

After reading and coding one particular data source and selecting one code, compare and contrast other data sources utilizing that code (cross-case analysis) The comparison and contrasting allows for clarifying what is meant by a particular data unit or coded block of text Repeat the process, comparing and contrasting each data source to others until all cases in a sample have been analyzed

an inductive process

Allows research findings to emerge from the raw data that has been collected, without the restraints imposed by stricter methodologies or preestablished theories Therefore, a researcher using an inductive naturalistic approach is not only centrally concerned with the identification of key themes and findings, but also with epistemology, or what counts as knowledge

participatory action research (PAR)

An approach combining research efforts and active intervention, which involves the participants as co-creators and co-investigators who shape the research questions, methods, and outcomes At the same time transforming themselves and others within their immediate contexts in significant and enduring ways Outcomes are more likely to be trusted and are more likely to be used because they are transparent and personally, politically, economically, and socially relevant to consumer participants Outcomes not only create new knowledge, but also changes in practice

key informant interviews

An interview conducted with individuals considered to be influential, prominent, and/or well-informed people in an organization or community; or Individuals who are selected from a larger sample for more in-depth discussion

unstructured interviews

An interview guided by a short list of general questions, wherein the interviewer respects how the interviewee frames and structures the responses, providing probing questions when necessary

semi structured interviews

An interview guided by a structure, using a combination of fixed-response and open-ended questions

focus group interviews

An interview platform wherein a group of people are able to discuss their varied perspectives on a given topic, fostering expressions of their perspectives through the creation of a supportive environment Typically a homogeneous group with a specific area of experience, between 4 to 12 participants per group with interviews lasting 1 to 2 hours

structured interviews

An interview, wherein the interviewer asks questions exactly as written, which may include fixed-response and open-ended questions

Common ways to report data include: poster presentations, oral presentations, and written reports Written reports should include:

An introduction to the topic or group under study, including a discussion of the research purpose and the relevance of the research A literature review or "background" section, illustrating past research on the topic, including a discussion of any gaps in this past literature that might be filled by the current analyses A methods section that details the sample, data collection and processing procedures, analytic strategies, and potential biases/limitation of the research A findings section detailing one or a few broad findings and all the specific nuances found within these findings; for both broad and specific sets of findings, numerous examples of original data should be presented and explained in full A discussion and/or conclusion section, summarizing what was found in the results and the implications of the findings Any tables, charts, graphs, or other appendices that make the discussion of methods or findings clearer to the reader References to past research on the topic

participation

An overall approach to inquiry and a data-gathering method; demands firsthand involvement in the social world chosen for study Not to "become" a member, but to experience first-hand reality for informants without preconception Data is collected from journals and field notes of reflections and observations

written documents and material objects

Analysis of (typically) written communications to allow categorization of content through a(n): -Numeric approach -Interpretive approach

evidence of the training of key personne

Anyone participating in obtaining consent from subjects, collecting data, administering interventions, analyzing data, and presenting or writing findings has adequate training and knowledge about the protection of human subjects This training must be supplemented by annual continuing education

calculating sample size

As the sample size increases, the power increases If variation in outcome decreases, the power increases If variation in outcome increases, the sample size needs to increase The power increases as the effect size increases If the effect size decreases, the sample size needs to increase

management bias in qualitative research

Bias, in qualitative research, is a type of prejudiced consideration or judgment Transparency with methods can allow for the reader to judge for the potential of bias being present

phenomenology entails:

Biographical storytelling and informal discussion, reflecting on aspects of personal experience Researchers listen and probe for all areas of experience, although they do not direct or influence the informant's narrative

exclusion criteria

Characteristics that will prohibit the subject from being an appropriate candidate for the study

when nonprobability sampling is used the researcher must:

Clearly define the process of the sampling Acknowledge the limitations of the sampling procedure Justify why the sampling limitations do not jeopardize the research question being answered

methods for ensuring the quality and trustworthiness of the study when performing qualitative data analysis

