Science For Sustainable Development Final Exam Study
average value of K
if substance is heterogeneous, cannot use average value of K in Darcy's Law to get average flow Q bc water will seek place where it can flow most easily
does water need to be pumped?
for deep confined aquifer - no, bc top of water body in aquifer (potentiometric surface) is at higher elevation than the top of the well; for confined aquifer - always needs to be pumped
unit of analysis
for surface water - watershed/drainage basin, for groundwater - ??
sea ice
frozen surface of the sea, only a few meters thick
decomposition
fungi convert plant and animal matter into ammonia
demand vs discharge
future projections suggest climate change less important for water security than population pressure
What is allopatric species formation?
geographic isolation leading to adaptation
What is allopatric species formation?
geographic isolation leading to adaptation marsupial tail
how species form: allopatric speciation
geographical isolation
food adaptation strategies
improve access and affordability for food insecure people, drought/flood tolerant crops (*biodiversity), diets to reduce demand, reduce emissions
Environmental Rehabilitation
in an effort to return them to their original state, sites that suffered environmental degradation through pollution of the soil/ water or disturbance (soil erosion), can be rehabilitated. This can include mechanical, chemical and biological processes
Waste Avoidance
includes actions to reduce the amount of waste generated by households, industry and all levels of government
What is sympatric species formation?
inhabiting the same region but in different niches (enclaves) and adapting differently, change from immigration new introduced mating preferences
What is sympatric species formation?
inhabiting the same region but in different niches and adapting differently
Waste Minimisation
involves reducing the amount of waste produced in society and helps to eliminate the generation of harmful and persistent wastes, supporting the efforts to promote a more sustainable society
Economic factor/ impacts (of a development)
its financial costs and the profit it will generate
fatalities
large in poor countries, small in wealthy countries
economic losses from natural disasters
large in wealthy countries, small in poor countries
Regulatory framework
laws and regulations which set out the legal requirements of indiv. businesses/organisations in terms of limits to their pollution and activities and consequences imposed if exceeded government establishes agencies responsible for monitoring and enforcing these regulations (Context of Use: DPI, EPA, usually when problem has already risen)
nitrogen fixation?
legumes and lightning convert N2 into ammonium
Biocentrism
living things all have equal and intrinsic worth
impacts of earthquakes
loss of capital stock and deaths (not all capital may be measured in GDP)
storm surge + high tides
magnify the risk of local sea level rise
biodiversity
variability among living organisms from all sources including ecosystems and ecological complexes of which they are a part; includes diversity within species, within species, and of ecosystems
Three types of biodiversity
variability within species, between species, of ecosystems
Ecosystem diversity
variation in ecosystems, habitats, ecological processes
Genetic diversity
variation of genes within a species or among species
factors for hurricanes
warm ocean, humid air, presence of "spin" in atmosphere (coriolis force), convergence of humid air
C4 plants
warm-season, tropical
where does groundwater originate?
water evaporates/evotranspirates, clouds come over land surface and precipitate, some H20 runs off, some soaks and permeates until reaches impermeable layer to form aquifer
virtual water
water footprint involved in production of goods rather than just water involved in consumption of goods (use does not necessarily mean consumption)
confined aquifer
water infiltrates beneath impermeable layer - "confined" bc constrained at top and bottom by impermeable layers
Conservation
the use and management of natural resources in a way that is beneficial to humans while maintaining its integrity
distribution
there is plenty of water in total, the problem is uneven distribution (climate zones/rainfall, access)
An aquifer not bounded on top that is permeable (doesn't have an aquitard on the top of the aquifer)
unconfined aquifer
aqueducts
used to move H20, have been used for centuries. geoengineering of h20 supply- often involve grand schemes for construction (India)
scientific method
used to test a hypothesis
Reuse
using 'waste' again or more than once
Impacts of Excess Nitrogen
- Atmospheric nitrogen deposition - N2O is a greenhouse gas - Eutrophication and hypoxia
food security
"exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient safe and nutritious food that meets dietary needs and food preferences for active and healthy life"
impact of excess nitogen: eutrophication
"spreading menace" excess nitrogen / phospate runoff causes excessive algae growth (using the oxygen and choking out other aquatic life) lots of eutrophication "dead zones" nitrogen helps yield up to a certain optimume point
water withdrawal
"water diverted or withdrawn from a surface water or groundwater source
consumptive water use
"water use that permanently withdraws water from its source"
What are the 6 categories of threats to biodiversity?
(#1)Habitat loss and fragmentation (theory of island biogeography) (#2) loss of genetic diversity in crops (agrodiversity) (population bottleneck= loss of habitat leads to loss of diversity, if you increase the diversity (introduced through new genetic varation) it rebounds, except once it is completely diminished- once gone its gone (#3) climate changE: temperature increase from climate change, means species are forced to move uphill. the top is kicked out- competition, and biome shifts with climate change ( attempt for movement projected) Arctic high latitudes is where climate is changing most rapidly, making it difficult for existing species to adapt. ( (#4) invasive species:non native to ecosystem, the introduction of invasive species is likely to cause economic or enviormental harm, often take over ecosystem and crowd out other species. (#5) nutrient run off - loading and pollution. create "dead zones" which correlate with the drainage basins for agriculture and industry. threat in costal areas (#6) over-harvesting: bush meat, animal parts for medicine or collection, pet trade and over fishing. background extinction rate = ongoing rate of extinction "the normal" mass extinctions when extinction rate is 5 times the normal (been 5 in history ) #of species= species rate-extinction rate
2 causes of sea level rise
(1) thermal expansion of seawater - primarily caused by global warming; (2) melting land ice - glaciers, ice caps, ice sheets (more recent, but accounts for increasingly more rise)
Hydrology Balance Equation
(p) - (ET) = (q) + (g out) p = precipitation ET = evapotranspiration q = surface water outflow gout = groundwater outflow Parentheses are used to show that the units are averaged over time Humans can modify q by constructing a dam
what makes groundwater extraction sustainable?
***
How Species Form (Speciation)
- Adaptive radiation (i.e Darwin's finches) - Allopatric speciation: geographic isolation (i.e marsupials in Australia) - Sympartic speciation: evolve while inhabiting the same geographic region (i.e apple maggots)
Ecosystem Services: Cultural
- Aesthetic - Spiritual - Recreational - Educational
Extra information about Waste Management
- All items are made from resources ~ renewable or non-renewable resources. Non- renewal are not replenished at timescales relevant to human lifetimes, therefore considered FINITE. - All items 'embody' the energy and water required for their production, transportation and storage. - Substance decomposition varies in length of time - Some materials release toxic substances when discarded
Droughts and Famines
- Almost all the poorest countries are drought prone - Drought that leads to famine is still a poor world fact
Least water
- Atmosphere (12.7 thousand cubic km) - Permafrost (22 thousand cubic km) - Ocean to land water vapor transport/surface flow (40 thousand cubic km/year)
Climate Change Consequences in Agriculture: Advantages
- CO2 fertilization effect (increase in yields) - Longer growing season - Increased precipitation (overall warmer and wetter world)
Ecosystem Services: Regulating
- Climate regulation - Flood regulation - Disease regulation - Water purification
Techniques to Geoingeneer Water Supplies
- Construction of dams - Construction of aqueducts - River linking projects
Why is groundwater pollution such a problem?
