Reynolds Islam and Christian Theology - FA17

din wasat

"Middle religion" - the idea that Christianity and Judaism lead to Islam

Timeline of Muhammad's life

570: Born 595: Marries Khadija 610: Muhammad receives first revelation 622: Muhammad and followers emigrate to Medina 630: Conquest of Mecca 632: Death

According to Islamic teaching, how was the Quran revealed to the prophet Muhammad?

Done in two phases: Gabriel bringing the Quran from the highest heaven to the lowest heaven, then revealing to Muhammad in pieces. The pieces were recited orally by Gabriel, and then Gabriel helped put them in order (they were not revealed in order, but according to the current situations Muhammad was facing).

Fatwa

Legal authority such as an Islamic scholar writing a response to a question on living as a Muslim, i.e. "Can I shake hands with a person of the opposite sex?", "Will Christians go to heaven?", etc. One Fatwa says that Jews of Medina were afraid to lose their position/power to Muhammad so they erased foretellings of Muhammad from their scripture.

According to Abd al-Jabbar, which disease did emperor Constantine have?

Leprosy. This is important because it is said that he became a Christian because Christianity had no problem with a leader having the disease.

Do the suras of the Qur'an generally go from longer to shorter, or shorter to longer?

Longer to shorter

Which of the following figures appears in the Qur'an: Lot Elizabeth Barnabas

Lot

din wa-dawla

Religious state - Islam emphasizes that politics and religion are in the same sphere (Christianity is the opposite). "Islam is the solution"

Quotes should read somewhat like a textbook. Chapters we read dealt with: background of Islam; traditional ideas of Muhammad's life; comparing and contrasting/the conversation between the Bible and the Qur'an.

Reynolds (Emergence of Islam)

Salafism

Ultra-conservative reform branch of Sunni Islam that doesn't subscribe to the four schools of Sunni legal thought (Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i Hanbali). Sees Sufism as the worst thing ever because Muhammad never did any of the Sufi practices.

What is the Hijra?

When Muhammad and his followers migrated from Mecca to Medina. Marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar.

da'wa

mission work, evangelism

Which apostle did Aquinas refer to in the opening of "Reasons for the Faith"?

Peter

Main idea: Is Christianity faithful to the teachings and sunnah of Jesus? Refutation follows the sunnah of Muhammad's refutation of Christianity. Quotes the Bible (not always accurately), the creed, and Christian writings/apologists. Shaped by a vision of the gradual corruption of the religion of Jesus (tahrif). Believes that people should follow the precedent set by their prophet, that Islam is the eternal religion, and that Christian scripture was falsified when some Christians decided to adopt some Roman beliefs/practices to get Roman protection from the Jews (Christians who fled with the true Injil were killed off). Also says that Paul is spineless because he forgets the sunnah of Jesus and does whatever the Romans want. Says Paul started anti-nomianism (against the law).

'Abd al-Jabbar (The Critique of Christian Origins)

Main differences between Qur'an and hadith

*Only the Qur'an is co-eternal with God.* Generally, only the Qur'an is recited at events such as funerals. Most things that Muslims DO are based on what is written in the hadiths.

What are the Qur'an's three arguments for believing in the prophets?

1. Punishment stories 2. Speaking about heaven and hell 3. Signs of nature

According to the traditional doctrine of Sunni Islam, what percent of the hadith in Bukhari's collection are true?

100%

When were the years of Muhammad's prophethood?

610-632 AD

When did Muhammad return to Mecca?

629 AD (Marched on and seized Mecca with an army of 10,000 Muslim converts)

Sura

A "chapter" of the Qur'an; there are 114 in all.

According to the biography of Muhammad, what happened at Badr?

A battle

What is a "punishment story" in the Quran?

A punishment story is one in the cycle of a prophet being sent to remind the people of revelation, the people sinking back into jahiliyya, and then the people being punished or destroyed. Many prophets are part of these stories - Noah, Jonah, Lot, etc. Sura 7 is a sequence of these punishment stories.

kalam

A question-and-answer style argument based solely on reason (i.e. doesn't quote the Qur'an to make arguments for Islam).

Which miraculous animal accompanied Salih?

