Science Questions

clouds

The noctilucent type of these objects only form during the summer, and their floccus type can create virga. Their "arcus" varieties are examples of the vertical accessory type of these objects. Irisation can occur with their lenticularis forms, and the (*) "pileus" type of these objects lie on top of their more common varieties. Aircraft exhaust creates contrails, which are artificial forms of them, and seeding these weather phenomena with silver iodide can increase precipitation. For 10 points, name these masses of atmospheric water and ice that come in cumulus, stratus, and nimbus varieties.

waves

The Klein-Gordon equation generalizes the partial differential equation named for these things, which relates a function's second partial derivatives with respect to time and position. Solitons are examples of these things that move with constant velocity without broadening. In matter, a characteristic property of these things was calculated as (*) Planck's constant over momentum by Louis de Broglie. When two of these things with similar frequencies overlap, they exhibit beats. Those that do not transfer energy and have fixed nodes of zero amplitude are called "standing." Young's double-slit experiment showed that light acts as both a particle and—for 10 points—what type of time-varying oscillation?

atomic nucleus

The radius of this structure is proportional to a measure of its mass to the one-third power. Because of this structure, a relatively large number of particles following a hyperbolic path will have a very small impact parameter. This structure absorbs gamma radiation in the Mössbauer effect. When this structure (*) binds together, it release energy responsible for the mass defect. This structure's charge is denoted by a Z. In a refutation of the "plum-pudding" model, this structure was discovered in Rutherford's gold-foil experiment. For 10 points, name this structure made of the protons and neutrons at the center of an atom.

sphere

The volume of a cylinder circumscribed around this three-dimensional shape is 1.5 times the volume of the inscribed shape. All similar triangles placed on one of these shapes are congruent, according to Riemann's (*) non-Euclidean geometry for these shapes. The Banach-Tarski paradox states that one of these shapes can be decomposed and reformed into two of these shapes the same size as the original. The surface area of these shapes is 4 pi r squared. Forming the locus of all points in three-dimensions equidistant to a center, for 10 points, name this shape whose unit form is described by the equation x squared plus y squared plus z squared equals 1.

cholesterol

This compound is often transported by another compound, which contains apoprotein B100. In its synthesis, HMG-CoA is reduced to mevalonate, and this compound is formed from squalene. This compound builds up in foam cells. It is a precursor to bile. Compounds derived from it include Vitamin D, cortisol, (*) estrogen, and testosterone. This molecule keeps the cell membrane fluid. Levels of it are lowered by statins. Its buildup on the walls of arteries can cause atherosclerosis, which leads to heart attacks. For 10 points, name this lipid that is the precursor to steroid hormones and is transported by HDL and LDL.

Intelligence Quotient

Robert Jarvik's wife, Marilyn vos Savant, has the highest recorded value for this specific metric according to the Guinness Book of World Records. Mensa is a group that was founded to cater to individuals with very high recorded values for this metric. The Wechsler test returns this type of numerical value, as does the (*) Stanford-Binet test. The median value for this quantity in the United States is one hundred, and it is normally distributed. This metric is often colloquially contrasted with the controversial EQ value. For 10 points, name this value that is thought by some to be a measure of general intelligence.

Mesozoic Era

During this time, the Sequoia genus developed, and the beginning of this time was marked by an extinction of 96% of all species, known as the Permian mass extinction. The middle of this era witnessed the separation of the continents of Gondwana and Laurasia, together known as (*) Pangaea. The end of this era saw an event which created the Chicxulub crater, the K-T mass extinction. Because it consisted of the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous periods, this era is often called "Age of the Dinosaurs". For ten points, name this geological era that occurred after the Paleozoic, but prior to the Cenozoic.

hemoglobin

This protein's transport of hydrogen increases its activity in a "shift" named for a Danish physiologist. This protein changes conformation in a classic example of allosteric modulation via cooperative binding. This protein, which forms a ring of two alpha- and two beta-subunits, is affected by a common glutamate-to-valine mutation. In (*) horseshoe crabs, this protein is replaced by a copper-containing blue pigment. This protein is made of four porphyrins bound to a ferrous ion. A mutation in this protein causes sickle-cell anemia. For 10 points, name this iron-containing protein that carries oxygen in red blood cells.

reaction rate

This quantity can be determined using successive iterations of the isolation method. For reactions like the decomposition of NO2, this quantity equals "one over 't' times the difference between one over initial concentration and one over final concentration." The relationship between its namesake "constant" and temperature is given by the (*) Arrhenius equation. When it depends on the concentration of only one reactant, the equation for this quantity can be "first-order." Chemical kinetics is the study of this quantity, which is increased by a catalyst. For 10 points, name this quantity, which roughly quantifies how quickly a reaction occurs.

temperature

This quantity is inversely proportional to the wavelength at which blackbody radiation intensity is maximized, according to Wien's Law. The radiant power of a black body equals the Stefan-Boltzmann constant times this quantity raised to the fourth power. It's not color, but the Harvard system, which groups stars into (*) O, B, A, F, G, K, and M types, classifies stars based on this property. The HR diagram plots luminosity against this variable, which is much greater for blue giants than for red supergiants. This quantity is much greater in the corona than at the sun's surface. For 10 points, name this quantity that, for the center of the sun, is approximately 15 million Kelvin.

mass moment of inertia

This physical quantity is unchanged in certain situations, according to the Stretch Rule. This quantity for a uniform rod is four times as large when measured from the end instead of from the center. When measured through the center of a uniform sphere, this quantity is equal to two fifths times the (*) total mass times the radius squared. The parallel axis theorem can be useful for determining this quantity. It is equal to angular momentum over angular velocity or torque over angular acceleration. For 10 points, name this quantity equal to mass times distance squared, the rotational analog of mass.

lines

11. The only non-pathological solutions to Cauchy's functional equations form these shapes when graphed. The intersection of n generic n-hyperplanes is one of these shapes. Newton's method relies on the fact that differentiation locally approximates a smooth function as one of these shapes. Degenerate triangles where a plus b equals c (*) look like part of one of these figures. A reflection can be defined by which one of these entities is being reflected over. For 10 points, identify these one-dimensional constructs, one of which can be drawn between any two points.

Mars

One object orbiting this body is home to Swift Crater, while another's namesake "monolith" is a large boulder over 85 meters across located near Stickney Crater. This object's Cydonia region is home to a famous formation photographed by the Viking Orbiter, known as this planet's namesake "face". This planet contains the volcanic Tharsis plateau, east of which lies the massive (*) Valles Marineris canyon system. The largest volcano in the solar system, Olympus Mons, is located on this planet.This planet is periodically covered by global dust storms, and at its poles lie ice sheets of frozen carbon dioxide. Phobos and Deimos orbit, for 10 points, what planet colored rust red by iron oxide and named for the Roman god of war.

Robert Oppenheimer Packet 9 -

One of this man's approximations is used in molecular spectroscopy to simplify energy calculations as a result of electronic and vibrational effects. An upper bound on the mass of neutron stars is named for Tollman, Volkoff, and this man. Along with Max (*) Born, this man names an approximation that the wavefunction can be split into electronic and nuclear components. This man quoted the Bhagavad Gita in saying "Now I am become death, the destroyer of worlds." For 10 points, name this "father of the atomic bomb" who led the Manhattan project.

zero

This value names a limit first surpassed in 2013, using a quantum gas of potassium atoms. This is the total spin of a particle or particles in a singlet state. This number's law of thermodynamics states that thermal equilibrium is transitive. According the kinetic theory, this is the volume of each particle in an (*) ideal gas. This is the change in Gibbs free energy for a system at equilibrium. By the third law of thermodynamics, this is the entropy of a perfect crystal at a temperature with this name. Minus 273.15 degrees Celsius is the "absolute" temperature named for—for 10 points—what value?

green

This word describes the glow emitted after d-Luciferin is oxidized to oxyluciferin in a reaction commonly used in high-throughput reporter assays. Supercritical carbon dioxide and solvent-free synthesis are key to a type of chemistry described by this adjective. In a flame test, boron and (*) barium both produce this color. A macromolecule with this color contains a magnesium ion at the center of a porphyrin ring. That compound with this color serves as the reaction center in its "a" form, starting off the light-dependent reactions. Chlorine gas is this color. After oxidizing, copper turns this color. For 10 points, identify this color of chlorophyll.

Euclid

2. The worst-case for an algorithm developed by this man is when the two inputs are consecutive Fibonacci numbers. That algorithm named for this man repeatedly subtracts numbers to find their greatest common divisor. A system that goes beyond this man's ideas was developed Bolyai and Lobachevsky, and is called (*) hyperbolic geometry. The Playfair axiom, which says that given a point and a line, there is a line through that point parallel, is equivalent to this man's parallel postulate. For 10 points, name this Greek geometer and author of the Elements.