- Contamination includes a process of diffusion, absorption and reaction in addition to Darcy flow - The deeper the well, the less contaminated it is - Wells are only tested in a small area - Example: arsenic in Bangladeshi groundwater
Three levels of Biodiversity
- Diversity within species (genetic diversity) - Diversity between species - Diversity of ecosystems
Economic Losses vs. Mortality Losses
- Don't always coincide - Low economic losses and high mortality losses for floods in poor countries - High economic losses and low mortality losses for floods in rich countries
Island Biogeography
- Explains uneven distribution of islands of different sizes - Species on island: balance between immigration and extinction
Solutions to Biodiversity Loss
- Ex-situ conservation (zoos, gene banks) - In-situ conservation (protected areas, biodiversity hotspots) - Biodiversity-friendly landscapes (shade coffee farms) - Market mechanisms, payment for ecosystem services (water from Catskill mountains) - International conventions (ICB 1992 and CITES 1973)
Eutrophication
- Excess of nitrogen in water leads to growth of algae - Algae deplete water of oxygen (hypoxia), decreasing water quality - Caused by excessive use of nitrogen-based fertilizers that end-up in bodies of water
Ecosystem Services: Provisioning
- Food - Freshwater - Wood and fiber - Fuel
Challenges to sustainability
- increasing POPULATION which also puts pressure on: - food - water - energy
Waste Disposal
- least preferred method of waste management - done by stockpiling, incineration, burial and landfill
Sustainability principles
- precautionary principle - conservation of biodiversity and ecological integrity - inter-generational equity - intra-generational equity - efficiency of resource use - user pays principle
What is needed for effective Environmental Management?
- Full Examination of existing conditions/procedures - Environmental risks/problems identified and assessed - Ensure compliance with regulatory frameworks - Raise awareness / promoting transparency/ involvement of public - Balance the environmental, social and economic costs/ benefits - Minimise impacts and ensure damage rehabilitation - Establishment and documentation of policies and action plans - Assign responsibility - Establish goals/benchmarks/criteria - Ongoing monitoring and reporting of progress - Regular review of procedures and progress - Continual improvement in practices
Climate Change Consequences in Agriculture: Disadvantages
- Heat stress - More frequent extreme events (drought/floods) - Pests and diseases
Haber-Bosch Process
- High heat and Fe catalyst fix N2 and N20 into NH3, solving issue of nitrogen fixation - Allowed easy access to fertilizers, replacing guano as an alternative N/P source - Nobel prizes: 1918 and 1931
Agriculture Adaptation Strategies for Climate Change
- Improve access and affordability for food insecure people - Reduce emissions - Diets to reduce demand - Use drought/flood tolerant crops
Example of C4 plants
- Maize - Millet - Sugarcane
The Green Revolution
- Norman Borlaug: key figure - Headed by USAID, Rockefeller Foundation, Ford Increase yields by - New crop cultivars - Irrigation - Mechanization - Fertilization Lead to a dramatic increase in grain yields from 14 million to 144 million tons of grain worldwide
Ecosystem Services: Supporting
- Nutrient cycling - Soil formation - Primary production
Most water
- Ocean water (1,335,040 thousand cubic km) - Ice water (26,350 thousand cubic km) - Groundwater (1, 335, 040 thousand cubic km)
Phosphorus Cycle vs. Nitrogen Cycle
- P is rarely found as gas in atmosphere (no fixation required as with N) - P sources: soil, phosphate rocks and sediments - Longer cycle: requires ocean sediments to move back into phosphate-containing rocks for completion
Four Dimensions of Food Security
- Physical availability - Economic and physical access - Food utilization - Stability of three above dimensions over time
Prediction of Natural Disasters
- Physical processes are well-known, prediction is still a big scientific challenge - There are regions more prone to natural disasters (i.e Pacific ring of fire)
Surface Water - Summary
- Plenty of water but most of it is salty - Problem is distribution - Dams: management strategy that is effective with detrimental characteristics - Geoengeneering of water supplies has been used for centuries
Importance of Species Biodiversity
- Pollination (i.e bats, butterflies, bees, birds, insects) - Medicines (i.e rosy periwinkle for leukemia) - Disease transmission (i.e vector-borne-disease like malaria) - Dilution effect of biodiversity to reduce likelihood of spreading Lyme disease
Population Bottlenecks
- Reduced genetic variation of a less predominant species - Usually happens after disasters or reduction of population - When a population's size is reduced for at least one generation
Importance of Genetic Biodiversity
- Resistance to disease (i.e 1840's Irish potato famine) - Crop and livestock breeding (i.e corn) - Adaptation to disease, pests and climate change
Projection of Climate Change at Different Latitudes
- Tropical/temperate regions: climate change without adaptation will negatively impact production of major crops (rice, wheat, maize) - Low-latitude countries: crop production is consistently and negatively affected by climate change - High-latitude countries: climate change may have positive or negative effects in crop production
Problems for cone of depression
- Very easy for cones of adjacent wells to intersect - Saline water can be introduced into wells by pumping in coastal areas
Darcy's Law: Components
- Volumetric discharge (Q) - Specific discharge (q) - Hydraulic Gradient (I) - Cross-sectional area (A) - High h (h1) and low h (h2)
Cone of Depression
- Water is pumped from the base of a well only open at the aquifers deepest point - Pumping will draw water in all directions, not just laterally
Example of C3 plants
- Wheat - Rice - Potato
Law of the Minimum
- When one factor (light, water, nitrogen, phosphorus) is depleted, growth stops - Increasing the amount of the limiting component resumes growth until that component is depleted again
(Environmental) Monitoring
- collates scientific, historic and current data on environmental impacts through MONITORING - the public release of this info. is a hallmark of good enviro. management - allows for measurement of the effectiveness of management strategies - publication of such data allows for transparency of management process NOT A STRATEGY TO ADDRESS AN ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUE IN ITSELF (Context of Use: DPI, Government agencies)
What does an EIA aim to do?
- describe proposal and alternatives - describe the site (incl. physical features) - predict nature and magnitude of likely environmental impacts (may involve RA or LCA) - assess likely social and economic costs/ benefits - incorporate expert, community and stakeholder views - define criteria used to measure significance of enviro. changes likely to be caused by development - establish environmental management and monitor for expected life of development, should it proceed - assign responsibility for protection of any environmental values that may be affected, should it proceed - evaluate implications of not proceeding with project
What can LCA information be used for?
- improve environmental management by minimising impacts - assist with deciding which product or process to adopt (comparison between LCA of two products/ processes)
Stakeholder examples
- proponents of a new development (developers) - relevant Minister - government agencies: environment, water, health, transport, resource management EXAMPLES: EPA, Dep. of the Environment, Dep. of Health - experts, academic and scientific organisations EXAMPLES: CSIRO, universities, environmental scientists, engineers - people who may be negatively impacted by development EXAMPLES: landowners, local councils, local residents - business and industry - Unions (involved in construction and industries affected by development) - Environmental interest groups EXAMPLES: ACF, Wilderness Society, Sea Shephard
Media's role
- raise people's awareness about environmental issues - provide detailed and accurate information - cover all the different perspectives held on issues
What are the main methods of dealing with and rehabilitating liquid waste?
- settling ponds, filtration and bio-remediation (involves the use of organisms to neutralize pollutants from a contaminated site) - storm water is released directly into water ways or treated - prescribed as liquid waste
What makes extraction of underground water sustainable?
- surface waters can recharge underground aquifers - Water can infiltrate from the ground surface downward
Over-harvesting
Depleting more of species than are being naturally replenished (over-fishing, big game hunting)
Desalination Process
1. Boil seawater to collect fresh water that boils off 2. Reverse osmosis: pass seawater through a membrane under pressure Energy and environmental costs are high! Carbon from the power source for energy input and disposal of salt
What are the 5 categories of solutions to biodiversity loss?