A she-camel

Ka'ba

A small rectangular structure in Mecca that Muslims believe was originally built by Abraham and his son Ishmael; now is at the center of Islam's most sacred mosque. Is said to have descended into paganism until Muhammad conquered Mecca. Rededicated as a place for worship to the one true God when Muhammad conquered Mecca.

What is the name of the first caliph?

Abu Bakr

Main idea: Is Christianity reasonable? **Only reading marked by kalam (question and answer style) Accused of apostasy (left Islam and became irreligious). Everything he ever wrote was destroyed except for this refutation. Kalam style of argument, purely polemical. Shows knowledge of three difference Christian sects at the time (Melkites, Jacobits, Nestorians). Mainly focuses on the incarnation ad the Trinity. Uses the argument about 3 being the perfect number. Questions how the Word can mix with a body (Jesus' two natures). Finally, questions whether it would be possible for Jesus to have a child and if his divinity would be passed on.

Abu Isa al-Warraq (Refutation of Three Christian Sects)

Occasions of revelation

According to Islamic tradition, Gabriel revealed pieces of the Qur'an to Muhammad according to the situations he was facing at the time.

Given to young people of Sydney Very reflective, and personable (refers to the audience as friends) "My dear friends, I have come to Australia as an ambassador peace. For this reason, I feel blessed to meet you who likewise share this yearning and the desire to help the world attain it. Our quest for peace goes hand in hand with our search for meaning, for it is in discovering the truth that we find the sure road to peace."

Address of Pope Benedict XVI at WYD, Sydney, 2008

What city did the Dominican cantor whose questions led to Aquinas' "Reasons for the Faith" live in?

Antioch

simia Dei

Ape of God (Satan)

What does Aquinas say about the revealed mysteries of Christian faith?

Aquinas says that we should not try to prove revealed mysteries - in fact, trying to explain the mysteries would insult them because the mysteries far exceed our human minds, as well as those of angels. He said that why we may not be able to prove them true, disbelievers will not be able to completely prove that they are false.

Harmony of Gospels

Attempt to compile canonical gospels into a single account.

What are the four major Jihadi battles fought by Muhammad?

Badr (624), Uhuh (625), Trench (627), Mecca (630)

Talks about personal journey as a missionary gradually learning about Islam. Initially sees Islam as the work of Satan, questions how Islam and Muhammad fit in the "theology of history". Realizes he must love Muslims, re-interprets the Quran. In the end, believes that there should be greater dialogue between Muslims and Christians, and that the Quran can be read in a Christian "key" and re-interpreted to point towards Christ/Christianity.

Basetti-Sani (The Quran in the Light of Christ)

Why can we believe the apostles (according to the C.S. Lewis class)?

Because there was no self-interest/nothing to gain on their part from following Jesus.

Sufism

Branch of Islam concerned with each individual person's journey towards God. Says there is an evil/bad part of humans called *nafs* that inclines us towards simming; the war against your own nafs is a jihad. There are different prayer practices called *dhikr* that helps in the jihad; takes different forms such as dancing, singing, chanting, etc.

The hadith are first-hand accounts of how the prophet Muhammad lived and teached. Hadith range from things like how Muhammad tied his robe to how and when he prayed.

Bukhari (collection of hadith)

How did Bukhari select and separate hadiths?

Bukhari filtered 600,000 originally reported hadiths down to 7,000 that were accepted based on their isnads. Musnad: early hadiths separated by source of observation Musannaf: later hadiths organized by topic

Lion, lunatic, or Lord argument

C.S. Lewis argues for the divinity of Jesus by saying that the only alternatives are that he was evil (lion) or crazy (lunatic). C.S. Lewis also connects Christianity to reason and asks how we can trust witnesses to miracles. Salvation history (all events in history prepared for salvation by Christ's crucifixion and resurrection) challenges conventional wisdom/knowledge. Christianity is not based on logic, but on a miracle (Corinthians reading).

exegesis

Commentary on and interpretation of scripture - e.g. angel taking out and washing Muhammad's heart is an interpretation of, or related to, a Quranic passage.

qadar

Concept of divine destiny or predestination in Islam.

According to 'Abd al-Jabbar in what city did Paul meet the wife of the Roman emperor?

Constantinople

What does Nostra Aetate say about Islam?