Alan Mathison Turing

7. A construct invented by this man can become an o-machine by attaching an oracle. Along with an American scientist, this man names a statement about the effective computability of functions. That thesis by this scientist proves that there is no general solution to the Entscheidungsproblem and is named for this man and Alonzo Church. It is impossible to determine whether a device named after this man will eventually (*) halt. That device, which consists of a reading head and an infinite tape, is this man's namesake machine. For 10 points, name this British computer scientist who names a test for how well artificial intelligences can mimic humans.

parabola

A type of this shape tangent to two sides of a triangle is named for Kiepert. This shape names a set of partial differential equations that includes the heat equation. The length of this shape's latus rectum is four times the distance from the latus rectum to the vertex. (*) Simpson's rule uses these shapes to approximate integrals. The distance of any point on this shape from the focus is equal to the distance of that point from the directrix. This shape is a conic section with eccentricity one. For 10 points, name this shape generated by the quadratic equation y equals x squared.

covalent bonds

The only purported example of the "phi" version of this structure is in the diuranium ["dye-uranium"] molecule. Diborane ["dye-borane"] exhibits the "three-center-two-electron" type of these interactions. Chelating ligands form two or more of these interactions to the central atom. In cyclopropane, strained versions of these structures are referred to as(*) "bent," as their geometry resembles a banana. These structures can be homolytically cleaved to form free radicals. Lewis diagrams depict these as a line, and they can be classified as "sigma" or "pi." For 10 points, name these bonds in which atoms share valence electrons.

pressure

According to the principle of corresponding states, two gases with equal values of reduced temperature and the reduced form of this quantity will have equal volumes. One form of this quantity is multiplied by its mole fraction in Raoult's Law. According to Dalton's law, the total value for this property is equal to the sum of the(*) "partial" forms of it. This value is commonly plotted against temperature in a phase diagram. A liquid boils when the vapor form of this quantity overcomes its atmospheric form. For 10 points, name this measure of the force per unit area, which can be measured in torrs or bars.

Reflecting Telescopes

The Leviathan of Parsonstown was one of these built by Lord Rosse, which like many early examples of these devices suffered from the use of speculum metal due to its low tarnishing. Because these devices use mirrors instead of lenses, the do not suffer from chromatic aberration. One type of these contains a hyperbolic secondary mirror that reflects like through a hole in the primary, that is the(*) Cassegrain type. For 10 points, name this type of telescope, first developed by Sir Issac Newton, that is present in the Hubble Space Telescope.

Titan

The craters Menrva and Sinlap can be found on this celestial body. Ontario Lacus is another geographic feature on this celestial body's South Pole, and the Liega Mare can be found on the North Pole of this body. The (*) Xanadu region can be found on this celestial body. The first landing on this body occurred in 2005 with the Huygens spacecraft. This celestial body has an Earth-like atmosphere made up of 95 percent nitrogen and 5 percent methane. This celestial body has lakes of methane and ethane on its surface and is larger than Mercury. For 10 points, name this second largest moon in the solar system, the largest moon of Saturn.

alpha particles

The enormous range of timescales on which these particles are produced are related to their energies by the Geiger-Nuttall law. George Gamow modeled the production of these particles in terms of quantum tunneling out of a potential well. The production of these charged particles by (*) americium-241 underlies the operation of smoke detectors. The production of these particles decreases both the atomic number and mass number of their neutron-rich sources, and they have same constituents as a helium-4 nucleus. A sheet of paper can easily stop —for 10 points—what form of ionizing radiation, composed of two protons and two neutrons?

logarithm

If the latent heat is independent of temperature, the Clausius-Clapeyron equation gives this function of a ratio of two pressures in terms of two inverse temperatures. This function of product concentration is written linearly with respect to time in the integrated rate law for a first-order reaction. "pH minus pKa" equals this function of the ratio of concentrations of an anion and its (*) conjugate acid according to the Henderson- Hasselbalch equation. This function is applied to the acid dissociation constant to get pKa. Negative this function of the concentration of H-plus ions gives the pH of a system. For 10 points, name this function whose inverse function is the exponential function.

Photons

One of these items escapes in the thought experiment of Einstein's box. In QED theory, the creation of the virtual type of these items gives rise to the Casimir effect. CCDs exploit an effect these items undergo when they contact silicon to enable digital imaging. The momentum of these items can be given by the spatial (*) angular frequency times h-bar. These gauge bosons for the electromagnetic force have spin 1, but are chargeless and massless. For 10 points, name these particles, the quanta of light.

proteins

18. The amount of these molecules present can be quantified with a BCA assay, or with the Coomassie blue stain in a Bradford assay. The components of these molecules react with sugars in the Maillard reaction. The degradation of these molecules is promoted by the attachment of ubiquitin. The Biuret test gives a purple solution if these molecules are present. These molecules can be degraded with (*) trypsin. The tertiary structures of these molecules are often composed of alpha helices and beta sheets. For 10 points, name these molecules which are composed of amino acids.

linear momentum

8. This quantity is plotted on the y axis of a one dimensional phase space diagram. For a photon, this quantity equals energy divided by the speed of light. The de Broglie wavelength of a particle equals Planck's constant divided by this quantity. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle states that this quantity and (*) position can not both be exactly known. Kinetic energy equals the square of this quantity divided by twice the mass. The change in this quantity is given by the impulse, and force is the derivative of this quantity with respect to time. For 10 points, name this quantity which is classically given by mass times velocity.

Carl Friedrich Gauss

9. He devised a method of mapping surfaces in three dimensional space to the surface of a sphere, and he reformulated classical mechanics in a formalism known as his principle of least constraint. The fact that the gravitational field increases linearly with radius in the interior of a planet can be derived from his flux theorem of gravity. The (*) electromagnetic coilgun is often called this scientist's rifle.The eponym of the process of eliminating magnetic fields and the CGS unit of magnetic field, for 10 points, name this German scientist who used the divergence theorem to formulate a namesake law of magnetism.

elementary charge (accept charge of an electron; accept charge of a proton; prompt on lowercase e before mention; prompt on just charge before mention)

One way to define this quantity in terms of other physical constants is the square root of 2hαε0c ["two h alpha epsilon-nought c"]. The quantum Hall effect states that conductance comes in discrete multiples of this quantity squared divided by Planck's constant, and (*) Faraday's constant is equal to this quantity times Avogadro's number. This quantity was inferred using an experiment that observed the terminal velocity of oil droplets and was carried out by Robert Millikan. This constant is about 1.6 times 10 to the negative 16 coulombs, and it's symbolized lowercase e. For 10 points, give this constant, the charge of a certain subatomic particle.

white

The Urca process in stars named for this color emits neutrinos. In 2011, it was proposed that the Big Bang was created through the explosion of an object named for this color; that hypothetical object cannot be entered from the outside. Sirius B is a dwarf star of this color; those dwarf stars can explode as a (*) type Ia supernova through carbon detonation. Enceladus shines this color, explaining its high albedo value, and Saturn contains a "Great Spot" of this color. The Sun appears this color from Mars, for 10 points, name this achromatic color, the opposite of black.

bacteriophages

One of these organisms encodes DNA using modified hydroxylated and methylated cytosines. A controversial mechanism for studying genes by Seymour Benzer focuses on rI and rII strains of genes in these organisms, which he called "cistrons". A central process in one of these organisms involves the binding of the J protein to the maltose operon of another organism, and the Q protein can initiate (*) antitermination in their lambda type. These viruses were tagged with sulfur-35 and phosphorus-32 to find the material which carried genetic information in the Hershey-Chase experiment. For 10 points, name these viruses that infect bacteria.

mutualism

This interaction is divided into Type 1 and Type 2 classes based on whether a key property of these relationships is linear or saturating. The "Three Sisters" farming technique uses this kind of interaction between three species. Mullerian, but not Batesian, mimicry is always this type of interaction. (*) Mycorrhizae and plant roots have this kind of this interaction, as do plants and the insects that pollinate them while gathering nectar. This interaction contrasted with commensalism and parasitism. For 10 points, name this kind of symbiosis in which both organisms benefit.

wavelength

This quantity, raised to the fifth power, appears in the denominator of Planck's law. The sine of the angle of minimal resolvable detail for a circular aperture equals 1.22 times this quantity over d. This quantity equals 2d sine theta divided by n according to (*) Bragg's law. This quantity is equal to Planck's constant divided by the product of mass and velocity by de Broglie's equation. In general, it is equal to velocity divided by frequency. For 10 points, name this quantity that is the distance between peaks of a wave.

Brownian motion

This phenomenon was used by Jean Perrin to calculate Avogadro's number. This phenomenon seems to allow a violation of the second law of thermodynamics, the Feynman ratchet, to produce workable energy from random motion. This phenomenon can be described as gas particles taking (*) random walks. This phenomenon was first observed by the man for which it is named while observing pollen in water. That observation was explained by Albert Einstein in a 1905 paper. For 10 points, name this phenomenon in which small particles move about randomly because of the motion of gas or liquid particles surrounding them.

lava

When this material surrounds an elevated area of land, kipukas are formed. Coulées are domes of this material. Argon can escape from this material, making potassium-argon dating possible. Dikes are formed when this material fills a crack and hardens. It is classified based on viscosity and darkness, both related to silica content, as felsic or mafic, which form rhyolite and (*) basalt. Temperature determines whether this substance takes a ropey form called pahoehoe ["pa-ho-ay-ho-ay"] or a stony and sharp form called aa ["ah-ah"]. It is created when magma travels through a conduit and rises above the surface of the earth. For 10 points, name this molten rock expelled during a volcanic eruption.

noble gases

Complexes between elements from this group and halides form excimers, which can be used to make a special type of laser. An element in this group is used in a dating method with potassium-40. These elements' high effective nuclear charges give them the smallest atomic radii. These elements appear in (*) brackets in electron configurations. The synthesis of a hexa·fluoro·platinate confirmed that these elements can form compounds. Elements in this group have the highest ionization energy in each period, since elements in this group have eight valence electrons, making their electron shells full. For 10 points, name this group of inert elements like helium and neon.

polymers

In solid-state dye lasers, the gain medium is one of these molecules called PMMA. Partially miscible solutions containing these compounds exhibit a UCST and LCST phase transition. The "electroluminescent conducting" type of these compounds are used in OLED displays. The (*) Flory-Huggins model describes them, and Ziegler-Natta catalysts aid the formation of these molecules. Thermoplastic ones are remoldable and their synthesis can be categorized as step-growth or chain-growth. For 10 points, name these compounds made of repeating units called monomers.

rivers

18. The competence of these systems is roughly proportional to the sixth power of velocity. These systems can be classified using their namesake continuum concept, and they can be classified using their Strahler number. These systems are divided into the crenon, rhithron, and potamon based on temperature and oxygen levels. A buffer exists in the (*) riparian zones at the edges of these systems. After being cut off, these systems can leave behind a billabong, also known as an oxbow lake. The mouths of these systems deposit sediment to form deltas. For 10 points, name these systems that transport fresh water into oceans and lakes.