Coding and retrieving Interrater reliability

mentor/ trainee responsibilities

Common within the research community, mentor/trainee relationships should have clear expectations, which may include: -How much time will the trainee be required to spend on the mentor's research? -How much direct time will the mentor spend with the trainee in providing individual or group supervision? -What criteria will be used to evaluate the performance of the trainee? -What are the authorship expectations for different research projects? -What are the standard operating procedures regarding the conduct of the research, including the acquisition, access, and storage of data?

probability based:systematic sampling

Considered equivalent to random sampling, it requires dividing the population by the subject pool, then taking every one of that number of occurrences (e.g., every fifth individual) from the population list For example: If a population has 100 individuals, and a study's sample is 20, 110/20 = 5; every fifth individual should be recruited

systemic errors

Consistent or predictable errors caused by a failure of design; with sampling, this will return subjects differing from the population systematically

qualitative data analysis

Consists of a broad range of approaches to the management and analysis of qualitative data It may: -Be accomplished by an individual researcher or by a team -Utilize a low-technology approach or a high-technology approach -Reflect a broad spectrum of epistemological stances Requires consideration of: - The amount of time and funds allocated to the analysis process -The volume and structure of the data -One's comfort level with using what may be unfamiliar software -Epistemological stances guiding one's research

project based methods

Daily operational procedures that help to minimize errors in all processes related to data collection, data storage, and data management

metadata

Data about data, including new text and/or graphic products created by the researcher to represent key themes, constructs, and relationships that emerge from and are applied to a body of qualitative data

conceptual labels and index codes

Data is consolidated from its numerous sources and then transcribed These documents and their corresponding provenance are then eligible for a process of active reading -A key early step in the analysis process by which the reader interacts with the data by making notes in reaction to what is read During the active reading process, investigators note conceptual labels -Words or short phrases serve as a "tag" for segments of text, categorically describing information the segments contain -Labels are dynamic and may evolve over the course of a study -Investigators should keep careful records of when codes are created, split, or merged and when their definitions or application criteria are refined

data storage

Data must be securely maintained, held for a specified amount of time, and destroyed in accordance with the study protocol

ownership

Data ownership varies, pending the specific study The institution, the grant, or the researcher all may be owners of the data; this should be specified within the study proposal

the importance of data processing

Data processing includes making permanent records of interviews, field notes, or other documents that count as data Data processing should begin simultaneously with data collection, commencing the back-and-forth nature of collection and analysis and allowing early themes to arise Data should be stored and replicated so that the originals are never altered

sample approach

Describes the characteristics that the subjects who are actually participating in a study will have (e.g., age); criteria by which people will be included versus excluded; and what interventions they might be eligible to receive in a study Sample size—The number of subjects included within a sample

the research aims of ethnography include:

Describing the insider's view, categories of language, thought, rules for behavior and relationships, and symbols Conducting studies in the natural settings of informants' lives by immersion and participation Regarding participants as informants who help to direct and interpret the topic of study and verify or refute conclusions Focusing on exploring the particulars of the specific setting in time (historical, life course, developmental), people, and place (physical and culturally constructed)

determining sample size if qualitative research

Determining a sample size is less important than selecting the "right" participants for the aim of the study (i.e., individuals who can provide depth of information) Depth versus breadth -Exploring specific experiences of a large number of individuals (seeking breadth) or a greater range of experiences from a smaller number of individuals (depth)

the goals of description and explanation

Different than quantitative research, qualitative studies do not attempt to create findings generalizable to a broad population; rather, they provide a truthful and in-depth perspective of a particular sample The value lies in the "thick description" Outcomes depend on recruiting the most informative people possible to illuminate the topic of interest

phenomenology vs qualitative

Differs from other qualitative approaches, in that: Phenomenology regards the sense of lived experiences and meanings as fully knowable only by those who share the experience Phenomenology imposes no structure or framework on the data collected by the researcher; rather than unfolding through discourse, researchers must represent experiences in the form expressed