Distinguishes Islam from natural religions; recognizes the piety of Muslims; recognizes the commonalities with Christianity - e.g. Muslims recognize Abraham and Mary, as well as revere Jesus as a great prophet; recognize that Muslims strive to lead a moral life and worship the one God through prayer, almsgiving, and fasting; calls for better dialogue between Christians and Muslims.

True or false: writers in the Islamic tradition normally refer to Muhammad as the Messiah.

False

True or false: Warraq frequently quotes the Qur'an in his refutation of Christianity.

False (uses only logic)

tahrif

Falsification of scripture (Muslims claim that Moses' and Jesus' revelation was falsified; Jesus' was falsified after Christians adopted Roman practices).

Prophets that Muhammad met in levels of heaven

First - Adam Second - John (the Baptist) and Jesus Third - Joseph (son of Jacob) Fourth - Idris (prophet) Fifth - Aaron (prophet, brother of Moses) Sixth - Moses Seventh - Abraham

Which angel brought the Qur'an down from heaven?

Gabriel

Shari'a

God's will for everything/immutable divine law - not written down because it is infinite. Commonly refers to the traditional Islamic law. Best way to understand Shari'a is through Qur'an and hadiths, and decisions become fatwa.

A figure named Barnabas DOES appear in the New Testament, but did not write the manuscript (it is dated to 16th century in Italy). Plays important role in Muslim apologetics because it is written similarly to Christian Gospel, but with Muslim ideas. Judas dies in place of Jesus. Jesus is called Christ but not Messiah, Muhammad is called Messiah.

Gospel of Barnabas

Used Islamic language and Muslim style to argue Christian ideals (encultured evangelism). Induces arguments about God by using the human condition: humans long for something not easy to achieve > people with more are often less happy (Sword of Damocles) > only something eternal can bring happiness. How did natural moral/laws come about if we are just bags of cells? Nature leads us to God, but God cannot be understood by nature alone (that is why there are still heathens and sin) > you absolutely need revelation to understand God. Some arguments against Islam : following rules is only the first stage of human development (against Sharia); no book can FULLY reveal God (against Quran).

Gottlieb Pfander (The Balance of Truth)

What did Bassetti-Sani think about Muhammad?

He thought Muhammad was a prophet.

What language does Abd al-Jabbar think Jesus spoke?

Hebrew

In the story of his childhood in Ibn Hisham's biography, what part of Muhammad's body do two angels wash?

His heart

A Christian philosopher living in the Muslim world. Says that we should think about WHY people accept claims about religion (i.e. the first Christians gained nothing, even were persecuted, for their faith, whereas Muslims were promised power and glory). Gives seven false reasons to join a faith (force, promise of goods or might, deceitful prophet, ignorance, kinship with prophet) and four true reasons (miracles, truth, objective proof, ethical people produced by the religion). Mirrors Warraq's arguments.

Hunayn ibn Ishaq

Narrates Muhammad's early life through his mission/prophethood and return to Mecca. Notable stories: Muhammad's nurse Halima; angels cleansing Muhammad; meeting the monk Bahira; Muhammad battling strong guy Rukana; his first wife Khadijah; Gabriel bringing revelation to Muhammad; Ali and Zayd professing faith in Islam; Muhammad against the Quraysh; his battles and teachings in later life.

Ibn Hisham (The Biography of the Messenger of God)

jahiliyya

Ignorant of faith/bad morals. Mecca is said to have been a rich trading outpost, people there over-indulged and turned to paganism.

imam

In Sunni Islam, imams are local religious leaders in the community and worship leaders in the mosque. However, they do not have a power structure similar to that of the Catholic Church. In Shi'ite Islam, imams are chosen by God to be perfect examples for the faithful and to lead all humanity in all aspects of life, and they are infallible. There are 12 imams, the first being Ali (the son-in-law of Muhammad).

Prophets in the Bible vs. Qur'an

In the Bible, prophets only appeared during a certain period of human history when God did not speak directly to the people. In the Qur'an, in all eras God only speaks to prophets. In some Muslim traditions, Adam was the first prophet. In the Qur'an, Noah is a prophet and repeats messages of other prophets before the flood, whereas in the Bible he doesn't even speak until after the flood.