Random-Access Memory

One type of this entity operates using tunnel magnetoresistance. The first example of this component was the Williams tube, which was implemented in the Manchester SSEM in 1947. Its magnetic-core type relies on magnetized rings, and (*) Corsair and Kingston have the largest market share for this computer component. It comes in static, dynamic, and non-volatile types, all of which only maintain data when power is applied. DDR3 and DDR4 are types of it, and four to eight gigabytes of this entity are included in most computers. For 10 points, name this type of storage that holds data currently in use.

internal energy

The Legendre transform of this quantity is Helmholtz free energy, which equals this quantity minus the product of temperature and entropy. Pressure equals the negative partial derivative of this quantity with respect to volume, and temperature is the partial derivative of it with respect to (*) entropy. An increase in this quantity is heat added plus work done on the system, according to the first law of thermodynamics. For 10 points, name this quantity that gives the total amount of potential and kinetic energy in a system, symbolized U.

p-orbitals (prompt on "atomic orbitals" or "molecular orbitals", accept pi-orbitals before "cosine theta" is read and prompt on it afterwards)

These structures have angular wavefunctions that are proportional to "cosine theta", where theta is the polar angle from the z-axis; thus, these orbitals all have a single nodal plane. These orbitals can have a value of "m-sub-l" between negative one and positive one, and they have a value of one for the azimuthal quantum number, or (*) l. These orbitals come in triplets labeled x, y, and z, and the highest energy electron in the element arsenic sits in one of these orbitals. These orbitals are usually shown in the shape of dumbbells. For 10 points, name these orbitals that come after the s subshell.

aluminum

This metal is found in a mineral containing three atoms of sodium and six atoms of fluorine per formula unit. A chloride of this element is used as a catalyst in the Friedel-Crafts reaction. An oxide of this metal, (*) corundum, is used as an abrasive due to its hardness of 9.0 on the Mohs scale. The main source of this metal is bauxite, which is refined in the Bayer process to produce a pure oxide of this metal. This metal is then smelt through the Hall-Héroult process, which industrially uses electrolysis in a molten salt bath. For 10 points, name this silvery white metal with atomic number 13 and symbol Al.

Cambrian Period

This period names a formation of discontiguous low relief zones known as peneplains that are located on the east coast of Sweden. The Poleta Formation in California and Nevada contains unusually well preserved fossils dated to this period. A mass extinction of the Ediacaran biota occurred at the beginning of this period, allowing for (*) rapid diversification that was known as this period's "Explosion". Trilobites are used as an index fossil to divide this period into zones. For 10 points, name this geological period that was the first of the Paleozoic Era.

Tay-Sachs disease (accept hexosaminidase A deficiency before "beta-," accept GM2 gangliosidosis before "GM2")

This disease occurs in Jacob sheep, in which the missense mutation G444R was found in complementary DNA. Pyrimethamine has been shown to slow the progression of the late-onset form of this disease because it increases beta-hexosaminidase A activity. A mutation on part of chromosome 15, the (*) HEXA gene, causes this disease. Accumulation of GM2 ganglioside and appearance of a cherry-red spot on the retina are characteristics of this disease. For 10 points, name this genetic disease common among Ashkenazi Jews.

carbon

This element's fusion is the first step in the alpha process, and runaway fusion of this element and oxygen causes Type Ia ("one a") supernovae when the mass exceeds the Chandrasekhar limit. Black dwarfs are made primarily of this element in a (*) crystallized form. This element, along with oxygen and nitrogen, acts as a catalyst for one type of hydrogen fusion in stars. In stars, this element is first created in the triple-alpha cycle, in which three helium-4 nuclei combine to form the nucleus of this element. White dwarfs are primarily made of, for 10 points, what element that usually has atomic mass of 12 and forms allotropes of graphite and diamonds?

String Theory

In this formulation, the Nambu-Goto and Polyakov actions govern the movement of objects which move along surfaces known as D-branes. This formulation depends on a large number of free parameters, making it practically untestable. Ed Witten used conformal field theory to unite various versions of it in an eleven-dimensional extension, known as(*) M-theory. It attempts to reconcile gravity and quantum mechanics. For 10 points, name this theory that all elementary particles are made up of the namesake vibrating, one-dimensional shapes.

red blood cells

Parvovirus B19 infects precursors to these cells, and schistocytes are fragmented parts of these cells. The excess of these cells is called polycythemia, and deposits of DNA in them are known as Howell-Jolly bodies. Reticulocytes are the precursors to these cells, and their breakdown in the (*) spleen creates biliverdin and bilirubin. The E6V mutation of glutamic acid to valine causes defects in these cells. These biconcave disk-shaped cells lack nuclei and are deformed in sickle-cell anemia. For 10 points, name these hemoglobin-containing cells that carry oxygen throughout the body.

leukemia

14. A form of this disease is associated with a double translocation between chromosomes 22 and 9, which results in the BCR-ABL fusion gene expressed by the Philadelphia chromosome. A type of this disease named for the "hairy" appearance of certain cells is an example of the chronic (*) lymphoid class of this disease. The acute myeloid form of this disease is caused by an accumulation of malignant lymphoblasts, though this disease differs from lymphomas in that tumor masses do not form. For 10 points, name this cancer of the immune system involving white blood cells.

mass

2. This quantity is imparted by spontaneous symmetry breaking via a mechanism described by a Mexican hat potential. Neutrinos possess a nonzero value for this quantity due to flavor oscillations. The reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of two values of this quantity gives the "reduced" form of this quantity. This quantity is generated by a field mediated by the (*) Higgs boson. Einstein's equivalence principle relates the gravitational and inertial types of this quantity. Two measures of this quantity are multiplied in Newton's law of gravity. For 10 points, name this quantity which equals energy when multiplied by the square of the speed of light.

white dwarfs

4. Accretion into these objects can produce cataclysmic variables. When in a binary system, these objects can undergo carbon detonation. Because these objects are both hot and dim, they occupy the lower left of a Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. Although these objects are normally kept stable by (*) electron degeneracy pressure, gravitational collapse can cause them to explode and become Type 1a supernovae when they accrete enough mass to exceed a limit of 1.4 solar masses named for Chandrasekhar. For 10 points, name these small, dense, and pale remnants of stars.

ferromagnetism

5-dehydro-m-xylylene exhibits the "anti-" form of this property due to its violation of Hund's Rule. A team of physicists from MIT discovered that Lithium gas exhibits this property below 1 Kelvin. The XY model describes this phenomenon and is a generalization of the one-dimensional Ising model. Materials exhibiting this property display a (*) hysteresis loop and have aligned spins. This property, which disappears above the Curie temperature, is present in materials such as iron and cobalt. For 10 points, name this phenomena, a form of magnetism present in permanent magnets.

aorta

A graph of pressure in this structure displays a "dicrotic notch" followed by a "dicrotic wave". The congenital heart defect TGA transposes this structure with the pulmonary artery. Turner syndrome causes its coarctation, or narrowing, and (*) Marfan syndrome increases the likelihood of developing aneurysms in it. Its descending portion leads to its namesake arch, which branches out into the the carotid and subclavian arteries. This vessel's namesake semilunar valve separates it from the left ventricle. For 10 points, name this largest blood vessel of the body.

skin

A hormone that primarily affects this organ has also been implicated in a wasting condition called cachexia, and is abbreviated MSH. Cancer in this organ is often treated with EDC, or electrodessication and curettage. This organ contains the arrector pili muscles. This organ contains infection-prone sebaceous glands, and it manifests the best-known symptoms of the (*) Varicella zoster virus. This organ produces Vitamin D3 using UV radiation. This organ's outer layer is mostly keratin, and its color is affected by melanin. For 10 points, name this largest organ of the body, which is affected by eczema, melanoma, and acne.

exponential

A smoothing technique described by this term is often contrasted with moving average smoothing. The interarrival times in a Poisson process are modeled by a probability distribution described by this term. During bacterial growth, a phase described by this term occurs between the (*) lag phase and stationary phase. Radioactivity is an example of a decay process described by this term, which also describes a function that is the inverse of the logarithmic function. For 10 points, name this adjective that describes functions of the form "f of x equals b raised to the x power".

continuous (accept word forms like "continuity")

By the Heine-Cantor theorem, every function of this kind between a compact metric space and a metric space possesses the uniform version of this property. These functions on a closed interval can be uniformly approximated by polynomials by the (*) Stone-Weierstrass theorem. A function of this kind on a closed interval will attain all intermediate values, and all differentiable functions have this property. For functions with this property, f of a equals the limit of f of x as x approaches a, meaning the function has no "holes" or "jumps." For 10 points, name this property describing functions you can draw without lifting your pencil from the paper.

Newton's Second Law of Motion

Ehrenfest's theorem reduces to this equation in the limit of large quantum numbers. Adding a term to this equation for variable mass due to spent fuel yields the rocket equation. A simple harmonic oscillator's motion can be described by setting(*) Hooke's law equal to one form of this equation. The rotational analogue of this equation sets torque equal to the product of the moment of inertia and the angular acceleration. For 10 points, name this law written as F equals m a.

heart

Fluid buildup around this organ impairs its function in a namesake tamponade. Sleep apnea is often a symptom of, and a possible cause of disorders of this organ. This organ produces P, T, and U waves. Disorders of this organ often manifest in abnormal QRS complexes. This organ is regulated by the AV and (*) SA nodes. Disorders of this organ are the most common cause of death in people with Marfan's syndrome and gigantism. Its activity is measured with an EKG. Impaired activity of this organ creates a fluid buildup in its "congestive" failure. This organ suffers a myocardial infarction when the coronary arteries are blocked. For 10 points, name this organ that pumps blood.