1. (Off Site) Ex-situ conservation (zoos, gene banks) 2. (On Site) In-situ conservation (protected areas, hotspots, "enviormental emergency rooms" chosen zones to be preserved/protected because of their exceptional species richness and endemics (have a habitat loss over 70% original habitat) 3. biodiversity friendly agricultural systems (shaded coffee farming, certification schemes) farmers sacrifice a higher yield to have more biodiversity friendly farming, the consumer than pays a premium to offset cost to farms yield (certification schemes) 4. Market mechanisms/payment for ecosystem services (downstream payment to the people upstream ), Ex: water sheds, those benefiting pay opportunity cost as compensation to those preserving eco system service and making it possible 5. International Conventions (UN convention on Biodiversity, CITIES (trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora) CBD, PGRFA)
Threats to Biodiversity
1. Habitat loss and fragmentation (i.e rainforest destruction) 2. Loss of genetic diversity in crops (i.e Irish potato famine) 3. Climate change (i.e bleaching of coral reefs) 4. Invasive species (i.e zebra mussels) 5. Nutrients loads and pollution (i.e eutrophication) 6. Over-harvesting (i.e animal poaching)
Steps involved in the assessment of an environmental risk
1. Information gathering 2. Hazard Identification (identification of the nature of potential problems) 3. Determination of the risk (quantification of the probability of the event and possible harmful short and long term consequences) 4. Identification of criteria (used as benchmarks) 5. Establish a plan for managing environmental risks
Cloud seeding process
1. Spray chemicals (silver iodide/dry ice) into clouds to encourage droplets to coalesce 2. Droplets coalesce into snow and melt as they fall 3. Heat released as the droplets freeze boost updrafts, which pull more moist air into the cloud
relative size of stocks and flows and reservoirs
1. oceans/saltwater 9.75%, freshwater 2.5% 2. of freshwater, 80% glaciers, 20% groundwater, 1% easily accessible freshwater
ice sheet
100s to 1000s of m thick, resting on the ground, flow outwards from a 'flow center
glaciers
10s to 1000s of m thick, narrower than they are long, resting on ground, flow under their own weight from high ground to lower ground or the ocean
Green Revolution
1960s intentional effort to increase cereal production- strategy to fight famines funded by many foundations( rockefellers, Norman Bourlaug) due to irrigation, fertilizer, pesticides, etc Increase yield by using strategy for crop cultivation, irrigation, fertalizers, pesticides and mechanization not by land area expansion land sparring land sharing debate (biodiversity) major increase in calories per person produced
problems from cones of depression
2 wells drilled next to each other can have intersecting cones of depression; in confined aquifer it can be drawn upward since there is no free surface (density effects) and upward motion of groundwater can cause sea water incursion into coastal areas
supporting: nutrient cycling, soil formation, primary production provisioning: food, freshwater, wood and fiber, fuel regulating: climate, floods, diseases, water purification cultural: aesthetic, spiritual, educational, recreational
4 types of ecosystem services and examples of each:
Where is the freshwater?
79% ice, 20% groundwater, 1% easily accessible surface water
What percentage of water is in salt vs. freshwater?
97.5% oceans, 2.5% freshwater
What percentage of water is in salt vs. freshwater?
97.5% oceans, 2.5% freshwater (of the 2.5, 79 is in glaciers, 20 is in ground water, and 1 is in easily accessible fresh water)
What is the time averaged water balance equation ?
<P> - <ET> = <q> + <gout> (precipitation minus evapotranspiration equals surface water outflow plus groundwater outflow, the difference between precipitation and evaporated is the outflow from the drainage basin)
Confined Aquifer
A deep groundwater system contained by impermeable layers
Green Revolution
A huge increase in food production due to irrigation, fertilizer, pesticides, etc
Aquitard
A layer of confining strata that contains the water in a confined aquifer from above and below
Drainage Basin: Definition
A region of land where water from rain or snow melt drains downhill into a body of water. Provides a limited surface area within which physical processes pertinent to the general hydrology may be considered
What is so bad about groundwater pollutants?
A small amount of pollutant can contaminate a large amount of water
What is so bad about groundwater pollutants?
A small amount of pollutant can contaminate a large amount of water- diffusion- chemical pollutants in aquifer
artesian well
A well that flows on its own because it is below the water table and a confined aquifer
confined aquifer
An aquifer that is bounded on the top and bottom and has a confined amount of space due to its aquitards
What is a Natural Disaster?
An extreme event of nature that leads to a social-developmental outcome
Use of water
Agriculture > Domestic > Industry
ground water terms: unconfined aquifer
An aquifer not bounded on top that is permeable (doesn't have an aquitard on the top of the aquifer)
unconfined aquifer
An aquifer not bounded on top that is permeable (doesn't have an aquitard on the top of the aquifer)
ground water terms: confined aquifer
Aquifers can recharge surface h20 and create lakes. The time this takes is called the rate of replenishment. the ability for h20 to be stored underground depends on the properties of the rock formation (porosity and permiability= rate of flow) hydrofracking is an artificial means of permiability and porosity An aquifer that is bounded on the top and bottom and has a confined amount of space due to its aquitards
Climate change
Arctic melting, permafrost melting, increased ocean acidification/temperatures, rising sea levels
What is water scarcity?
Availability of water relative to human needs rather than consumption or withdrawal
Residence Time
Average time a water molecule spends in the system
Nitrogen Cycle: Nitrification
Bacteria convert ammonium into nitrate, which can be used as a nitrogen source for plant growth
Theory of Island Biography
Balance between immigration and extinction of species
Theory of Island Biography
Balance between immigration and extinction of species. Explains uneven distribution of islands of different sizes, the number of species on an island is the balance between immigration and extinction
Dams: Benefits
Benefits - tame annual floods - Attenuate/delay extremes of rainfall/flooding - Energy option (hydroelectricity) - Water supply
carbon dioxide fertilization effect and climate change
C3 plants respond more than C4 plants to increase of [CO2] (C3/C4 differ in growing conditions and which enzymes used for photosynthesis)
Difference between C3 and C4 plants
C3 plants respond to CO2 increase more than C4 plants due to difference in photosynthetic mechanisms
What are 3 examples of C3 and C4 crops?
C3: wheat, rice, potato C4: maize, millet, sugarcane
What are 3 examples of C3 and C4 crops?
C3: wheat, rice, potato, veggies C4: maize, millet, sugarcane
agricultural benefits of climate change
CO2 fertilization, longer growing season, increased precipitation
True economic cost
Calculation of two triangle areas (above and below GDP/GNI/HDI baseline for disaster)
Environmental management tools and strategies
Can be used to help achieve sustainable development these are: - regulatory frameworks - monitoring and reporting - Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) - Environmental Risk Assessment -Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) - impact minimisation (through Environmental Management Plans) - environmental rehabilitation - waste management - biological controls
Invasive species
Can overpower local species and take over resources (lionfish, oysters)
What's the difference between C3 and C4 plants with respect to carbon dioxide?
Carbon dioxide fertilization affects C3 plants more positively than C4 plants
Dams: Consequences
Consequences - Loss of downstream aquifers - Greenhouse gas (methane) emissions from flooded vegetation - Floods areas, displace people - Loss of fisheries' livelihood
Social and economic loss variability from disasters
Consequences are subtle and equivocal, different countries handle, asses and measure disasters differently, poorer countries with weaker infrastructure are more susceptible to disaster. Economic loss is only count for loss of productive capital
Negative dam attributes
Construction causes flooding of surrounding areas (displacement of local people, inability to use land, when vegetation is engulfed in water dead plants release methane, loss of forested land reduces CÓ intake); disrupts ecosystems (salmon spawning); interruption of fertile sediment transport downstream
Hydraulic conductivity
Corresponds to the permeability of a material. It describes the ability of the material to permit water to move through its pore spaces-even if a material is highly porous if those pore spaces are not connected the rock is not permeable and not hydraulically conductive.
q = KI (rate of flow is a product of hydraulic gradient and conductivity)
Darcy's Law
Unit of analysis for surface water
Drainage basin/watershed
Economic Losses in Disasters: Sources
Economic losses come from loss in productive capital and not people and homes
Ecosystem Diversity
Ecosystem Services (i.e habitat for pollinators, water filtration)
excess nitrogen causes excessive algae growth (using the oxygen and choking out other aquatic life)
Eutrophocation
What are the 5 categories of solutions to biodiversity loss?
Ex-situ conservation (zoos, gene banks), in-situ conservation (protected areas, hotspots), biodiversity friendly agricultural systems (shaded coffee farming), Market mechanisms/payment for ecosystem services (pay the people upstream), International Conventions
Eutrophication
Excess nutrients present in water as a result of industrial agriculture, causing algae and phytoplankton blooms
Consumption of water
Final use of water - it can no longer be reused
What are the 3 major parts of the nitrogen cycle?