adequacy

Enough data is available to provide a rich description of the phenomena of interest

critical theory

Epistemology where researchers take the stance that knowledge (and theory) is relative to particular people and times; multiple social realities exist that are distributed across various segments of society and groups The aim of critical theory is positive social and political transformation, including reducing social injustices The form of results for critical theory research is new data as well as new questions and analytic frames for thought

sampling must give consideration to external validity

External validity is the extent to which we may generalize a research finding to different persons, settings, or times The three major threats to external validity are people, place, and time

teamwork

Facilitates collaboration among a team; users can be assigned different levels of access and changes may be tracked

nazi doctors trials

Following World War II, a tribunal identified numerous experiments that had been conducted in the "interests" of science, which represent horrific abuses of human beings Unethical practices included: -Inflicting known harm without regard to subject well-being or consent -High levels of risk without regard to pain and suffering, and without outweighing the potential benefit

fabrication

Generating fictitious data or findings and reporting them as if they were discovered during a research study

critical theory procedures

Has no formal procedures; rather, pursuit of knowledge is used to address clearly articulated questions This includes: -A clear definition of a key concept or problem is presented -A description of how the construct is currently conceptualized is stated, and the historical formulation's place in thought is summarized, often as a literature review -The current definition is critiqued to reveal gaps and limitations in the concept/problem formulation's ability to explain the phenomena on which it is focused, and other problems that it does not highlight -The researcher conducts research and presents data that are informed by the analytical and historical critique

Researchers should expand upon their primary data by keeping informal notes, memos, or a field journal during data collection This information can:

Highlight key events during observations or interviews and thereby serve as a check on one's primary data source Serve as an emotional outlet for researchers during data collection and analysis when things get particularly frustrating Serve as the first step to data analysis by getting one's main ideas out on paper to propel more advanced analytic thinking about the study topic

citations

Ideas, data, or conclusions based on other published work, including prior publications of the author or coauthors, must be appropriately cited

the key objectives to researchers using in-depth interview methods include

Identifying an appropriate study sample Logging communication during recruitment efforts Establishing comfort, rapport, and trust with interviewees Developing the interview guide (conversational style) or explicit interview protocol (structured interviews) Skillful listening and question asking Judging appropriately when, how, and whether to probe and pursue interesting turns in the interview (e.g., disclosure of unexpected information, controversial or provocative opinions and statements, etc.) Presentation of the self as a competent and skillful interviewer Note-taking comprehensively while astutely questioning and listening Writing up summaries and notes about what the interviewee said as well as reflective personal observations

coding and retrieving

In order to ensure that the quality of information is maintained during a qualitative study, the process of coding and retrieving requires: -The creation of a code directory with clear operational definitions -Coding, analyzing, and/or interpreting the data, which must take place in a systematic and consistent way

In-depth interviews

In this research method, the purpose is to probe the ideas of the interviewees and obtain the most detailed information available regarding a particular event, issue, or context Studies vary with respect to their a priori structure and in the latitude the interviewee has in responding to questions

research misconduct

Includes fabrication, falsification, plagiarism, or additional behaviors that differ significantly from the norms of conduct within the scientific community Behaviors that represent a significant deviation from commonly accepted practices Must be intentional, knowing, or reckless

falsification

Involves changing or distorting data, data collection procedures, or research findings to portray the desired findings rather than the actual ones

animal welfare

Involves protecting the physical and emotional well-being of animals that are being used in research

sampling in quantitative research

Is defined by the research question; the sample should reflect the characteristics of the population about whom the conclusions of the study apply: -May be general, to allow for broad implications of findings -May be specific, to focus findings on a group A sample may be refined through establishing specific inclusion and exclusion criteria Research design will have implications for the size of the sample, to accommodate subject grouping

conflict of commitment

Issues that may prevent researchers from expending their full energy and effort for their primary employment and, in particular, for discharging research obligations