Camillo Golgi

Hyaluronic acid is the only G-A-G that does not form inside a structure named for this man. This man used potassium nitrate and silver dichromate to develop a namesake staining technique. This neuroscientist had an ongoing feud with his Nobel prize-mate Santiago Ramón y Cajal. O-linked, but not N-linked glycosylation takes place in a structure named for this man that's described by the "maturation of (*) cisternae" model. The vesicular-tubular cluster separates the endoplasmic reticulum from an organelle named for this man. For 10 points, name this Italian biologist who names the "apparatus" where proteins are packaged into vesicles.

Max Planck

If bosons are considered massless in the Bose-Einstein distribution, the distribution reduces to one named for this person. He derived Wien's law before creating his namesake law, which tends to the Rayleigh Jeans law and Wien's law at low and high frequencies, respectively. This scientist names an era in the early universe roughly 10 to the -43 seconds after the (*) Big Bang when the four fundamental forces were combined, as well as a set of units including the shortest measurable length. In his namesake postulate, this man related energy, frequency, and his eponymous constant, which is equal to 6.63 times 10 to the -34 meters squared times kilograms over seconds. For ten points, name this German founder of quantum theory.

Free Radicals

Oxygen can serve as this type of molecule's namesake inhibitor, which is used to slow down or stop the reaction. In the chlorination of methane, the initiation step involves the creation of two of these molecules. The initiation step for these molecules' namesake polymerization can happen through photolysis or thermal decomposition. While heterolytic cleavage forms ions, (*) homolytic cleavage forms these molecules. Reactions involving these molecules involve the use of fish hook arrows to show the transfer of individual electrons. For 10 points, name these highly reactive molecules that contain an unpaired electron.

Binary

Space partitioning described by this adjective is used in computer graphics in order to subdivide space into sets of objects. Red black trees are self-balanced versions of trees described by this adjective, which can be used to decrease the worst case performance for searching. This adjective describes a type of search which runs in big O of log n time by repeatedly (*) cutting the search space in half. A tree described by this adjective has all nodes with less than or equal to two children nodes. For 10 points, name this adjective that describes numbers that are represented using only zeros and ones.

Reflection

Telescopes that are named for this phenomenon are preferred because they are cheaper and larger to their counterpart, and an example of that telescope is named for Isaac Newton. When arcsine n2 over n1 is defined, the (*) total internal type of this phenomenon can occur. Lenses cannot undergo this phenomenon, and the angle of incidence equals the angle of this phenomenon. For 10 points, name this phenomenon that occurs when light bounces off a mirror.

C++

The "17" revision of this language resolved underspecification of unique-keyed map containers by adding the algorithms "try_emplace" and "insert_or_assign". In 2012, the integration of transactional language constructs with this language was proposed by its (*) "Evolution Working Group", although this proposal has not been adopted. Examples of desktop software written primarily in this language include Mozilla Firefox and iTunes. For 10 points, name this object-oriented programming language, invented by Bjarne Stroustrup, a successor to C.

ferromagnetism

The Stoner criterion must be fulfilled for this property to arise in a simplified model of a solid, and RKKY theory predicts oscillations in objects with this property. The noise in the output of an object with this property is called the Barkhausen effect, and this property arises in an object below the (*) Curie temperature. Objects with this property can induce it in other metals with contact, and alnico, rare earth metals like neodymium, and lodestone exhibit this property. Iron, nickel, and cobalt exhibit, for 10 points, what permanent, strongest kind of magnetism?

ethers

The Ullmann condensation couples a phenol with an aryl halide to produce these compounds. An organohalide and an alkoxide react to form these molecules in the Williamson synthesis, and tetrahydrofuran and 1,4-dioxane are examples of them. (*) Epoxides are cyclic examples of these compounds with a three-atom ring, and their "crown" variety contains several of their namesake functional groups. The "diethyl" example of them is a nonpolar laboratory solvent. For 10 points, name these compounds consisting of an oxygen bonded to two alkyl or aryl groups.

Saturn

The break-up of one moon of this planet may explain the resultant two bodies' co-orbital condition. The four "Gallic" moons of this planet, such as Albiorix, have an egg-shaped orbit. Giant, planet-encircling thunderstorms are observed on this planet about every 20 to 30 years and are referred to as "great white spots." This cloud cover of this planet's(*) north pole features a hexagon, as imaged by the Cassini satellite, which is due to crash into this planet in late 2017 after passing through its rings. For 10 points, name this sixth planet from the Sun.

transition metals

These are the most common elements used to form carbon-carbon bonds in coupling reactions. Several of these elements take an electron or two from a higher-energy s orbital to get a round 5 or 10 electrons in another orbital. Orbitals of these elements split according to crystal field theory. These elements include the lightest elements that violate the (*) Aufbau principle. Ligands bind to these elements in colorful coordination complexes. They include the only elements with partially filled d-shells. For 10 points, name these metals in the central block of the periodic table, which include copper and nickel.

photosynthesis

Variations of the second part of this process contain malate as an intermediate, and the Z scheme in this process contains the molecules Plastoquinone and Ferredoxin. The only known enzyme that oxidizes water is a component of this process, and the most abundant enzyme on earth, RuBisCO, is necessary for the (*) light-independent part of this process. One part of this process can be cyclic or noncyclic, and this process uses the molecules FADH and NADPH to shuttle electrons. This process results in the creation of glucose and oxygen, while it consumes water and carbon dioxide. For ten points, name this process in which plants capture energy from sunlight.

Hooke's Law

Voigt notation can be used to express this law in a six-by-six matrix. This law was generalized to three dimensions by Cauchy. Young's modulus multiplied by cross-sectional area over length is equal to this law's force constant. This law begins to break down at the (*) elastic limit. The proportionality constant of this law has units of Newtons per meter, and objects obeying this law are an example of simple harmonic motion. For 10 points, name this governing law of simple two-dimensional springs, which states that the restorative force acting on a spring is negative and proportional to the displacement from equilibrium, or that F equals negative kx.

simple harmonic motion

A modified type of this phenomenon stops as quickly as possible when its characteristic equation only involves one double root, a "critical" situation. In another situation, this phenomenon can be easily modelled by setting "I alpha" equal to "negative m-g-l-theta" using the small-angle approximation. Modelling it involves solving a second-order differential equation with no first-derivative term—like (*) "m d-squared-x d-t-squared equals negative k-x." It occurs when the displacement is proportional to the restoring force, as in Hooke's law. For 10 points, name this oscillation demonstrated by springs and pendula.

iron

An allotrope of this element, Austenite, has vanadium or molybdenum stuck in its interstitial spaces to prevent corrosion in the new substance. Mossbauer spectroscopy is often used on this substance to assess bonding properties. This substance is used to produce ammonia or fuel in the (*) Haber-Bosch process. This element, when treated with acids made from halogens, produces ferrous and ferric halides. This metal has a "wrought" and "pig" type, and when it oxidizes, it forms rust. For ten points, name this transition metal with periodic number twenty-six and symbol Fe.

neutrons (do not accept "neutrinos")

An upper value of 10 to the -28 was set for the EDM of this particle, though a non-zero electric dipole moment for it would violate PT-symmetry. The "fast" forms of these particles are converted into their "thermal" forms by a namesake moderator. (*) Spallation usually refers to the production of these particles, and they have a lifetime of approximately 15 minutes. Two down quarks and one up quark compose this baryon that was discovered by James Chadwick in 1932. Isotopes differ in their number of these particles. For 10 points, name these chargeless particles found in atomic nuclei along with protons.

breast cancer

Axillary lymph node dissections determine the severity of this condition, and Paget's disease is a form of this condition that can indicate an underlying DCIS. Trastuzumab and pertuzumab treat the HER2 positive form of this disease, and tamoxifen treats its ER positive form. The risk of developing this disease is increased by mutations in the (*) BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes. This disease can be divided into ductal and lobular types and is treated with a lumpectomy or a mastectomy. For 10 points, name this disease, most common in women, that is detected by a mammogram.

Speed of Light

Radiative power is inversely proportional to this quantity cubed times 6-pi-epsilon according to the Larmor formula. This quantity is in the numerator in the formula for the index of refraction. When a charged particle exceeds this quantity while in a medium, it produces Cherenkov radiation. This(*) quantity is equal to one divided by the square root of the product of the vacuum permittivity and permeability. This quantity is constant in all inertial reference frames. For 10 points, name this value symbolized c, that is about 30 million meters per second.

fun fact for anyone who cares, PageRank is named after Larry Page, not the web page)

Utility programs categorized by a verb form of this noun include "less" and "more," in contrast to the more robust "vim." In the 32-bit x86 architecture, this entity is 4096 bytes large. An algorithm sharing a name with this term weighs ingoing and outgoing (*) links to perform rankings and was originally made as a search algorithm for Google. The DOM guides the generation of these entities, and each of these entities is rendered by an individual file of hypertext markup. This term is the surname of Google founder Larry. For 10 points, name these entities, which might describe the part of the website you're currently viewing, such as the "home" variety.

primality (accept being prime or equivalents)

A method of testing for this condition named for Solovay and Strassen capitalizes on the efficiency of calculating the Jacobi symbol. An Ulam spiral examines patterns in the occurrence of this property, and numbers with this property can be generated using the Sieve of Atkins or the Sieve of (*) Eratosthenes. RSA cryptography relies on the difficulty of finding factors with this property. A group of numbers of the form 2^n-1 that have this property is named for Mersenne; that group contains the largest number known to have this property. For 10 points, name this condition of numbers that have exactly two positive integer divisors.

capacitance

This quantity is inversely proportional to resonant frequency squared times inductance. The "stray" form of this quantity is due to the proximity of circuit parts. For a circular disc, this quantity can be calculated as 8 times absolute permittivity times radius. The product of this quantity and resistance yields units of (*) time, and the inverse of this quantity is elastance. Adding a dielectric between two parallel plates can increase this quantity, which is calculated as charge over voltage. For 10 points, name this quantity defined as the ability to store electrical charge, measured in farads.