How are Jesus' miracles explained in the Bible vs the Qur'an?

In the Bible, they are a sign of Jesus' divinity; in the Qur'an, they are done by the power of Allah working through Jesus.

Messiah/Christ

In the Qur'an, these mean the same thing and are both used for Jesus. There are two lessons in the Gospel regarding Jesus' Messiahship: one, that he IS the Messiah, and two, what kind of Messiah he is (not the warrior that was expected, humble servant, etc.).

Mu'tazila

Islamic school (big in the 8th-10th centuries) that many early polemics attended. Believed that reason was greater than revelation. NOT a sect - students could be Sunni or Shi'a. Two main teachings: tawhid (any Qur'anic passages suggesting that God is anthropomorphic is purely symbolic) 'adl (God follows a perfect code of justice he has to follow, whereas humans have free will)

The Qaramita

Islamic sect (splintered from Shi'ite Muslims) who believed that no created thing should be worshiped, that Muslims have a duty to correct wrong teachings, and that Muhammad had been eclipsed by the spirit of god among them in their Imam.

Three groups of Christians after Council of Chalcedon

Jacobites (Jesus had only one nature - divine) Melkites (Jesus had two natures in one person Nestorians (Jesus was "2 persons" - closer to Islamic teachings)

Fiqh

Juris prudence - the science of, or the development of human understanding of, the divine law (Shari'a, or God's will for all things). Sources to understand Shari'a are the Quran, hadith, analogical reading, and consensus.

In Islamic tradition, Jesus became an ideal of social service and commitment, as well as an extreme ascetic. He is also seen as a healer and miracle worker, as well as lord of nature (think story about woman wanting her face to be smoother). Jesus is always identified as a Muslim prophet, but the figure of Jesus in the Qur'an was shaped by Islamic needs and beliefs. Says several Islamic stories about Jesus depict him quoting and explaining Qur'anic passages.

Khalidi (The Muslim Jesus)

Khomeini says we can live by fiqh alone, that taqiyya is wrong, and that government should be run in accordance with traditional Islamic law (Shari'a). Militant, passionate, inflammatory rhetoric.

Khomeini (Governance of the Jurist)

What does Kindi say about Islamic claims of miracles?

Kindi says that Christian prophets as well as holy men and women need signs (miracles or predictions/foretellings) in order to be believed. He says that Muhammad had no real miracles, and that Muslims who died, unlike Christians, were not martyrs because their real goal was to go pillage and they just died in the process.

Bucaille was a surgeo in the 970s and was a convert to Islam. Says discoveries of science have dealt a death blow to religion in the West, but have increased faith in Islam because the Quran is corroborated by modern science. Some of Bucaille's arguments are now supported by outdated science; some say his arguments rest solely on strange interpretations of the Quranic text.

Maurice Bucaille (The Bible, The Quran, and Science)

Encultured evangelism

Missionaries teach their own faith by using the culture/context of the people they are preaching too (i.e. Christian missionaries preach in Muslim fashion and adopt Muslim practices such as not eating pork).

How does the Qur'an differ from the Bible in how it portrays Jesus and his life?

Muslims argue against the Trinity/Jesus' divinity. According to Islam, Jesus did not actually die on the cross (someone else died in his place), and he was raised up to heaven by God. Therefore, Muslims believe that Jesus will come again at the end of time (eschatology). In later Islamic tradition, Jesus becomes a model of aceticism (denying physical pleasures or desires for the good of the soul). Muslims agree that Jesus was celibate. Islam also teaches that Jesus was a miracle worker (i.e. story of comforting weeping mountain).

List a few key Muslim/Christian differences.

Muslims believe in one full revelation, people are reminded of revelation and then fall back into jahiliyya in a cycle; Christians believe in salvation history (the gradual unfolding of revelation). Muslims don't believe in original sin or redemption, believe each person in responsible for his/her own actions and salvation. Many Muslims see Christians as tritheists (disbelieve the Trinity and Incarnation).

dhimmi

Refers to Jews or Christians who live in an Islamic state, considered in terms of legal rights (they have certain rights AND certain restrictions).

Does Khomeini think churches and mosques are the same?

NO. He said that mosques are also for politics and for organizing.