next steps after accumulating processed data

It is helpful to think about data sources being broken down into data units, or blocks of information that will eventually be examined together These may be: -Stories that interviewees tell that span several typed pages -A paragraph of typed text from an interview or field note in which an individual describes a particular encounter with a therapist or discussion of a particular health condition and its meaning -A phrase or term used over and over by interviewees or informants or members of a particular organization, clinical team, or profession "Blocks" of information may be compared across individuals, or groups of individuals; compared with other blocks; and ultimately, themes will emerge

repetitive and fragmentary publication

It is not ethical to publish the same results more than once without clear acknowledgement of the prior presentation or publication This prevents duplication of samples within the published literature

all qualitative research is characterized by several features

It seeks to discover: The insider's (emic) view and compare it with the observer's (etic) view Meanings, symbols, beliefs, and values in the language of the participants The multiple perspectives of persons, groups, and organizations across the spectrum of positions in a social setting or culture, including those at the margins of society, not just the center Features of the worlds of everyday lived experience

qualitative data sources include:

Loosely structured, lengthy narratives derived from in-depth interviewers Short-answer responses to open-ended survey questions Field notes taken by participant observers Audio or video recordings of events Secondary data (e.g., documents, brochures, minutes of meetings) created by persons other than the investigators

methodological actions to enhance data trustworthiness include

Management of bias Interviewer training Prolonged engagement in the field Reflexivity Triangulation Member checks Audit trails Project-based methods

probability based: random sampling

Means that each member or element of the population can theoretically have an equal chance of being selected for the sample Randomization balances both the measured and unmeasured characteristics that affect the outcomes of a study, allows for masking, and provides a basis for inference Includes randomizing for purposes of: -Subject selection -Subject assignment

interrater reliability

Measures to identify and promote interrater reliability should be incorporated into qualitative analysis This typically requires separate and redundant coding of data The coding may then be: -Analyzed through quantitative statistics for agreement between the two sets of codes -Reconciled through discussion and consensus of investigators Pre- and post-reconciliation statistics may be calculated for the coding to determine interrater reliability

nonprobability based: quoting sampling

Method in which individuals are proportionally recruited for a sample in order to ensure adequate representation of different proportions of subject types

nonprobability based: network sampling

Method in which initially identified subjects provide names of others who may meet the study criteria

memos

Methodological and analytic notes from which explanations and findings are built should be written within the data during the active reading process as analytic memos: -Reflective notes through which investigators may organize their thoughts about data Memos may be used for generating discussion, critique, and new insights during investigator meetings, allowing for organic and iterative interaction with data

procedural strategies to promote rigor include:

Multiple coders, verifying interrater reliability Performing member checks Comparing results with prior literature Self-evaluation and reflection on own findings Coding consistently holds up across multiple data sources and back-and-forth processes of within-case and cross-case analysis

historical unethical practices

Nazi doctors trials Tuskegee experiments

nonprobability based: convenience sampling

Nonrandom recruitment methods where subjects are enrolled as they agree to enter the study, until the desired number is reached

mechanisms for resolving allegations

Occur in two phases, an inquiry phase and an investigation phase Inquiry phase is to determine if the definition of misconduct has been met and/or there is evidence of misconduct Investigation phase seeks to determine if the allegations of misconduct are true, and determines an individual of authority act on the findings, and report the findings to ORI

Nuremberg code

One of the earliest U.S. codes regarding the ethical conduct of research that was written during the Nazi Doctors Trials

reasons for qualitative research:

One reason is to promote discovery of phenomena occurring in situations in which there is insufficient prior work Certain phenomena, experiences, or processes are inadequately captured by preconceived concepts and predefined tools

sources of bias in qualitative research include

Overreliance on accessible research participants or favoring of more dramatic events and statements involving research participants and the context of study Biasing effects produced by the presence of the investigator in the research site, that is, the Hawthorne effect Biases stemming from the influence of the participants and the research site on the investigator

there are four main methods for gathering qualitative data

Participation in the setting Direct observation In-depth interviewing Analyzing written documents and material objects

assignment of due credit: authorship

Persons who were instrumental in the initial conception and design of the study Persons who were responsible for the collection and interpretation of the data Individuals who wrote the results or substantively edited the presentation before publication Should be clarified by institutional policies, and clarified in advance of any projects

quantitative research involved two types of sampling:

Probability- based non probability-based

principles that guide qualitative sampling:

Process is inductive, dynamic, and may change as the study evolves New participants might be added to the sample during the study progress

confirming or disconfirming cases

Purposefully seeking informants who will support or challenge an emerging interpretation

data collection and analysis intertwined

Qualitative analysis begins during data collection and then continues after data collection is completed, a back-and-forth process of data gathering and data analysis Data collection might be involved in several steps of the study, including the sampling approach, recruitment, entry into the field, data collection, and analysis

contemporary tools for managing and analyzing qualitative data

Qualitative research analysis requires a series of steps for investigators to transform data into coherent, believable, and meaningful findings Methods include both low-technology and high-technology approaches There are numerous methods for enhancing the quality of qualitative data research

collecting qualitative data

Qualitative research entails several strategies for collection of quality data These strategies may further employ methodological actions to enhance data trustworthiness Qualitative methods seek to discover and describe socioculturally constructed worldviews, values, and sociocultural norms and how these are instilled, enacted, reinforced, or resisted and changed in everyday life

design considerations in qualitative research

Qualitative research has a unique and important role in the development of new knowledge The perspective of qualitative research is that of the informant, rather than that of the researcher There are several qualitative traditions for development of this specific type of knowledge

common features of qualitative research

Qualitative research is an iterative process, wherein some data are collected, interim analyses are performed, and research instruments are modified before further data are collected and analyzed An audit trail allows for tracking of the fluid, nonlinear nature of this process

the qualitative approach to data analysis

Qualitative researchers strive to preserve the original format of their data so that readers of their analyses can see or experience for themselves as much of the participants' world as possible This includes individuals': -Patterns or common expressions of people's perceptions or understandings of their world -Meanings they attach to aspects of the settings in which they live or the behaviors in which they engage -Reasons why people think particular things -Ways in which people account for or come to particular actions Methods for organizing their day-to-day situations

Step 1: perform a formal analysis or interpretation of one data source

Read a data source multiple times Gain recognition of concepts, events, feelings, behaviors, and patterns for that source Once familiar, begin coding the data, coming up with brief terms, marking blocks of information Disaggregate the data, breaking the data down into manageable segments, and identify or name those segments Code for the purpose of explaining or developing an understanding, rather than at a descriptive level (if research is more conceptual, coding may be more focused) Inscribe social discourse -Look beyond the words and descriptions of interview subjects to understand more fundamental conceptualizations of how people experience what they do; this is a deliberate act to ensure that interactional details are fully captured

sampling error

Represents the difference between the values obtained by a sample and the actual values that exist in the population; attributable to: -random errors -Systemic errors

the price of scientific misconduct

Requirements that federal funding be returned (paid back) Additional penalties and fines to the individual investigator and the institution for not maintaining regulatory compliance Imprisonment for up to 5 years in severe cases Institutional sanctions such as halting of all federal funding of research, or possibly even halting all ongoing human subjects research, until the institution is "brought into compliance"

Justice

Requires that research impose the burden of risk and the potential for benefit upon the same groups of people

collaborative science

Responsible conduct of collaborative science entails attention to establishing clear roles, responsibilities, and written agreements that will satisfy institutional officials at the various institutions

maximum variation

Seeking individuals who have extremely different experiences of the phenomenon being studied

Step 2: select a particular code for further analysis

Select a particular code (and thus a particular set of data units or patterns among data units) for further analysis Pick a code based on the data source or research question that began their project (rather than relying of previous studies, or existing preconceptions) Pay attention to codes/patterns that simply emerge out of the data source themselves through critical reflection Focus on one pattern or code at a time

the key objectives to researchers using written documents and material objects to review methods include