O(n2)

A naive "grade school" algorithm with this complexity was improved by Karatsuba using divide and conquer. If all the elements are partitioned on one side of the pivot every time, quicksort has this complexity. This function of n is about the number of edges in a (*) complete graph with n vertices. Selection and insertion sort both have this worst-case complexity, and big-O of [read slowly] "n log n plus two n plus n squared" approximates to this complexity. If both have n iterations, nesting a for-loop inside another for-loop takes this many iterations total. For 10 points, give this function of n that gives the number of entries in a matrix that has both n rows and n columns.

neutrons

A non-zero electron dipole moment for this particle would violate CPT symmetry. The results of an earlier experiment by Irene and Frederic Joliot-Curie involving polonium, beryllium and paraffin wax was explained as the emission of this particle. Because its' radiative capture cross-section has no regions of resonance, Boron-10 is used to control the(*) radiation of these particles in thermal reactors. They consist of one up and two down quarks. Isotopes have the same number of protons, but different numbers of these particles. For 10 points, name these particles discovered by James Chadwick, which have no electric charge.

dark matter

. One explanation of this entity is the axion and the PICO-60 experiment's aim is to detect WIMPs, which are also contenders to explain for this entity. Another explanation for this entity are MACHOs, or Massive Astrophysical Compact Halo Objects. According to a paper by (*) Verlinde, modification of gravitational laws can account for the existence of this entity. This entity is described as "hot" when moving at relativistic speeds, and "cold" when not. This entity is theorized as an explanation for how a galaxy's outer region moves around the center at the same speed as the inner regions. For 10 points, name this type of non-baryonic matter that does not interact with light, lending it its name.

diffraction

10. A pattern produced by this phenomenon is proportional to the square of the sinc ["sink"] function. Kirchhoff's formula for this phenomenon models point sources as spherical wave packets. The Davisson-Germer experiment showed that a beam of electrons can undergo this phenomenon, which suggested that electrons have wavelike properties. Joseph Fraunhofer names the (*) far-field type of this phenomenon. Bragg's Law describes the phase shift of X-rays undergoing this phenomenon. This phenomenon resulted in the interference fringes in Young's double slit experiment. For 10 points, name this phenomenon in which waves bend around an obstacle.

Vowels

According to the rule of Ablaut reduplication, a "high" one of these constructs must come before "low" one. R-controlled versions of these constructs can be produced by the the bunched or the the tip-up methods. These constructs experience palatal harmony in Altaic and Uralic(*) languages. Voiceless versions of these objects occur in Japanese. Gliding examples of these sounds are known as diphthongs. For 10 points, name these sounds that underwent a "great shift" in English, and are produced with an open vocal tract, contrasted with consonants.

graphs

2. The isomorphism problem of these objects is not known to be in P or NP. Sufficiently large types of these objects always have monochromatic cliques, according to Ramsey's theorem. Turán's theorem describes the properties of a complete one of these objects. The friendship paradox can be modelled by one of these objects. A set of ordered pairs called arcs defines the directed type of these objects. Every (*) planar type of these objects can be colored with at most four colors. One of the first problems in the study of these objects was about the Seven Bridges of Königsberg. For 10 points, name these objects made of vertices and edges.

uniform distribution

6. The kurtosis of the continuous form of this distribution is negative six-fifths, while its variance has a constant factor of one-twelfth. Estimating the maximum of elements sampled from this distribution was used in World War II to estimate the number of German tanks produced. The sum of two of these distributions gives the (*) triangular distribution. The CDF for this distribution is simply linear in its output range. For 10 points, identify this simple distribution whose discrete form is exemplified by the roll of a die, where every element has an equal probability of being picked.

acceleration

One form of this quantity for a particle in a rotating system is equal to minus 2 times the cross product of the angular velocity and the particle's velocity with respect to the system. Charged particles being reflected by a moving interstellar magnetic field can randomly experience the second-order Fermi(*) type of this quantity. This quantity is zero for an idealized Atwood machine. For 10 points, name this quantity, measured in meters per second squared equal to the rate of change of velocity.

Standard Model

The first steps towards creating this construct were taken by Sheldon Glashow's 1961 proposal of electroweak interactions, which were later proven during a 1973 experiment at CERN that discovered neutral weak currents caused by Z boson exchange. This theory accurately predicted the ratio of masses between (*) W± and Z0 ("w-plus-minus and zero-naught") bosons discovered in 1983. This construct groups the four force carriers as gauge bosons but does not yet incorporate dark matter. For 10 points, name this model that, while categorizing the 13 fundamental particles, has been unable to account for all 4 fundamental forces.

depression (accept MDD or major depressive disorder and other word forms; prompt on any similar terms such as sadness or low mood that do not contain the term "depression" itself)

The forced swimming test is often used to test drugs treating this disorder, and Aaron Beck created a 21 question "inventory" for assessing this disorder. Recently, ketamine infusion therapy has become a popular treatment for this disorder. (*) Disthymia is a persistent form of this disorder, and there are postpartum and seasonally affected forms of this disorder. Serotonin reuptake inhibitors like Zoloft can be used to treat this disorder, and the DSM-V removed the "exclusion" of bereavement as a cause of this disorder. For 10 points, name this clinical state in which a person suffers from low interest or a continual low mood.

platelets (accept thrombocytes before mention)

The function of these cells is altered in Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome. GPVI signalling increases the production of TXA2 while decreasing prostacyclin in these cells, whose receptors bind to kistrin. TGF-beta 1 and P-selectin are found in alpha granules in these cells, which are attached to (*) collagen by von Willebrand factor. The primary function of these cells is dependent on vitamin K. These cells, whose activation releases factor V and fibrinogen, are produced from megakaryocytes of bone marrow and contribute to hemostasis. For 10 points, name these cells that aid in blood clotting, also known as thrombocytes.

electric charge

The time derivative of this quantity's density equals the negative divergence of current density. The energy stored in a capacitor equals one half times this quantity squared, divided by capacitance. The magnetic force on a moving particle is equal to this quantity times the cross product of (*) velocity and magnetic field by the Lorentz force law. Capacitance is equal to this quantity divided by voltage. The electrostatic force on an object equals this quantity times the external electric field. For 10 points, name this quantity, often symbolized by the letter Q, which is measured in Coulombs.

adrenaline

This chemical was first isolated by Jokichi Takamine in 1901 from animal glands. This compound is synthesized by the hydroxylation and then methylation of dopamine. This chemical, which is produced by PNMT, can be injected to stimulate vasoconstriction during anaphylaxis. Release of this(*) catecholamine from its namesake glands that sit above the kidneys stimulates the sympathetic nervous system. For 10 points, name this hormone which increases the heart rate, contributing to the "fight-or-flight" response.

absolute value

This function's properties include being "multiplicative," "subadditive" and "positive definite." This piecewise linear function is differentiable everywhere except 0. For complex numbers in polar form, this quantity is symbolized r. This function's properties are generalized by metrics and norms, since this function of "x minus y" gives the number-line (*) distance between x and y. This function of "x plus y" is less than or equal to "this function of x" plus "this function of y," by the triangle inequality. This function of x equals the "square root of x-squared." For 10 points, name this function that gives the value of a number without its sign, denoted by vertical bars.

August Ferdinand Möbius

This mathematician's namesake tetrads consist of two mutually inscribed tetrahedra, and his "ladder" is a cubic circulant graph. His namesake function equals one or negative one depending on the number of prime factors of the input, and his namesake transformation of the complex plane equals az plus b over cz plus d. An (*) object named for this man has Euler characteristic zero, and the joining two of those objects forms a Klein bottle. For 10 points, name this German mathematician who discovered an unorientable one-sided surface, called his namesake "strip."

hydrochloric acid

This molecule reacts with manganese dioxide in the Weldon process, and it is produced by the Leblanc process with sodium sulfate. Along with a zinc-mercury amalgam, it catalyzes the Clemmensen reduction. The Deacon process oxidizes this acid to create a diatomic halogen, and it is used in the production of MDI for polyurethane and (*) vinyl chloride for PVC plastic. This acid, also called muriatic acid, creates aqua regia with nitric acid. When reacted with sodium hydroxide, it forms table salt and water. For 10 points, name this strong diatomic acid with molecular formula HCl.

lactic acid (accept lactate or CH3CH(OH)COOH, prompt on "C3H6O3")

This molecule, along with ammonium bicarbonate, is used in the Lurex brand mosquito attractant. This molecule is one of the main components in Ringer's solution and Hartmann's solution. The production of this molecule regenerates NAD+, which is used up in oxidation of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate during production of pyruvate. This molecule is an intermediate in the process of (*) gluconeogenesis. The build-up of this molecule is due to the inability of the respiratory chain to use hydrogen atoms quickly enough during intense exercise. For ten points, name this product of fermentation that builds up in muscles, and gets its name from its presence in sour milk.

histones

This protein's post-translational modifications are detected by bromodomains and chromodomains. The phosphorylation of serine-139 in one family of this protein functions as a marker for double-stranded breaks. HATs such as Gcn5 and Tip60 transfer acetyl groups to (*) lysines on the N-terminal tail of this protein. The "bead on a string" model describes how four distinct dimers of this protein assemble to form the core of a nucleosome, which can then bind to about 147 base pairs. For 10 points, name these positively-charged proteins around which DNA winds to form chromatin.

stress (accept stress vector; accept specific kinds of stress like shear stress or tensile stress)

This value can be displayed graphically using a quadric named for Cauchy, and the 'diagonal' values of this quantity's matrix form simplify to the pressure gradient in incompressible liquids. When a force is applied to an object, the normal form of this quantity occurs perpendicular to the object's cross-section, in contrast to this quantity's (*) shear form. This quantity is usually plotted on the y-axis of a curve that is straight for elastic materials due to Hooke's Law. The tensile form of this quantity appears as the numerator in Young's modulus. Pressure is a specific type of, for 10 points, what measure of the force per area, usually contrasted with strain?

diffusion

. In kinetic theory, the Einstein relation states that the constant of this phenomenon is equal to the product of the mobility, Boltzmann's constant, and the absolute temperature. The ambipolar form of this phenomenon occurs due to the interactions of charged species with an electric field. In a gas, the first of (*) Graham's laws says that the rate of this process is inversely proportional to the square root of density. Fick's laws describe this process, an example of which is osmosis. For 10 points, name this process where particles move from a region of high concentration to low concentration.