Fixation, nitrification, denitrification
Habitat loss and fragmentation
Fragmentation: a highway in splitting migration routes, a dam creating a waterway that is too big to cross
What's the difference between C3 and C4 plants with respect to carbon dioxide?
Free-air carbon exchange experiements : used to find out if plants vary in their response to Co2 found that Carbon dioxide fertilization affects C3 plants more positively than C4 plants becuse of its photosyntheis pathways. C3 slope is higher and saturation happens higher. Saturation is due to other limiting factors despite having lots of Co2 more carbon increase photosynth. but plants lack other nutrients as result which has a change in the nutrient content of plants (nutrient cycling- nutrients essential to life thus plants and animals take up nutrients and we eat them and get nutrients) soil is the conduit for plant nutrients
Nitrogen Cycle: Decomposition
Fungi convert dead organic matter into ammonium, which can be converted into nitrate for plant growth
GDP as a measure of capital loss
GDP is a poor measure of capital loss - only good for manufacturing-based economies
Disasters in Service vs. Agricultural Economies
Gains in GDP go with changes in economic mix from agricultural to service domination - it's safer to live in a service economy
A huge increase in food production due to irrigation, fertilizer, pesticides, etc
Green Revolution
Unit of analysis for groundwater
Groundwater basin
Where does groundwater come from?
Groundwater comes from land precipitation that percolates through the soil to underground water reservoirs
Growth rate in Recovery from Natural Disasters
Growth rate in recovery must exceed pre-disaster growth
heand and pressure combine hydrogen and nitrogen into ammonia
Haber Bosch process
What are the 6 categories of threats to biodiversity?
Habitat loss and fragmentation, loss of agrodiversity, invasive species, climate change, nutrient loading and pollution, over-harvesting
Reverse osmosis (Water is pushed through semi-permeable membranes that filters out the salt which is distributed back into the ocean)
How does desalination work?
Hydraulic connectivity
Hydraulic connectivity is the flow of the water through the aquifer. The permeability and porosity (is a measure of how much of a rock is open space. ) of the aquifer changes the rate of flux. Rocks have a higher conductivity while sand, less porous, has a lower conductivity.
What is the hydraulic conservation equation?
I - O = delta S (input minus output equals change in water stored in watershed)
What is the hydraulic (relating to a liquid moving in a confined space under pressure) conservation equation?
I - O = delta S incoming - outgoing = the change in storage (input minus output equals change in water stored in watershed)
Hydraulic Gradient
I = delta H/L
What is the world's water use by sector?
It varies depending on the country
What is the world's water use by sector?
It varies depending on the country,
Value Systems
Includes Anthropocentrism, Biocentrism and Ecocentrism which are different views on the environment and its purpose
Carbon Fertilization Effect
Increase in temperature/CO2 leads to an increase in photosynthesis rate until a point, after which it decreases
Carbon dioxide fertilization effect
Increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide increases photosynthesis in plants
Natural Disaster increasing
Increase population means increase disaster without even accounting for climate change
What does carbon dioxide fertilization do?
Increases photosynthesis
What does carbon dioxide fertilization do?
Increases photosynthesis - atmospheric increase in Co2 (climate change) increases rate of photosynthesis (assimilation of co2 central to plant metabolism)
Waste Management
Involves reducing the amount of resources and energy used to produce goods and services, waste sent to landfill and pollution generated by waste through: - reducing consumption - reuse - recycle - energy efficiency - waste minimisation - waste treatment - waste containment - waste disposal
Green Revolution
Large increase of crop production, particularly in developing countries, achieved by the use of fertilizers, pesticides and high-yield crop varieties from the 1930's to 1960s
C4 crop
Light dependent actions and the Calvin Cycle are physically separated in the plant to minimize photorespiration. More common in plants that live in hot climates. Example: corn, sugarcane
On what three scales can environmental issues be viewed from?
Local: the impact affecting a relatively small area Regional: a large but distinct area of impact Global: has a global or international impact
Loss of agrodiversity
Loss of agrobiodiversity leads to plants and crops being more susceptible to disease (banana example)
Conservation (of biodiversity and ecological integrity)
Maintenance of: - the abundance of different species living within a particular region - the genetic diversity within a population - the ability of an ecosystem to maintain its function - including a capacity for self renewal and continued maintenance TIED TO ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFICENCE, which is the concept that we should aim for an environment which is beneficial to all and in which all species, including humans, can flourish.
Nitrogen Cycle: Fixation
Microbes on legume root nodules or lightning are able to fi Nitrogen gas in the atmosphere into ammonium
nitrogen fixation?
Microbes on legumes root and lightning convert N2 (atmospheric nitrogen) into ammonium (plants want nitrate)
Economic costs from disaster
Natural disasters reduce the labor stock but economic loss is only counted in terms of a reduction of loss of productive capital. Elders and children deaths which are the most common type in disasters do not have an economic impact because they are not active producers in labor market GDP is a bad measure of economic impact because it accounts for manufacturing based economy not all types of capital losses (hospitals, and schools)
Nutrient loading and pollution
Nitrogen overload causing algal blooms in runoff
Cone of depression
Occurs in an aquifer when groundwater is pumped from a well, refers to the shape of the drawdown. In an unconfined aquifer, it is when the water level gets lower closer to the point of extraction than in other areas of the aquifer. It is a reduction of pressure around the the pumped well
Property of an Artesian well
One that intersects a confined aquifer. Considered flowing if it doesn't require pumping (it's head lies above the potentiometric surface)
Nitrogen Cycle: Denitrification
Other bacteria convert nitrate back into N2 or N2O
Where uses the most water (per capita and total)?
Per capita: US, Australia Total: Asia
Poverty and Food Relationship
Sustainable Development Goal #1: No poverty There are positive feedback loops for poverty in which food is a component
Natural Disasters: Predictions without considering Climate Change
Population trends put more people and assets in the paths of natural extremes of all types. Hence, potential for disaster could be increasing
Water stress
Ratio of water withdrawal to availability
What is water stress?
Ratio of water withdrawn to water available
Short Stagnation Period
Recovery Time = T1
Long Stagnation Period
Recovery Time = T1 > T2 L3> L2 > L
How does desalination work?
Reverse osmosis (Water is pushed through semi-permeable membranes that filters out the salt which is distributed back into the ocean)
How does desalination work?
Reverse osmosis (Water is pushed with hydrostatic pressure through semi-permeable membranes that filters out the salt which is distributed back into the ocean) other methods : boiling Cons: high energy cost, and disposal of salt back in to ocean
Species Area Curve
S = CA^z (number of species is the area times a constant to a constant)
How to count species? Count or Estimate (collectors curve / Species Area Curve)
S = CA^z (number of species is the area times a constant to a constant) When number of sample reaches a point that more information isnt learned (repeated) other modes of count: taxonomy, systematists, history Other modes of estimating: food webs, body size
Island Biogeography: Equation
S = cA^z S = # of species A = Area c/z = constants
S-shaped vs Inverted L-shaped curves
S-shape: poverty traps Inverted L-shape: no poverty traps
the species-area relationship to estimate the ratio of species
S= CA^z number of Species = Constant 1 x Area ^ Constant 2
(Environmental) Risk Management
Sets out what should be done to address a problem if an environmental hazard arises - monitoring of environmental impacts - conducting further investigation to assess significance - consulting with experts to ascertain magnitude of situation - prohibit use of potentially damaging process/ object/ substance - suspending, regulating or modifying activities - reducing vulnerability of those threatened - development and implementation of post-event emergency response procedures - institution of compensation schemes MAY BE SET OUT IN AN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PLAN
Unconfined Aquifer
Shallow groundwater system that has a water table with no distinct boundary from the ground surface
How do we speed up nitrogen cycle
Slash and burn - speeds up decomposition compost- use animal or human wast as fertalizer bring nitrogen from else where- bird poo (guano Humbolt)
S = CA^z (number of species is the area times a constant to a constant)
Species Area Curve
Law of the minimum
States that growth is dictated not by the total amount of resources available but by the scarcest resource
What makes groundwater extraction sustainable?