Selecting appropriate documents or objects Gaining permissions to observe and study them Selecting and using analytic methods best suited to the kind of data Identifying additional means by which to confirm their meanings

extreme or average examples

Selecting cases on the criteria that they represent an extreme example of a phenomenon or that they represent the average case

theory based selection

Selecting only individuals who exemplify a particular theoretical construct for the purpose of expanding the current understanding of a theory

declaration of Helsinki

Sets forth the principles regarding the ethical conduct of human subjects research Adopted by the World Medical Association in 1964, with revisions including the most recent in 2000

Probability-based: stratified random sampling

Similar to a simple random sample, but requires that certain groups be represented equally A proportional selection is taken from identified subgroups that reflects the representation of the general population

support for mixed-methods analyses

Some software supports quantitative analysis, including: -Calculating and graphing code frequencies -Creating code-by-document tables and other data matrixes -Exporting data to statistical analysis or spreadsheet programs -Conducting quantitative content analysis

organizational strategies include methods to:

Standardize scene depictions Communicate dialogue and interpersonal exchanges Elucidate indigenous meanings with and without verbal data Develop and analyze integrative memos

steps in sampling

Step 1: Define the population of interest Step 2: Consider the unit of analysis Step 3: Identify a performance site Step 4: Develop a sampling approach Step 5: Implement the sampling procedures

Step 4: Draw some general conclusions about what a coding strategy or arising data pattern means

Stop specific cross-case comparisons and look for broad patterns, such as a synthesis or thematic narrative that illuminates the overall theme Ask yourself: -What am I going to call this theme as I move into a reporting stage? -What are the examples of variations under the umbrella of this coded theme, and how can I explain them? Why do these variations matter? -How am I going to define the nuances I found within it as I looked at different data units and in different data sources? -What are examples of the commonalities across all data units I have labeled with a given theme, and how do I explain them? Why do they matter? -What is the significance of this theme overall for my research topic, and how might my analysis of this particular topic/theme add to previous literature on this subject?

determining sample size

Studies should attempt to recruit the largest sample possible, although it will require more resources Studies that are too small have threats to their validity and lack statistical power

increased recruitment will be required for studies where there is/ may be:

Subgroup analysis Attrition Measures with limited reliability

Step 5:Implement the sampling procedures

Subjects should be recruited according to the plan established through the sampling approach

Multimedia capabilities

Support for PDF documents, graphic files, HTML web pages, as well as digital audio and video files

interviewer training

Technical skills on how to ask the interview questions and the use of follow-up probes to elicit more detailed explanations Appropriate behaviors to gain access to a population Interpersonal behaviors to demonstrate during recruitment and data collection

technological advances have also benefited the process of qualitative data analysis including

Text recognition/scanning software for written information Audio-to-text voice recognition software E-mail, text messaging, online discussions and forums, and social networking platforms

High-technology data storage and management still requires information to be transcribed into the software, at which point software may facilitate the process by enhancing:

Text-based searches Codebook development Tagging and retrieval Memoing Theory building Teamwork Multimedia capabilities Support for mixed-method analyses

research integrity

The Office of Research Integrity (2013) has identified nine core areas that need to be addressed: -Data acquisition, management, sharing, and ownership -Conflict of interest and commitment -Human subjects -Animal welfare -Research misconduct -Publication practices and responsible authorship -Mentor/trainee responsibilities -Peer review -Collaborative science

epistemology

The broad arena of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge Each epistemological approach directly shapes the type and style of research questions asked and the specific procedures used Epistemological traditions include: -Participatory action research -Ethnography -Grounded theory -Critical theory -Phenomenology

domain analysis

The critical process of selecting and adding pieces of information through interview and observation and analyzing it for further discovery

nonprobability based: purposive sampling

The deliberate selection of individuals by the researcher based on certain predetermined criteria, usually stated as inclusion and exclusion criteria

gaining access

The entry point into a qualitative inquiry, which affects the selection of subjects