Taurus

16. A star in this constellation names a type of stellar wind emitted during accretion of material from a solar nebula. A group of pre-main sequence variable protostars are "T" stars named after this constellation. A star cluster in this constellation is the nearest open cluster to Earth. The star Aldebaran is in the Hyades cluster of this constellation, which also contains the (*) Pleiades cluster. Another object in this constellation is the first object in the Messier catalogue and the remnant of a supernova in 1054. For 10 points, name this constellation that contains the Crab Nebula and looks like a bull.

zero

2. This number is the output of the Möbius function for a non-squarefree integer. The degree of the polynomial named for this number is defined as either negative one or negative infinity. A special case of the mean value theorem states that a differentiable function must have a derivative of this value between two points of equal value; that theorem is Rolle's theorem. The Dirac delta function is only (*) nonzero with the input of this number. The graph of y equals one over x has asymptotes where x or y equal this value. For 10 points, name this number, which when multiplied by anything gives itself.

phosphate

3. The first step in the glycolytic pathway involves an enzyme that adds one of these groups to the number 6 carbon in glucose. The hydroxyapatite mineral contains six units of this anion for every 10 calcium atoms. Two linked units of this functional group are released upon the addition of a nucleotide in DNA, and those two units combined are often referred to by the prefix "pyro." (*) Kinases add these functional groups to molecules. In the last step of aerobic respiration, the proton gradient powers the addition of these groups to ADP molecules. For 10 points, name this anion, three of which are bonded to adenosine in ATP.

volume

4. The difference between the molar heat capacity at constant pressure and the molar heat capacity at a constant value for this quantity is equal to the ideal gas constant. The Van der Waals equation subtracts the "b" term from this quantity because ideal gases are assumed to be perfectly elastic and have a value of (*) zero for this quantity. The inverse of density equal to the "specific" form of this quantity. In Charles' law, this quantity is proportional to temperature, whereas it is inversely proportional to pressure in Boyle's law for gases. For 10 points, identify this quantity that can be measured in cubic centimetres, or milliliters.

Jupiter

617 Patroclus and 624 Hektor reside where this object's gravitational pull balances that of the sun. One moon of this planet is the most heavily cratered object in the Solar System, and another of its moons is the reddest object in the Solar System. It is responsible for (*) Kirkwood gaps in the asteroid belt and was studied extensively by Pioneer 10. In 1994, Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 collided with this planet, visibly scarring its surface. Ganymede and Europa orbit, for 10 points, what gas giant containing a Great Red Spot, the largest planet in the Solar System?

wind

7. According to Betz's Law, the maximum power that can be extracted from this phenomenon is 16/27 of the total amount present in these phenomena. Latent heat polynyas can be produced by the katabatic form of this phenomenon, which occurs due to gravity. This phenomenon reverses direction at the boundaries between the Hadley and Ferrel cells, which occurs at the (*) horse latitudes. The speed of this phenomenon is measured with an anemometer and can be classified by the Beaufort scale. For 10 points, name this meteorological phenomenon caused by differences in air pressure that makes air move.

ammonia

A biological process that produces this compound relies on an iron-molybdenum cofactor. When alkali metals are dissolved in a solution of this compound, it turns deep blue. This compound is the gas in most syntheses of hydrazine. Silver ions form complexes with this compound in the mirror-forming Tollen's reagent. A process for forming it is catalyzed by iron oxide, and it is also synthesized by diazotrophs like (*) rhizobia. Its central atom has one lone pair, so it is trigonal pyramidal and a weak base. This compound reacts with oxygen in the Ostwald process to form nitric acid. For 10 points, name this gas formed by nitrogen fixation and the Haber process, with formula NH3.

Gilbert Newton Lewis (accept (hard/soft) Lewis acids or Lewis bases)

A class of compounds named for this scientist are used as catalysts of Diels-Alder and Friedel-Crafts reactions. Pearson also names a class of compounds named for this scientist that are ranked based on charge density as "hard" or "soft." (*) Boron trifluoride is the canonical example of a class of compounds named for him, and the ability to receive or donate pairs of electrons classifies his namesake acids and bases. Resonance is often depicted using multiple copies of a diagram named for this scientist that writes the element symbol in the middle and surrounds it with electrons. For 10 points, give this American scientist who names a common "dot diagram."

HIV

A combination of nevirapine, stavudine and lamivudine is widely used as first‐line therapy against this pathogen. Resistance to this pathogen can come from a "Delta 32" mutation on chromosome 3, which inactivates the CCR5 receptor on white blood cells. Individuals infected with this pathogen often develop(*) lesions on the skin known as Kaposi's sarcoma. This pathogen attacks helper T cells by binding to CD4 receptors. AZT was the first antiretroviral drug approved to fight, for 10 points, what pathogen that causes AIDS?

silicon (prompt on Si)

A compound with this element beta to a double bond attacks a carbonyl group in the first step of the Sakurai reaction. This element is bound to an oxygen atom and three methyls as part of the protecting group TMS, and a compound made of this element and four methyl groups is used as a standard reference in (*) NMR. This element can be purified through vapor deposition in the Siemens process. A "wafer" of this element is commonly used in electronics, and this element reacts with oxygen to form sand. For 10 points, name this metalloid frequently used in semiconductors.

benzene

A form of this molecule is the precursor to aniline, and a reduction reaction transforms this compound into 1,4-cyclohexadiene. It reacts with a haloalkane and a Lewis acid catalyst in the Friedel-Crafts alkylation, and naphthalene is created through the fusion of two of these molecules. The hydrogenation of this molecule yields (*) cyclohexane, and adding a methyl group to this molecule creates toluene. Kekule discovered the structure of this molecule, which contains alternating single and double bonds. Drawn as a hexagon surrounding a circle, for 10 points, name this simplest aromatic hydrocarbon with formula C6H6.

galaxies (or galaxy)

A law describing these objects is called the Sérsic profile and has a special case called de Vaucouleurs' law. A mathematical model for predicting the number of these objects with mass between M and M+dM is named for Press and Schechter. The winding problem concerns these objects, which can be classified as flocculant or grand-design based on the definition of their structure by (*) Lin-Shu density wave theory. The Faber-Jackson and Tully-Fisher relations regard the luminosities of these objects. For 10 points, name these star systems classified on Hubble's tuning fork diagram as lenticular, elliptical or spiral.

diffraction

A mathematical model of this phenomenon uses Green's identities to derive the solution to a wave equation at an arbitrary point, while another model calculates its intensity using a Cornu spiral. The formula theta equals 1.22 times lambda over capital D estimates the angular resolution of this phenomenon; that is the (*) Rayleigh criterion. The Davisson-Germer experiment showed electrons undergoing this phenomenon, whose near-field and far-field equations are named for Fresnel and Fraunhofer. The Airy disc is created from this phenomenon. For 10 points, name this optical phenomenon in which light bends around an obstacle.

glaciers

A namesake park in Kelleys Island, Ohio, provides an excellent example of the "scratches" created by these things. These objects sometimes feature large columns called seracs. Lake Agassiz was formed by the action of these entities before being drained by a series of events known as (*) jökulhlaups. Their mass balance depends on the ratio of the rates of accumulation and ablation. When two of these objects are near each other, they can create sharply ridged arêtes which rise up between U-shaped valleys. These entities create piles of debris known as moraines, and erosion caused by them creates fjords. For 10 points, name these massive, slow-moving sheets of ice.

black​

A novel material of this color is made of vertically aligned nanotubes and is known as "vanta"-​this color. Every path from a node to its leaves has the same number of nodes of ​this color in a type of tree named for it and an alphabetically-​later color. This color names an object that emits radiative power proportional to the fourth power of (*) ​temperature, according to the StefanÂ-Boltzmann law. This type of "body" absorbs incident radiation of all frequencies. In computer science, a device whose internal workings are unknown is called a "box" of this color. For 10 points, identify this color corresponding to the absence of light.

infinite series

A property of these objects holds in a disc of radius "one-over the "lim sup" of the nth-root of the absolute value of c-sub-n." Analytic functions can be given by one of these objects. One of these objects was shown by Euler to equal "pi-squared over six," as the solution to the Basel Problem. For a k-times-differentiable function f, truncating one of these objects gives the best degree-k (*) polynomial approximation of f, according to Taylor's theorem. The terms "one-over-n" for natural numbers n comprise the "harmonic" one, which diverges. An infinity-superscripted capital sigma often denotes—for 10 points—what mathematical object, the sum of an infinite sequence?