Surface waters and aquifers can recharge each other
What makes groundwater extraction sustainable?
Surface waters and aquifers can recharge each other. how much is being recharged is the rate of replenishment.
water table
The area under which the soil is saturated
how earthquakes occur
fault is relaxed, then becomes stressed (foreshocks then mainshock
Hydraulic Conductivity
The ability of a fluid to flow through a rock
Porosity
The amount of space between grains of rock that can hold water
What is residence time?
The amount of time that an h2o molecule spends in a specific reservoir. stocks This indicates the size of reservoirs and the flows indicate fluxes involved in the water cycle
What is residence time?
The amount of time that water spends in a specific reservoir
What is essential to the concept of sustainable development?
The balancing of the economic, social and environmental considerations
Ecosystem: Definition
The complex system of plant, animal, fungal and microorganism communities and their associated non-living environment interacting as an ecological unit
island bio-geography theory
The number of species on any island reflects a balance between the rate at which new species colonize it and the rate at which populations of established species become extinct
Water Table
The top of the unconfined aquifer. Forms by infiltration of water from the ground surface downward
Biodiversity: Definition
The variability among living organisms from all sources including inter alia, terrestrial, marine, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part
Balance between immigration and extinction of species
Theory of Island Biography
variability within species, between species, of ecosystems
Three types of biodiversity
Why can't we average K to get an average flow Q?
Water seeks place where it can flow most easily If a surface is heterogenous, we cannot average K for many different conductivities (K) are present and we won't get an average flow (q)
Extraction of water
Water that is extracted from different sources
Artesian well
a well that reaches through an aquitard into a confined aquifer; if flowing, means its head lies below the piezometric surface
green revolution
USAID/Rockefeller Foundation/Norman Borlag : increase crop yields using new crop cultivars, irrigation, fertilizers, pesticides, mechanization
Water table
Upper boundary of an unconfined aquifer where the ground is saturated with water seeped thru from rainfall or from lake- or riverbed. Pressure here is equal to atmospheric pressure
Water scarcity
Water available relative to human needs. Can refer to physical and/or economic scarcity
Darcy's Law
Water will flow through the porous cylinder at a rate proportional to hydraulic conductivity specific discharge (q) is equal to the hydraulic conductivity (k) times the hydraulic gradient (I) q = k * I
C3: wheat, rice, potato C4: maize, millet, sugarcane
What are 3 examples of C3 and C4 crops?
mediate flooding, generate energy, irrigation, displace people and habitats
What are benefits and consequences of dams?
Fixation, nitrification, denitrification
What are the 3 major parts of the nitrogen cycle?
Ex-situ conservation (zoos, gene banks), in-situ conservation (protected areas, hotspots), biodiversity friendly agricultural systems (shaded coffee farming), Market mechanisms/payment for ecosystem services (pay the people upstream), International Conventions
What are the 5 categories of solutions to biodiversity loss?
Habitat loss and fragmentation, loss of agrodiversity, invasive species, climate change, nutrient loading and pollution, over-harvesting
What are the 6 categories of threats to biodiversity?
agriculture, industry, domestic
What are the major uses of water?
radiative adaptation, allopatric, sympatric
What are the three ways species form?
physical and economic
What are the two types of water scarcity?
Increases photosynthesis
What does carbon dioxide fertilization do?
geographic isolation leading to adaptation
What is allopatric species formation?
adapting to the environment in different ways
What is radiative adaptation?
The amount of time that water spends in a specific reservoir
What is residence time?
A small amount of pollutant can contaminate a large amount of water
What is so bad about groundwater pollutants?
inhabiting the same region but in different niches and adapting differently
What is sympatric species formation?
I - O = delta S (input minus output equals change in water stored in watershed)
What is the hydraulic conservation equation?
p + gin - (q + gout + ET) = delta S (precipitation plus inflow groundwater minus the surface water outflow, outflow groundwater, and evapotranspiration equals change in storage)
What is the regional water balance?
<P> - <ET> = <q> + <gout> (precipitation minus evapotranspiration equals surface water outflow plus groundwater outflow, the difference between precipitation and evaporated is the outflow from the drainage basin)
What is the time averaged water balance equation ?
drainage basin/watershed
What is the unit of analysis for surface water?
It varies depending on the country
What is the world's water use by sector?
ratio of water withdrawal to water availability
What is water stress?
Surface waters and aquifers can recharge each other
What makes groundwater extraction sustainable?
97.5% oceans, 2.5% freshwater
What percentage of water is in salt vs. freshwater?
drop in land service and saline introduction into wells
What problems can arise from the cone of depression?
the deep ground, followed by glaciers and the deep ocean
What reservoir has the longest residence time?
Carbon dioxide fertilization affects C3 plants more positively than C4 plants
What's the difference between C3 and C4 plants with respect to carbon dioxide?
Food Security
When all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life
What is water stress?
When the demand for water is greater than the water available: ratio of h2o withdraw to availability
the tropics (warm and wet)
Where is species diversity most prevalent?
79% ice, 20% groundwater, 1% easily accessible surface water
Where is the freshwater?
Per capita: US, Australia Total: Asia
Where uses the most water (per capita and total)?
yields increased
by intensification not expansion
population growth
Which is the biggest contributor to issues of water distribution?
ecosystem services (know the ecosystem services)
Why does ecosystem diversity matter
crop and livestock breeding, adaptation to change, disease resistance
Why does genetic diversity matter?
medicines, pollination, disease transmission
Why does species diversity matter?
Stakeholder definition
a person/ group that has an investment, share or interest in the environment/ a development
Environmental Management Plan
a plan of action, specific to a site or project, developed to minimise impacts
Confined aquifer:
a. a permeable rock layer that through controls the flux of groundwater, there is a high degree of variability among aquifers. A confined aquifer can be drawn upward using wells bellow the water table with pumps since there is no free surface for it to flow out of. One affect of pumping is to create a "cone of depression" where the water table is drawn down immediately around the well. As water is withdrawn through pumping the formations collapse as the pore spaces have been emptied. The result can be a large drop in the land surface another issue is that upward motion of the ground water caused by pumping can lead to sea water incursion in coastal areas. ground water is hard to manage. Groundwater depletion (in excess of recharge) is a serious issue in many regions. assessment of ground water management are made with model which uses input on conductivity, well locations, hydrodynamic potentials and many other parameters allows managers to decide the maximum pumping rate at different location.
permeability/hydraulic conductivity
ability of a fluid to flow through a rock
how to measure species diversity
abundance (richness = # of species) and evenness (Shannon's index = degree of uncertainty in predicting the species of a random sample, Simpson index = concentration of individuals of the same type)
What is radiative adaptation?
adapting to the environment in different ways
What is radiative adaptation?
adapting to the environment in different ways, natural selection darwins finiches single ancestral species, but they have evolved a rich genetic diversity of beak sizes and shapes.
What are the three ways species form? genetic diversity
adaptive radiation ( darwin ) , allopatric (geographic isolation) , sympatric (INHABITING THE SAME GEOGRAPHIC REGION)
3 ways species form
adaptive radiation: darwins finishes- selective pressures evolve to the enviornment Geographical isolation- (allopatric) physical separated, marsupial tails Evolve while inhabiting same region (sympatric) same region different enclave, apple maggot
groundwater systems
after precipitation, water soaks in will penetrate ground until it reaches impermeable layer through which it can (or cannot) pass
major sector where water is used
agriculture
What are the major uses of water?
agriculture, industry, domestic
What are the major uses of water?
agriculture, industry, domestic (vary country by country)
porosity
amount of space between grans of rock that can hold water (or any liquid)
Life Cycle Analysis
an analysis of all the environmental impacts of a product or process during its ENTIRE life cyle Aims to quantify: - inputs: amount of energy, water and raw materials used during complete life of product or process - outputs: the solid, liquid and gaseous wastes produced at every stage of products life or process incl: - acquisition of raw materials - manufacture - use - transport - maintenance - packaging - disposal/ decommission/ rehabilitation
Haber Bosch process
an artificial nitrogen fixation process and is the main industrial procedure for the production of ammonia today. The process converts atmospheric nitrogen (N2) to ammonia (NH3) by a reaction with hydrogen (H2) using a metal catalyst under high temperatures and pressures.