Allegory for God and the prophets: Adham = Adam, Gabalawi = God, Gabal = Moses, Rifa'a = Jesus, Qasim = Muhammad. Banned in Egypt until 2006 because God and Muhammad were impersonated and God was represented as human, plus Gabalawi doesn't intervene when the alley conditions are horrible, which is seen as irreligious. Gabal dealt with people by showing strength to restore justice; Rifa'a is a weakling, too other-worldly and gentle to actually solve any problems; Qasim is the perfect balance.

Naguid Mahfouz (Children of the Alley)

Which of the three Christian (Melkite, Jacobite, Nestorian) does 'Abd al-Jabbar pay particular attention to?

Nestorian

Which community of Christians was especially present in the city where Abd al-Jabbar lived?

Nestorians

Addresses the relationship between Christianity and non-Christian religions. Acknowledges the good parts of other religions and recognizes common threads of spirituality, morals and values, etc. Urges all to forget the past between Muslims and Christians and to promote mutual understanding. Says we should not blame Jews for Jesus' death. Reproves any discrimination against or harassment of people of other religions.

Nostra Aetate from Vatican II

Which of the following titles does the Qur'an NOT give to Jesus: Redeemer Christ Spirit of God Word of God

Redeemer

What is the cycle of human history, according to fundamental Islamic belief?

People are doing bad things (jahiliyya) > God sends a prophet to remind people of how to act > people are good for a while > descend into jahiliyya again

Which of these are and are not prophets in the Quran? Salih, Kindi, Uthman, Jabiba, Hud, Shu'ayb

Prophets: Salih, Hud, Shu'ayb Not prophets: Kindi, Uthman, Jabiba

Sura 5 compares Jews' and Christians' relationships with God; is much softer on the Christians, saying they just "forgot" revelation and are closer to Muslims because our priests are not arrogant, and Christians cried/believed when they hear Qur'anic revelations. Uses Jesus' words to promote it's own theology (i.e. quotes Jesus as saying people should not associate anything else with God). Ends with the table story (Jesus bringing down a feast that people might believe). In Sura 7, prophets (including Noah and Moses) repeatedly tell the people to accept the Message and repent.

Qur'an

evidentiary miracles

Qur'an says that prophets bring a sign to show that they are from God. Stories of Muhammad's miracles are very important to Muslims, and are reported in the hadiths.

asceticism

Severe self-discipline and avoidance of all forms of indulgence; some Muslims see Jesus as the ultimate ascetic (The Muslim Jesus).

What are the differences between Sunni and Shi'a Muslim beliefs?

Sunni Islam is marked by fiqh, and says that after the era of the prophets, only fiqh is needed. After Muhammad's death, Sunni Muslims believed authority was passed to Muhammad's close friend Abu Bakr. Shi'ite Islam believes there was a time of the prophets (up to Muhammad) followed by a time of 12 imams (Islamic authorities who come from a line of people related to Muhammad) - first was Ali; most recent was Muhammad al-Mahdi, born in 874, who turned invisible because God wanted to take him away from humanity and will send him back in the end to make things right. Shi'ite Muslims say that in this period of waiting people should practice taqiyya, or disimulation.

Ibn Taymiyya

Sunni Muslim who subscribed to Hanbali school of legal thought. He said that human reason, innovation, and bida' (e.g. singing, celebrating Muhammad's birthday, etc.) should be totally cut out of religion because it could lead people to deviate from word/will of God - everything should be exact imitation of Quran and hadith. Later scholars who agreed with him said that the four-school system is based of taqid (imitation) of scholars and not of Muhammad himself, and that the period between the death of Muhammad and the mid 8th century was perfect because it was before the formation of the four legal schools.

al-salaf al-salih

The "perfect ancestors" who lived in those years right after Muhammad's death before the four schools.

How does the Qur'an use Biblical phrases or stories?

The Qur'an does not directly quote from the Bible, but instead alludes to Biblical stories or picks up its phrases and applies them to its own objctives (i.e. the story of Sarah's laugh is slightly different than the Biblical version). Suggests high level of Biblical literacy among audience of the Qur'an.

Mostly deals with the translation of "Son of God" when preaching to or trying to evangelize Muslims.