effect size

The extent of difference between two means or the size of the relationship between variables in a research study

appropriateness

The identification of participants who will best inform a researcher about the phenomena under inquiry

retaining voice

The informants' own words and voices (through the original data) should be utilized to communicate the themes as much as possible What is heard and thought by the researcher is also important and should be closely represented

determining the audience

The intended audience should determine how findings are communicated -General audiences will focus on findings and themes -Academic/research audiences will have an interest in the methodology and rigor

statistical power

The likelihood of finding a significant difference between groups or association between variables when one exists Requires consideration of: -Sample size -Effect size -Alpha level or level of significance -The power or the odds of observing a treatment effect when it occurs

Step 3: Identity a performance site

The location in which a research study is done has direct impact on the research study and the sampling approach taken

ethnography seeks to investigate

The patterns in how a people define and view the world Habitual patterns and ways of life Categories of thought Symbols and meanings Kinds of social relationships Systems of moral goals, values, and social structures

prolonged engagement in the field

The period of time spent in the field observing the phenomenon of interest, which varies according to: -The nature of the inquiry and its scope -The design of the study -The time available to the investigator -The time available to the research participants themselves Ideally, this should continue until saturation: -The point in the data collection period when the researcher is gaining little or no new information

Beneficence

The principle that requires that human subjects research minimize risk to the greatest extent possible and maximize the potential for benefits to be gained from the research (either for the individuals participating in the research or from the knowledge that will be gained) -Risks include both physical and mental -Sound research methodology must be employed -Risks must be minimized if present

transcribing

The process of exactly converting audio information into a written record; hand-written notes should be entered into the record as well Should record laughs, hesitations, interruptions, emphases on particular words and phrases, and other speech patterns as much as possible, alongside the actual words of the conversation

peer review

The process of peer review is fundamental for generation and publication of knowledge that contributes to a body of evidence There are ethical considerations involved in the process, including confidentiality and beneficence toward the task (and toward the author)

securing samples and performance sites

The quality of a research study is contingent on the sample obtained for collecting data There are some key fundamentals and steps that allow for successful sample recruitment Quantitative studies have multiple specific methods for determining and recruiting for a sample Qualitative studies have a differing approach to sample recruitment

triangulation

The use of two or more strategies to collect and/or interpret or analyze information, increasing the accuracy (or trustworthiness) of data gathered May utilize peer debriefing -A process by which multiple analysts may discuss areas of disagreement and controversy, allowing for contrary views to arise and receive careful review

interdependence of codes and memos

There is an ongoing, reciprocal relationship between the generation of indexing codes and analytical memos -Codes may become hierarchical or reflect relationships noted in memos -Memos may be enhanced by some to codes found within the data

theory building

This allows the construction of explanations that are grounded in the qualitative data and include mechanisms for defining relationships among data elements, including original text, codes, memos, and documents Metadata elements can be imported and linked to one another through semantic relationships, which can evolve into formal analytic products such as conceptual models

the nature of qualitative research

This approach to research aims to describe and explain individuals' subjective experiences, actions, interactions, and social contexts through various approaches Qualitative methods are used when it's important to learn more about the kinds of features that are present and to determine the salient contents and meanings of a phenomenon

tagging and retrieval

This creates hypertext "tags," whereby noncontiguous text or images are electronically linked to one another Links can also be made between one text segment and another, either within a document or between one document and another This retrieves all text segments labeled with a particular code, so that passages on a given topic or theme can be grouped and viewed together retrieves subsets of tags by combining or limiting searches can be refined through -Boolean connectors -Semantic connectors -proximity connectors

level of significance

This is an estimate of certainty that the identified evidence is a true measure of difference between variables, and there is an acceptable amount of chance (alpha) that any effect is caused by chance when there is no true effect

codebook development

This provides support for the creation of a list of codes to be applied to textual data, as well as a code directory with code definitions or criteria Some software has advanced codebook features, with separate fields for the code name, a brief definition, a full definition, inclusion criteria, exclusion criteria, and examples