Aquitard-
c. is a nearly impermeable layer of earth with low hydraulic conductivity. The aquitard restricts the flow of ground water from the uncofined and confined aquifers to another.
(Environmental) Risk Assessment
analysing and interpreting data to predict and evaluate potential adverse effects on human health and the environmental processes, developments and situations + balancing this against its benefits. 2 types: - Quantitative - Qualitative Not a management tool itself, but provides info. crucial to the effective management of a process/ development/ situation.
Non-government agencies (NGO's)
any non-profit, voluntary citizen's group which is organised on a local, national or international level
Unconfined aquifer
aquifer right below the water table with an impermeable layer beneath but not one above, rises and falls with changes in rainfall
recharging
aquifers can recharge surface water and vice versa
Hypoxic (dead) zones
areas where a phytoplankton bloom has occurred as a result of runoff from industrial agriculture. This influx of phytoplankton causes too much waste to be produced and the process of bacteria consuming the waste uses all the oxygen in the water, killing off the habitat.
A well that flows on its own because it is below the water table and a confined aquifer
artesian well
Haber-Bosch Process
artificial fixation process: combines nitrogen from the air with hydrogen into ammonia (exothermic, reversible reaction)
nitrogen fixation
atmospheric: lightning converts N2 to nitrate (NO3-), biological: nitrogen-fixing bacteria convert N2 to ammonia (NH3)
dams
attenuate and delay extremes of rainfall and hence flooding (precipitation p varies seasonally, way to smooth it out)
Unconfined aquifer
b. - freely flowing groundwater outflow, flows on its own without pumping
nitrification
bacteria convert ammonium into nitrate
denitrification
bacteria convert nitrate to N2 and N2O
ecosystem services definition
benefits people get from ecosystems
ecosystem services definition
benefits people get from ecosystems: utilitarian and intrinsic ecosystem engineer: a species with an important function to ecosystem (bees and pollinating)- species diversity important - cross pollination
ecosystem services
benefits people obtain from ecosystems, ie. (1) supporting e.g. nutrient cycling; (2) provisioning e.g. resources; (3) regulating e.g. climate regulation; (4) cultural e.g. recreational
Ecosystem services
benefits people receive from ecosystems: provisioning, regulating, cultural, supporting
Water Use efficiency
bio mass produced per unit of h20 taken up by plants increase with C02 fertilization
water use efficiency
biomass produced per unit of water taken up by plant increases with carbon dioxide fertilization
desalination of seawater
boil seawater and collect freshwater OR use reverse osmosis - for both, the energy/environmental costs are high
Ecocentrism
both the biotic and abiotic aspects of ecosystems have intrinsic value and it emphasises the interconnectedness of communities
User-pays-principle
calls upon the consumer of a service or resource to pay, directly, for the financial cost of the resource they use, or the cost of its repair. encourages efficient and sustainable use of resources and is TIED TO ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE
Poverty trap
caused by: limited access to credit and capital markets; extreme environmental degradation (which inhibits agricultural production); corrupt government; poor education systems; disease ecology; lack of public health care; war, poor infrastructure; capital flight (when assets or money rapidly leave a country)
Atlantic hurricane track
combination of warm water/humid air at equator zones and trade winds blow east-west creates formation of hurricanes, then coriolis force diverts the path
hydraulic head
combined measure of the elevation and the water pressure at a point in an aquifer which represents the total energy of the water (since ground water moves in the direction of lower hydraulic head/toward lower energy, and hydraulic head is a measure of water pressure, ground water can and often does flow 'uphill')
ecosystem
complex system of plant, animal, fungal and microorganism communities and their associated non-living environment interacting as an ecological unit
An aquifer that is bounded on the top and bottom and has a confined amount of space due to its aquitards
confined aquifer
Confined aquifer
confined both above and below by impermeable layers
Aquitard
confining strata, low-conductivity or impermeable layer. Boundary to an aquifer. Layer between an unconfined and confined aquifer, layer beneath a confined aquifer. Basically it restricts downward flow of groundwater from one aquifer to another.
Ethical
considers the ways humans interact with their natural environment and with other animals. This includes a moral consideration of the human approach to natural resources.
groundwater contamination
contamination includes processes of diffusion, absorption and reaction in addition to Darcy's flow; pollutants move below surface carried by infiltrating water, then will diffuse throughout the aquifer far away from where they enter (very small amount of pollutant can affect vast regions of an aquifer); the deeper the well, the less contaminated it is
Recycle
convert waste into reusable material
Energy Recovery
converts waste to energy by burning it which produces steam and creates energy
C3 plants
cool-season, temperate
Biological processes (environmental rehabilitation)
could be: - replant or reintroduce the original plants or animals - allow the natural regeneration of such - introduce bacteria, fungus, plants etc that will help break down pollutants or take it up - introducing a biological control to get rid of a pest.
Why does genetic diversity matter?
crop and livestock breeding, adaptation to change, disease resistance
speed up decomposition loop
crop rotation, bring nitrogen from somewhere else (e.g. Guano wars), Haber-Bosch process
genetic diversity
crop/livestock breeding, adaptation to change, disease resistance
Water table -
d. Is the layer of ground that is continually saturated. It is an intermediary between the ground water and the earth's surface. The saturation of the Water Table is affected by precipitation rates, seasonal change and manual upwelling.
fungi convert plant and animal matter into ammonia
decomposition
bio diversity
definition came about durring the UN convention of Biodiversity (not ratified by US or put in to law, but rather is a standard agreement of goals to conserve, sustain, fair and equitable share of benefits, against biopiracy) Biodiversity is diversity within (genetic) species, between species, and of ecosystems. 3 levels.
bacteria convert nitrate to N2 and N2O
denitrification
denitrification
denitrifying bacteria convert nitrate to N2 and N2O
groundwater depletion (in excess of recharge)
depletion of reserve as expressed in dropping water tables
Darcy's Law
describes flow rate of a fluid through a porous medium with varying tube diameter and length, amount of sand, hydraulic gradient (difference in pressures over a distance L)
Ecologically Sustainable Development
development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs considers rate of use and the degree of degradation its use causes, and whether future generation's use is being compromised by its current use
phosphorus cycle
different than nitrogen in the way its contained and extracted. Is in rock not atmosphere is mined or weathered. Not reliant on microbes like nitrogen cycle. Countries without phosphate rocks import it
aqueducts
divert waters from places of abundance to places of scarcity
What is the unit of analysis for surface water?
drainage basin/watershed
What is the unit of analysis for surface water?
drainage basin/watershed (ex: amazon river missisippi) Over what region (unit of analysis) does this balance equation operate, Time over a Drainage basin provides a limited surface area with in which physical processes to general hydrology may be considered. Difficult to divide ownership amongst basins.
What problems can arise from the cone of depression?
drop in land service and saline introduction into wells
drought vs famine
drought is hot/dry period, famine is period of decline in availability/access to food (drought can cause famine - correlates with poor agricultural economies)
Eutrophocation
excess nitrogen causes excessive algae growth (using the oxygen and choking out other aquatic life)
Properties of an artesian well
e.- artesian wells are wells in to contained aquifers. They operate on the principles of the hydraulic gradient. The wells location relative to he water level in the hydraulic gradient dictate the flow of water out of the well.
economics of natural disasters
economic harm from loss of productive capital and not homes, GDP as an incomplete measure of capital loss (only a good measure of a manufacturing economy), instantaneous loss is not long run economic cost (growth target)
Schumpeters Gale
economic theory it is possible to benefit from a disaster? natural disasters can put countries in poverty trap - period of stagnation increases the degree of economic loss. the growth rate must recover to exceed the predisaster growth rate . If a country can maintain that growth they will actually benefit from the disaster.