The Son and the Crescent (online article)

Injil

The TRUE revelation of Jesus, was originally in Hebrew (the language of Jesus) until Christians corrupted it.

Concordism

The belief that the data of science is in accord with data in the Qur'an. Distinctly modern argument.

isnad

The chain of transmission - names of people in order who reported a hadith.

hadith

The hadiths are the written reports which describe the sunna (sayings or stories associated with Muhammad according to his followers). Each hadith has two parts: the isnad (chain of communication) and matn (actual report). The sunna/hadith is one source of revelation, in addition to the Qur'an.

What are some differences between modern and classical Islamic arguments?

The idea of Muhammad being the all-time greatest prophet is more of a classical than modern idea, people tended to elevate Muhammad like Christians elevated Jesus. In the recent age of accepting more modern technological and moral ideals (e.g. all humans have inherent rights), Christians took new arguments against Muslims because of some of the things Muhammad did (e.g. polygamy). Muslims responded by saying that Muhammad only did some of these less desirable things because he realized he could only change things *gradually*. To make this argument work, Muslims had to make the pre-Muhammad era look as terrible as possible (i.e. jahiliyya).

sunna

The verbally transmitted record of the religious practices established by Muhammad.

According to Islam, what is the only unforgivable sin?

Theological sin - associating something that is not God with God.

eschatology

Theology of the end of the world; in Islamic eschatology, like Christian eschatology, Jesus will return.

revelation

Things that are revealed by God. Could be things that we could not know on our own/are mysteries, or things that we could know but have "forgotten".

Which author relates that Muhammad's true source of religious information was a monk named Sergius?

al-Kindi

This treatise was sent to someone in Antioch (one of the last Christian Crusader territories, fell to Muslims in 1268) who was questioned about the Christian faith and needed a response. First discusses relationship between faith and reason, then goes into 6 main topics in the body: The Incarnation and the Trinity (says that our intellect produces "offspring"; God always has this product, which is co-substantial and co-eternal with Him, which we know as the Son. The relationship between intellect and offspring is love - "appetite". Argues Trinity ontologically). Crucifixion/Justification Eucharist Immediate Retribution Free Will

Thomas Aquinas (Reasons for the Faith against Muslim Objections)

What is the "constellation of voices" in the Qur'an?

Three voices speak throughout the Qur'an: the voice of God (sometimes God speaking, sometimes speaking OF God), the voice of the prophet to whom God is speaking, and the people to whom God sometimes speaks.

According to Islam, what are the other divine texts/pieces of God's revelation?

Torah (Moses), New Testament (Jesus), and Psalms (David). However, Muslims believe that the true revelation has been replaced by saying of spiritual guides, stories, etc. (tahrif).

supernatural religion

Traditional classification of religions by Christians; supernatural religions are the product of revelation - Judaism, Christianity, and Islam (somewhat?).

Also should read somewhat like a textbook. Litany of proposed questions about or issues with Christianity from Muslims, followed by a thorough explanation of Christian teaching.

Troll (Muslims Ask, Christians Answer)

True or False: al-Kindi believes that true religions should produce miracles.

True

True or false: 'Abd al-Jabbar quotes the Creed.

True

economic vs. ontological

Two ways to talk about the Trinity. Economic refers to how the Trinity relates to creation, ontological is how the members relate to one another/the essence of the Trinity (i.e. Aquinas).

Dialogue that supposedly happened in the court of a caliph (Caliph al-Ma'mun probably wouldn't have actually allowed the violent anti-Islam rhetoric). Very emotional argument. A Christian probably wrote the whole thing, including the Muslim's dialogue. Premises: Miracles are the signs of a prophet; Judaism agrees with natural instincts/laws; a religion which offers worldly gain is likely to be false. Say that Muhammad was said to be illiterate, so for his Biblical knowledge he had a Christian informant. Also says that Muhammad did NOT have miracles, and made up his revelation to gain worldly power. Mirrors al-Jabbar's arguments.

al-Kindi (The Apology of al-Kindi)

umma

community of Muslims

pagan

idolatrous polytheist

According to the biography of Muhammad, to what country (across the Red Sea) did some of Muhammad's followers emigrate to?

present-day Ethiopia and Eritrea (?)