Edwin

A quantity named for this man can be calculated by using redshift of a distant object to derive its radial velocity and then dividing by the distance to that object. This man discovered Cepheid variables in Andromeda and Triangulum, which proved that there were galaxies outside the Milky Way. His namesake (*) constant is estimated by one over the age of the universe. This man developed a tuning-fork classification scheme for galaxies. His law models the expansion of the universe, which he "discovered." For 10 points, identify this American astronomer, the namesake of a NASA space telescope.

atmospheric pressure

A rise in this quantity gives foehn wind its warmth. If this quantity is low for a while, a weather map will often show a purple line alternating semicircles and triangles. This quantity is high at the "horse latitudes" and very low where the two Hadley cells start near the Equator. This quantity decreases along with temperature when a cold front advances. Precipitation is (*) suppressed when this quantity is high, and a "zone" where this quantity is low usually breeds storms. Lines on a weather map where this quantity is the same are called "isobars." Wind is mostly a result of differences in this quantity. For 10 points, name this quantity that's measured with a barometer.

photons

A scattering event in which one of these particles is the incident particle is characterized by a factor of "one minus the cosine of the scattering angle." These particles are exchanged in interactions between charged particles according to QED and they're responsible for radiation pressure. These particles are incident in both (*) Compton scattering and Rayleigh scattering. The energy of one of these particles equals its momentum times the speed of light or Planck's constant times its frequency. Einstein posited these bosons to explain the photoelectric effect. For 10 points, name these quanta of light that have zero mass.

Johannes Kepler​

A spacecraft named for this person uses a photometer to measure the brightness of stars in the constellations Cygnus, Lyra, and Draco. This man described a model of the universe consisting of nested Platonic solids, one for each planet, in his ​Mysterium Cosmographicum. A spacecraft named for this person has used the "transit method" to discover over 1,000 (*) ​exoplanets since 2009. A set of postulates named for this man includes the "equal areas in equal time" law and the statement that orbits are ellipses with the sun at one focus. For 10 points, name this one-time assistant to Tycho Brahe, a German astronomer who proposed three laws of planetary motion.

precession (accept word forms)

A special relativistic correction to one form of this phenomenon was made by Llewellyn Thomas, and the geodetic effect is a form of it named for Willem de Sitter. A variety of this phenomenon involving magnetic moments in external magnetic fields is named for Joseph (*) Larmor. A wobbling along the path of this phenomenon is called nutation, and a spinning bike wheel can hang from one string at the end of a horizontal axis using it. This phenomenon classical form has angular velocity directly proportional to torque. For 10 points, name this phenomenon in which the axis of rotation shifts, an effect usually demonstrated with gyroscopes.

pressure

A substance's bulk modulus has the same units as this quantity, and is equal to "negative volume times the derivative of ​this value with respect to volume." A reference value of 20 millionths of this quantity's SI unit is used to define the decibel in acoustics. This value is equalized in all directions and at all points in a fluid according to (*) ​Pascal's principle. This value is added to kinetic and potential terms to give a constant in Bernoulli's equation, which implies that this value decreases if a fluid's velocity increases. For 10 points, name this quantity equal to force divided by the area over which it is applied, which is measured in the atmosphere with a barometer.

critical

A value described by this adjective is often decreased using a "tamper," which is a kind of neutron reflector. A value described by this adjective occurs at the intersection of the binodal and spinodal curves. No amount of pressure can liquefy a substance above this kind of (*) temperature. This adjective also describes the temperature below which materials become superconductors. Liquids and gases do not exist beyond a value described by this adjective; that "point" described by this adjective can be visualized on a phase diagram. Nuclear reactions become self-sustaining after reaching—for 10 points—what kind of "mass?"

magnetic field (accept B-field or H-field, prompt on "B" or "H")

According to Alfvén's Theorem, for a perfectly conducting fluid the flux of this entity through a surface is conserved. In order to account for this entity into its associated Lagrangian, a vector potential must be introduced. In the presence of a static one of these, a spectral line splits; that is the (*) Zeeman Effect. The strength of this entity can be measured for steady currents using the Biot-Savart law. According to Maxwell's equations, the divergence of this entity is 0. This vector field, when crossed with the product of velocity and charge, gives its associated force. For 10 points, name this field whose strength is measured in Teslas.

xylem

According to some scientists, tylosis refers to occlusion in this structure, and is a component of CODIT. Murray's law describes the radii of different branching portions of this type of structure, indicating that larger components of these structures require less energy. The first recognizable form of this structure was comprised of (*) tracheid cells, and modern types now include vessel elements, fibers, and parenchyma. Negative pressure in this structure is created by transpirational pull. For 10 points, name this plant structure used in water transport that is frequently contrasted with phloem.

Bernoulli's principle (accept "law" or "equation" or any sensible synonym as long as Bernoulli is mentioned)

According to this law, the Euler equations imply a Hamiltonian whose derivative in the direction of the flow is zero. Under the steady flow assumption, this law states that pressure plus one-half density times v-squared plus a potential energy stays constant. The speed of a leak in a (*) tank from a certain height can be determined with Torricelli's law, a specific case of this principle. This equation results from applying energy conservation to each volume element of a fluid, and it explains why pressure drops as fluid flow accelerates. For 10 points, give this principle named for a Swissman and often used to explain lift on airplane wings.

blue

Addition of an alkali metal to liquid ammonia will cause the resulting solution to have this color. Copper-two complexes, like its sulfate pentahydrate, usually take this color. An indicator named for this color is yellow in acidic conditions, and is commonly used for titrations near a pH of 7. The first modern (*) synthetic pigment took this color, and was made of iron bonded to cyanide ions. A common indicator is named "bromothymol this color," and in basic conditions, litmus paper turns from red to this color. For 10 points, name this color that has "cobalt" and "Prussian" shades.

praise RN-Jesus!)

Algorithms for doing this process include the Yarrow and one with that has a value of almost 2 to the 19,937 for its period. John von Neumann invented a "middle square" method for doing this, which is also done by the widely used Mersenne Twister. Performing this process is necessary to performing a (*) Monte Carlo simulation. It can be done by listening to environmental entropy like temperature or atmospheric noise, or through a "pseudo-" variety of this process. A seed is used to begin this process, and much of cryptography relies on this process to generate a secure key. For 10 points, describe this process which humans usually do by rolling a die.

spleen

Although this organ develops within the gut, it is derived from mesenchymal tissue rather than endodermal tissue. Periarteriolar lymphoid sheaths compose much of one portion of this organ. This organ may be absent in patients with Ivemark syndrome, and it is enlarged in patients with Banti's syndrome. (*) Part of this organ is composed of cords of Billroth, which are rich in monocytes, and the marginal zone separates its two main tissue components. It's not the kidney, but this organ's Malpighian corpuscles are known to synthesize antibodies. Most notably enlarged in patients with mononucleosis--for 10 points--name this lymphoid organ consisting of red and white pulp, in which red blood cells are stored and destroyed.

peroxisomes

An analogue of this structure found in fungi helps clog the cell to prevent leakage of the cytoplasm, and is named for Mikhail Woronin. A disease that affects this structure is caused by a mutation in the PHYH gene and causes buildup of phytanic acid. The excess of such fatty acids caused by the absence of this structure can be reduced with a mixture known as (*) Lorenzo's oil, which is used to treat sufferers of Zellweger Syndrome. Proteins named after this organelle transport the antifungal glucosinolate, and this organelle's main function is achieved through the activity of the enzyme catalase. For 10 points, name this organelle whose main task is the breakdown of H2O2 ["H-2-O-2"].

Data Compression

An efficient method of performing this operation on characters with a near-geometric distribution is named after Golomb and Rice. Another method of performing this operation takes advantage of the natural repetition of characters and references a "dictionary" and is called LZW. A "greedy" variety of this operation involves tabulating character counts and creating prefixes based on a data tree and is named after Huffman. Examples of the(*) "lossy" version of files created using this operation contain artifacts and include JPEGs and MPEGs. For 10 points, name this operation which encodes information to use less space.

Speciation

An example of this process is the cichlid fishes in Lake Nagbago. This process can be inhibited by zygotic infertility, limited viability, mortality, and by the existence of Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. This process often occurs in plants as a result of polyploidy. This process can be shown through a (*) cladogram and can occur morphologically or though punctuated equilibrium. Coming in sympatric and allopatric types, for 10 points, name this process by which new species are formed.

quadrilateral

Bretschneider's Formula gives the area of one of these figures, and Varignon's Theorem describes the shape formed when connecting the midpoints of one of these shapes. One of these shapes is describable with 5 parameters, while the midpoints of the diagonals of a "complete" one of these shapes are collinear. (*) Ptolemy's inequality gives a relationship between the sides and diagonals of one of these shapes, and Brahmagupta's Formula can also be used to find the area of one of these polygons that is inscribed in a circle, those are known as the "cyclic" types of these shapes. For ten points, name these shapes such as kites, squares, and rectangles, which have 4 sides.

iron

Collman's reagent consists of this element bonded to four carbonyl groups, and this element catalyzes the Bechamp reduction and Fischer-Tropsch process. A blue pigment used as an antidote for heavy metal poisoning, contains seven ions of this element along with eighteen ions of cyanide. This element catalyzes the (*) Haber-Bosch process to produce ammonia, and it undergoes the Bessemer process to form an alloy with carbon. Its most common ore is hematite, and the mineral pyrite consists of two sulfur atoms and an atom of this metal. For 10 points, name this component of steel with atomic number 26, symbolized Fe.

lava (do not accept or prompt on "magma")

Columnar jointing concerns the regular, geometric arrangement of this substance as it cools. One type of this substance is characterized by small units called "toes" and its rope-like appearance, and domes of this substance can form structures called coulees. When this substance is underwater, it takes on a spherical shape known as its (*) pillow type. The two main types of the basaltic form of this substance, which is classified by temperature and viscosity, are pahoehoe and a'a. The cooling of this substance forms extrusive igneous rocks such as pumice. For 10 points, name this substance, magma that rises above the surface of the Earth.

monkeys (accept specific species; prompt on primates; do not accept or prompt on "chimpanzees" or "apes")

Constraint induced movement therapy was developed from research on these animals done by Edward Taub. The Britches film depicted the raiding of a medical lab with these animals at UCal, and 17 of them were controversially experimented on in Silver Springs. In an experiment using devices made of either (*) wire or cloth, these animals overwhelmingly preferred the cloth device. A device called the "pit of despair" was used by Harry Harlow in his studies on the maternal bond using these animals. For 10 points, name these animals frequently experimented on that have rhesus and capuchin varieties.