Why does ecosystem diversity matter
ecosystem services (know the ecosystem services)
Why does ecosystem diversity matter
ecosystem services (the benefits humans obtain from ecosystems) diversity of ecosystem leads to a diversity of services intrinsic and utilitarian values
benefits people get from ecosystems
ecosystem services definition
Intra-generational equity
equity between people of the same generation including considerations of distribution of resources and justice between nations TIED TO ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE.
Recharge area
erosionally-exposed inlet of rainfall to confined aquifer, often at high-elevation, high-precipitation locations
major processes in water cycle (closed on large scale)
evaporation, vaporization/condensation, precipitation, transpiration, runoff/surface flow, percolation/groundwater flow
Population bottlenecks
event that drastically reduces the size of the population. puts pressures against certain phenotypes of a species, making it so that these phenotypes completely die off and leave only the other phenotypes to continue to reproduce.
solutions to biodiversity loss
ex-situ conservation, in-situ conservation, biodiversity friendly agricultural systems, market mechanisms/payment for ecosystem services, international conventions (CBD, PGRFA, CITES)
natural hazard --> disaster
extreme event of nature with a social development outcome
hydraulic gradient
ground water flows from points of high energy to points of low energy The length of the aquifer influence rate of flow. Longer aquifers take more time for water to flow through. (hydraulic gradient) i = (H2(latitude at top of water table)- H1 (latitude under water table)/ Length hydraulic gradient is negative in the direction of flow, ground water is loosing energy Darcy' Law is the same idea
hydraulic gradient
groundwater flows from points of high "H" to points of low "H"
species
groups of actually or potentially inbreeding natural populations which are reproductively isolated from other such groups
Environmental interest groups
groups that care about the environment and fight for changes to be made in order to protect it (eg. ACF, Wilderness Society, Sea Shephard, WWF)
threats to biodiversity
habitat loss/fragmentation, loss of agrodiversity, invasive species, climate change, nutrient loading and pollution, over-harvesting (illegal hunting, bushmeat, pet trade, overfishing)
Haber Bosch process
heand and pressure combine hydrogen and nitrogen into ammonia
agricultural disadvantages of climate change
heat stress, more frequent extreme events, diseases and pests
Piezometric surface
highest water level, dictating the pressure-equalizing limit above which water will not flow from an aquifer head
Social factors/ impacts (of a development)
how it affects people's lifestyle, health, amenity and culture
Environmental factors/ impacts (of a development)
how it will affect the physical and biological environment
residence time
how long H20 spends in a stock/reservoir
Anthropocentrism
humans are the central and most significant species and other life forms exist for human benefit including future generations
benefits/consequences of dams
hydropower, regulate flooding, recreation // displaced people, habitat loss
Qualitative Risk Assessment
identifies the nature of probable impacts. allows for risks to be identified and a plan of action to be established
Law of the minimum
if one nutrient is short than an abundance of another doesnt make up for it (saturation) when one factor is depleated growth stops. Liebig (father of fertilization) thus increase the same amount of limiting component (fertilizer) Which nutrient is limited most often - Nitrogen, but is the most abundant gas in atmosphere. is the essential compound for protein Rothamstead Experiments- maintain normal conditions , test the limiting nutrient by adding a nutrient one by one and seeing which increases yield. Gilbert and Lawes (nitrogen)
What are benefits and consequences of dams?
mediate flooding and flow, generate energy, irrigation, Cons: emit GHG methane. they mess with fish migration, they fill with silt and consewuentually hold less h20. displace people and habitats
What are benefits and consequences of dams?
mediate flooding, generate energy, irrigation, displace people and habitats
Why does species diversity matter?
medicines (50 % of medicines derived from plants) , pollination (ecosystem engineers), disease transmission (dilution hypothesis- Lyme disease density decreases as number of Nymes increases and is more diverse)
Why does species diversity matter?
medicines, pollination, disease transmission
species diversity
medicines, pollination, disease transmission
Biological controls
method of controlling pests such as insects, weeds and diseases using other organisms. Relies on natural mechanisms (eg. predation, parasitism) but involves human management
Where is species diversity most prevalent?
most diversity occurs in low latitudes around the equator for atmospheric circulation (the tropics -warm and wet) not sure why but ideas include - consistency of climate, topography, more pathogens
Define Disaster
natural disaster is when hazardous event in nature (volcano, earthquake) results in the death of humans
bacteria convert ammonium into nitrate
nitrification
plant and animal growth, plant and animal waste, decomposition
nitrification sub-cycle
nitrification
nitrifying bacteria convert ammonia to nitrite (NO2), other bacteria convert nitrite to nitrate
legumes and lightning convert N2 into ammonium
nitrogen fixation?
eutrophication
nitrogen-based fertilizers enter rivers and cause them dense growth of plant life, death of animal life by loss of oxygen
invasive species
nonnative (alien) to the ecosystem under consideration, whose introduction causes or is likely to cause economic, environmental or human health harm
C3 crop
normal plant that doesn't have a way to reduce photorespiration (85% of all plants)
species richness
number of species
island biogeography
number of species on an island is the balance between immigration and emigration, explains distribution of species on islands of different sizes, connectivity important for movement of wildlife, formula S = cA^z
Allopatric species formation
occurs when a population becomes separated into two geographically isolated subpopulations and then genetic drift causes them to evolve differently due to different population pressures
adversarial method
only showing evidence that favors the hypothesis
relative sizes of pools
order by water content: ocean, ice, soil moisture, groundwater, rivers & lakes, atmosphere, permafrost
how species form: adaptive radiation
organisms diversify rapidly from an ancestral species into a multitude of new forms, spurred by a change in environment
orographic
orographic, an effect of topography, leads to local effects warm moist air masses produced by evaporation in the ocean raise to produce clouds, and precipitate. Rain produced is orographic rain. The region on the far side of mountains that produce rain this way often form rain shadows that are very dry.
What is the regional water balance?
p + gin - (q + gout + ET) = delta S (precipitation plus inflow groundwater minus the surface water outflow, outflow groundwater, and evapotranspiration equals change in storage)
The hydrological balance equation is p - ET = q + g(out)
p= percipitation ET= evapotraspiration q= surface water outflow g= ground water outflow odd parenthesis mean averaged over time c. Over what region (unit of analysis) does this balance equation operate? __Time over a basin___________________ d. What term in the equation is modified when a dam is built? _______Surface water outflow_____
cryosphere (3 components)
parts of a planet's surface where water predominantly exists in solid form (ice), restricted to high latitude and elevation in present climate: sea ice, glaciers and ice sheets
water use across regions
per capita (US) vs. total
phosphorus vs nitrogen cycle
phosphorus moves in a cycle through rocks, water, soil and sediments and organisms
What are the two types of water scarcity?
physical and economic
four dimensions of food security
physical availability of food, economic and physical access to food, food utilization, AND stability of these dimensions over time
2 reasons water is scarce
physical stress (simply not available), economic scarcity (for economic reasons cannot be accused - country is poor or water is costly to access)
Mechanical processes (environmental rehabilitation)
physically move something (eg: removing and replacing the soil; 'scooping up' a pollutant or containing it some how; deconstructing infrastructure)
nitrification sub-cycle
plant and animal growth, plant and animal waste, decomposition
nitrification sub-cycle
plant and animal growth, plant and animal waste, decomposition( fungi convert organic matter to ammonia) which then goes through nitrification
poverty trap
poor (weak/hungry/sick) --> cultivate less food --> less $ --> less food --> poor --> able to work less --> lower pay --> poor --> poor medical treatment, ETC.