phenomenology

This qualitative approach focuses on the everyday life-world and gives great attention to the careful description of how the ordinary is experienced and expressed in the consciousness of individuals The primary question that is asked from this perspective is: What is the meaning of one's experience, and how does one interpret it? Conceptualizes the person and environment as a whole Involves lengthy discussion with the informant regarding multiple aspects of his or her unique experience, including: -The lived space (spatiality) -The lived body (corporeal embodied experience) -Lived social relationships (relationality) -Lived time (temporality)

ethnography

This qualitative design focuses on the social definitions and meanings of behavior or other phenomena Ethnographers strive to gain an insider's view of the social scene Study participants are "informants" rather than "subjects" under control of the study Ethnographic research is conducted in a series of basic phases: -Preparation and entry -Immersion using participation and observation -Exit -Writing up

observation

This research method requires careful watching, listening, and recording of events, behaviors, and objects in the social setting chosen for study When exclusively using observation methods, the investigator's role is a passive, unobtrusive presence Participation and observation studies involve both roles to some degree, as well as further immersion into a phenomenon's setting

step 1: define the population of interest

This should be facilitated through the literature review The research problem will help set parameters for the population of interest

nonprobability based

This should be utilized when parameters of the population are unknown or when it is not feasible to conduct a probability sample The sample characteristics still need to be defined clearly in terms of inclusion and exclusion criteria

subject pool

Those who are identified as eligible to participate in a study; depends on: -Specific nature of the research question -Research approach -Research design -Specific population of interest Decisions about sampling should always give careful consideration to issues of diverse sampling, including gender and race/ethnicity

vulnerable populations

Those who do not have the capacity to consent to participate in research or who may be pressured into participating for the wrong reasons, including: -Prisoners -Pregnant women -Fetuses and neonates -Employees and students of the institution out of which the study is being conducted -Individuals with impaired decision-making capacity -Educationally or economically disadvantaged people -Other individuals who are vulnerable to coercion or undue influence

inclusion criteria

Traits that the researcher has identified as characterizing a population

sampling in quantitative research

Unit of analysis is often people focused or structure focused Common factors considered when determining participants are: -Culture -Geographic or organizational location -Time or event-related experience -Personal experience of a unique condition

Step 2: consider the unit of analysis

Unit of analysis—The classification level of the individual variable of interest for a study -A subject (e.g., child, client, participant) -A setting (e.g., clinic, hospital unit) -A cohort (e.g., family, class)

plagiarism

Using another writer's ideas, methods, results, writing, or work without credit to the origin, thereby taking personal credit for it falsely

major sources of systematic error are:

Using volunteers (because those who volunteer for any study are likely to be different from those who refuse) Using groups that are available and convenient (but likely to share some common characteristic that makes them different than the intended population)

rigor, flexibility, challenge and reward

What qualitative researchers select to analyze in this flexible and rigorous process and how they interpret this data can depend on many things; however, there are particular systematic steps to complete a study Qualitative research is simultaneously precise, detailed, and valid or trustworthy because of the process that researchers undertake in data collection and analysis, which may be both time-consuming and exhausting

text-based searches

Words or strings of text can be located in the original data This allows for word counts, or calculations of specific word frequency

random errors

an error that may occur by chance when selecting a sample

interpretive approach

categorizing the meaning of words/ topics

numeric approach

counting the frequency of occurrence of a topic/word

the process for conducting grounded theory research

does not occur sequentially, but rather the steps are carried out concurrently -Data is collected through narratives, focused interviews, informal discussion, participant observation, and field notes -Data is coded: If it is similar to existing information, it goes into that category; if not, it forms a new category -Categories emerge and are refined, allowing for generalization into a new grounded theory

memoing

includes notes and memos through which investigators can record impressions about the data, methodological insights, and developing interpretations or theories These can be ordered, sorted, and displayed in special ways

strategies for selecting participants

maximum variation theory based selection