Variance between economic and morality loss from disasters
poorer countries most of economy in agriculture thus great impact from droughts and floods. Gains in GDP go with change in economy- so does disaster effect. Safer to live in as ervice industry In rich countries economic loss and mortality are inverted from flood economic loss and mortality loss correlate in poor countries Amplitude of a disaster has little to do with impact: earthquakes with the same magnitude arehave vastly different degrees of lost among countries
Which is the biggest contributor to issues of water distribution?
population growth
Which is the biggest contributor to issues of water distribution?
population growth (has a greater impact on water scarcity than climate change) We inadvertently trade water, by trading products that use water to make them there is physical tress and economic stress- water stress is more a distributional problem than an availability one.
the level to which water rises to in a well
potentiometric surface
Species diversity
the number of species within an area and their relative abundance
Chemical processes (environmental rehabilitation)
return the chemical components of the site to its pre-mine state - elimination of harmful chemicals deposited during operations - the application of fertilizers to return the soil to its former state - the use of chemical substances to dilute/disperse/breakdown/contain a pollutant or get rid of pests - add something to return the pH of the soil to its original state (eg: lime)
Environmental Impact Assessment
process of carefully investigating a major proposed development before it commences. purpose: - to ensure that decision makers consider environmental impacts of proposed development when deciding whether to proceed or what form it should take However, in investigating proposal, environmental costs are considered in the context of its social and economic costs/ benefits
Preservation
protect the biosphere in it's natural state with no human interaction
darcy's law
q = (k)(i) rate of flow q is the product of the hydraulic gradient i and the conductivity K. The gradient can be thought of as the force that is driving the flow. we cannot use an average value of K in Darcy's Law to get an average flow Q. If the subsurface is heterogenous meaning there are many different conductivities for k, we cannot average K because water will find preferred pathways of permeability spots.
Darcy's Law
q = KI (rate of flow is a product of hydraulic gradient and conductivity)
What are the three ways species form?
radiative adaptation, allopatric, sympatric
Radiative adaptation
rapid diversification from an ancestral species into a wider variety, often in response to the changing availability of environment resources, arisal of challenges, or opening of new niches. They are adapted to different modes of life (think Galapagos finches with different beaks)
Darcy's Law
rate of flow is product of hydraulic gradient I and conductivity K q = -k*(h1-h2)/l where q=specific discharge in [L/T], k=hydraulic conductivity in [L/T], gradient (force driving the flow) in hydraulic head in [L/L]
What is water stress?
ratio of water withdrawal to water availability
water stress
ratio of water withdrawal to water availability
gravitational effect of melting ice sheets
rebound (uplift) as ice sheet melts, and sea level around ice sheet lowers
watershed (drainage basin)
region of land where water from rain or snow melt drains downhill into a body of water; provides limited surface area within which physical processes pertinent to the general hydrology may be considered
climate change impact on hurricanes
regions where hurricanes happen won't change; frequency of hurricanes decreases (less likely bc of wind shear), but intensity of those hurricanes will increase (because of higher ocean temp)
how species form: sympatric speciation
reproductive isolation
problem with desalination
requires a LOT of energy
Quantitative Risk Assessment
requires the calculation of the potential magnitude of the loss or event AND the probability of that loss or event
Efficiency of resource use
requires the use of smaller amounts of resources to produce the same product or service - while minimising environmental impacts AND - using shared resources sustainably and equitably
Aquifer
reservoir of groundwater
reverse osmosis
semipermeable membrane that separates one fluid with high salt concentration and one with low concentration (usually, in osmosis the fluid moves across concentration gradient from lower to higher concentration to reach equilibrium); pressure difference is osmotic pressure; in reverse osmosis, saline water is forced through a membrane in the opposite direction and salt grains are trapped bc they can't move through
population bottlenecks
sharp reduction in population size due to environmental events or human activities, which reduces genetic diversity
glaciology basics
snow accumulates on surface, snow turns to ice, ice flows downhill, ice melts/calves/blows away/ablates (melts at lower elevation or when in contact with ocean - ice shelves)
deductive method
starts out with a general statement and examines the possibilities to reach a specific, logical conclusion
inductive method
starts with many observations of nature, with the goal of finding a few, powerful statements about how nature works
Positive dam attributes
steady supply of electricity; emissions-less energy through hydropower; regulates water supply
Impact Minimisation
strategies used to ensure the least possible impact caused from a site or project development
4 types of ecosystem services and examples of each:
supporting: nutrient cycling, soil formation, primary production provisioning: food, freshwater, wood and fiber, fuel regulating: climate, floods, diseases, water purification cultural: aesthetic, spiritual, educational, recreational
Hazard definition
the harm potentially caused by a substance or action
Habor Bosch process
syntheic recration of fixation- converts nitrogen in atmosphere to nitrate- heat and and pressure (lightning) won nobel prize, feeds 40% of world
projections of crop yields
take into account emissions, GHG concentration, temperature and precipitation projections --> crop yields (diff global crop models, emission scenarios, nitrogen stress on/off, CO2 fertilization on/off, adaptation strategies on/off)
Environmental Justice
that one group of people's use of the environment should not: - diminish or lessen others use of its services/ benefits - or cause others to suffer from the consequences of one group's use
Ecological integrity
the ability of an ecosystem to support and maintain ecological processes and a diverse community of organisms.
Sustainability
the ability to be maintained at a certain level/rate and can be continued into the long term
Porosity
the amount of pore spaces within a type of rock: shale, sandstone, siltstone, etc.
Environmental Beneficence
the concept that we should aim for an environment which is beneficial to all and in which all species including humans can flourish. benefits include: - the provisioning, regulating and supporting services of the environment - the social benefits to people - the intrinsic rights for plants and animals
What reservoir has the longest residence time?
the deep ground, followed by glaciers and the deep ocean
What reservoir has the longest residence time? short?
the deep ground, followed by glaciers and the deep ocean Clouds have a short residence time
potentiometric surface
the level to which water rises to in a well
Risk definition
the likelihood or probability that actual harm will be caused by a substance or action
Inter-generational equity
the present generation taking measures to ensure that future generations are not disadvantaged by actions of the present generation. UNDERPINS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND IS TIED TO ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE.
Environmental Rights
the right to access the benefits of the environment
Where is species diversity most prevalent?
the tropics (warm and wet)
water balance equation - for WATERSHEDS
{p} - {ET} = {q} + {g-out}; p=precipitation, ET=evaporation, q=surface outflow, g-out=outflow groundwater
unconfined aquifer
water pools over the impermeable layer, top of aquifer is defined as water table - "unconfined" bc upper layer can rise/fall (recharge) depending on how much water is soaking in, water table moves freely up and down
cone of depression
water pumped from base of well (well only open to aquifer at its deepest point, enters aquifer just below the water table), but pumping will draw water from aquifer in all directions not just laterally --> pumping creates "cone of depression" where water table is drawn down immediately around the well
ecosystems diversity
water purification, habitat for important species, other ecosystem services
The area under which the soil is saturated
water table
fossil groundwater
water that has collected underground many thousands of years ago
runoff
water that runs over earth's surface, occurs when surface is impermeable or when soil is completely saturated
Prediction
we are bad at predicting earth quakes. Tsunamis are caused by earth quakes so were slightly better at predicting those. Earth quake deaths are from falling objects not the earth quake itself. Effect economic development. economic and mortality loss from earthquakes correlate only in poor areas.
law of the minimum (Liebig)
when one factor is depleted, growth stops - increasing the amount of the "limiting" component will allow for growth to continue
Sympatric species formation
when species in the same region exploit different niches and end up evolving differently
Precautionary principle
where there are threats of serious environmental damage, lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a reason to postpone measures that prevent environmental degradation ie. when there is substantial scientific uncertainty about the risks and benefits of a proposed activity, policy decisions should be made in caution with respect to the environment and the health of the public should be guided by: - assessment of the risk weighted consequences of various options - careful evaluation to avoid serious or irreversible damage to the environment