Comets

Encke names a type of these objects that was used to attempt to prove the validity of the luminiferous aether. Though unrelated to planets, these objects undergo outgassing. Much of our measurements of the surface of Jupiter come from the impact of one of these called (*) Shoemaker-Levy 9 colliding with Jupiter. Short period ones of these objects typically originate from the Kuiper Belt, while long period ones originate from the Oort Cloud. For 10 points, name these astronomical objects that are made of ice and have a coma and tail.

phase transitions (accept phase change or phase transformations or any logical synonym of "transition"; prompt on partial answer, especially just phases)

For many materials, these phenomena are accompanied by a divergence in the length scale on which molecular motion is correlated. Paul Ehrenfest classified these phenomena using order parameters, and the Curie point is a (*) second-order example of them. The coexistence curve represents the parameters along which these occur, and they can no longer occur at the critical point. These occurrences are represented by the crossing of pressure-temperature boundary lines on their namesake diagrams. These occurrences are exemplified by deposition and sublimation. For 10 points, name these occurrences in which one state of matter becomes another.

cochlea (prompt on "ear" or "inner ear")

Gap-junction proteins called connexin 26 and 30 are expressed in this structure and are important to its functionality. The central axis of this structure is called the modiolus, and the motor protein prestin affects OHCs in it. Presbycusis and Ménière's disease affect this structure, which is separated by (*) Reissner's membrane into the scala media and the scala vestibuli, which contain the endolymph and perilymph. Semicircular canals and the vestibule form the bony labyrinth along with this structure, which is not coiled in monotremes. For 10 points, name this spiral-shaped auditory structure named for its resemblance to a snail shell and namesake of a common ear implant.

Superconductors

Little and Parks showed that a large fraction of electrons in these materials behave essentially as a single quantum particle, and a current flowing through two of them forms a Josephson junction. Based on the strength of their critical fields, they can be classified into Type I and Type II. The(*) BCS theory posits that they are formed by the condensation of electrons below the Fermi energy into Cooper pairs. These materials are natural diamagnets, as they eject a magnetic field in the Meissner effect. For 10 points, name these materials which have zero electrical resistance.

Blackbodies

Materials similar to these objects were made vertically aligned carbon nanotube arrays in 2014. One law relating to these objects can be written as nu cubed over an exponential term minus one. Early remnants of the universe can be modelled as these objects. These objects are modelled as a cavity with a (*) hole in it. Rayleigh and Jeans created a law involving the radiation of these entities. That law failed at ultraviolet wavelengths and was improved upon by Planck's Law. For 10 points, name these idealized objects that absorb light uniformly at all wavelengths.

X chromosome

Megalocornea 1 and adrenoleukodystrophy are disorders linked to this structure. CGG trinucleotide repeats in this structure partially methylate the FMR1 gene, causing the namesake "fragile" syndrome of this chromosome. The inactivation of one of these in a human female, called (*) lyonization, results in a Barr body. Klinefelter's syndrome affects males who inherit two of these structures, and Turner syndrome affects females who inherit one. Hemophilia and red-green color blindness are recessive diseases of this chromosome. For 10 points, name this sex chromosome, of which females have two and males have one.

red

Older elliptical galaxies, which lack star formation regions, often appear this color. When something falls into a black hole, it will spaghettify and turn this color. Stars of this color are often of spectral type M and appear at the right side of the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram; examples of such stars include Betelgeuse. The distance to an object moving (*) away from the observer can be measured by looking at how its spectral lines have been altered due to an effect named after this color. In that effect, the object turns this color because light waves stretch according to the Doppler effect. For 10 points, identify this color with wavelength around 650 nm, the longest in the visible spectrum.

Increasing

One method to check whether a sequence has this property is to determine, through induction, if "a sub n plus one" is greater than "a sub n." Specifically, that test is for the "monotonic" type of this property. The function f of x equals x squared only has this property on the interval from zero to positive infinity. (*) Functions like "y equals x" and "y equals x cubed" have this property for all real numbers, since these functions' derivatives will always be positive. For 10 points, identify this property which, when applied to a function, means that as the x values increases, the y values do as well.

asteroids

One of these objects was discovered by Giuseppe Piazzi in 1801, and some families of them are named after Kiyotsugu Hirayama. They are classified into C types, S types, and M types, and the brightest example of them visible from Earth is (*) Vesta. Examples of them include the Trojans, and Ceres is the largest of these objects in the Solar System. The Chicxulub crater was formed by the impact of one of these objects on the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico. For ten points, name these astronomical rocks often found in their namesake belt between Mars and Jupiter.

Fritz Haber (accept Joshua Weiss before mention)

One step of a catalytic cycle partially named for this man is the Fenton reaction. That reaction generates hydroxyl radicals from hydrogen peroxide and superoxide, and is also named for Joshua Weiss. This man names a cycle used with Hess's law to calculate (*) lattice energies of ionic solids, which was developed with Max Born. Gerhard Ertl mapped out detailed mechanisms of a process named for this chemist, which involves three additions of hydrogen and the breaking of a triple bond. For 10 points, name this German chemist who invented an ammonia-creating process improved on by Carl Bosch.

work

One theorem states that the maximum efficiency of a heat-engine is this quantity divided by the heat put into the system, which is maximized when the engine is a Carnot engine. In an isobaric environment, the magnitude of this quantity for an ideal gas is equal to pressure times the (*) change in volume, and because the force generated by it is always perpendicular to the particle it acts on, this quantity due to a magnetic field is zero. This quantity is also zero on a closed path, and though not potential energy, this quantity due to gravity is equal to mass times gravity times the change in height. For ten points, name this quantity, equal to the product of a force and the distance through which it is applied.

earthquakes

One type of these events may be caused by recrystallization instabilities, or the propagation and linking-up of spinel-filled anticracks arising from olivine transformation. Wadati-Benioff zones are the site of many deep-focus types of these events. These events can be explained by the elastic (*) rebound theory, which posits that two sides of a strike-slip fault quickly snap back during these events. Triangulation with the difference between the arrival times of P and S waves can locate the epicenter of these events. For 10 points, name these natural disasters measured on the Richter scale.

potential energy

One type of this quantity can be calculated as one-half the volume integral of the H-vector dotted with the B-vector. That type is periodically exchanged with another type of this quantity in an LC circuit. An electric field E contributes a density of this quantity equal to "one-half epsilon-nought times E-squared." A capacitor holding a charge Q has a value of (*) "one-half Q-squared over C " for this quantity. For a single charge, this quantity equals the charge times the voltage at which it is held, and it can be calculated as the work required to move that particle into its position. For 10 points, name this amount of energy stored in a system.

Cnidaria

Organisms of this phylum may exist as planulae in their larval stages, and they often use statocysts to sense balance. Chironex fleckeri is one of the most dangerous members of this diploblastic phylum, whose organisms can have spirocysts, ptychocysts, or (*) nematocysts. Organisms of this phylum have two layers of epithelium that are only one cell thick. Members of this phylum have bodies that are made of mesoglea, and its class Anthozoa is sessile. Organisms from this phylum typically have medusa and polyp stages in their life cycle. For ten points, identify this radially and bilaterally symmetrical phylum, named for its stinging cells, that includes organisms such as corals and jellyfish.

Calcium

Pathways for the release of this element are sensitive to both IP3 and DAG messengers. A namesake hormone is released by parafollicular cells in order to regulate the presence of this element. A structure called the sarcoplasmic reticulum, (*) stores this element in muscle, and the exoskeletons of echinoderms are made of this element. Osteoclasts help regulate this element through the breakdown of bone tissue. For 10 points, name this element that is present alongside phosphate in hydroxyapatite, the material that makes up bone.

Buoyancy

Phenomenons driven by this force can be estimated with the Boussinesq ["Boo-sin-esk"] approximation. Gauss's formula for closed surface integrals can be used to calculate this force, as the product of the divergence of the Cauchy ["Co-shee"] stress tensor and "d v." The ratio of this force to viscosity is given by the Grashof(*) number. For a given object, this force is equal to total weight of all the fluid displaced by that object, according to Archimedes' Principle. For 10 points, name this upward-pointing force that keeps objects afloat.

ears

Presbycusis is the natural and irreversible loss of function of this structure, and cholesteatoma and Meniere's disease affect this organ. The organ of Corti lies in the basilar membrane of a structure in this organ, and the ampulla and cupula lie in this organ's (*) semicircular canals. This organ that contains the tympanic membrane receives false sensory input in tinnitus. The visible portion of this organ is called the pinna, and the smallest bones in the body, the hammer, anvil and stirrup, lie in this organ. Containing their namesake "drum", for 10 points, name this pair of organs that facilitate hearing.

Heisenberg's uncertainty principle

Robertson names a generalization to this statement that applies to general self-adjoint operators. In a modification of this statement, energy and time replace two quantities in one side of an inequality. This statement's namesake created a thought experiment involving a (*) gamma-ray microscope, and this statement is a consequence of two quantities having a non-zero commutator. This statement can be stated as an inequality involving h-bar over two. For 10 points, give this principle, which states that it is impossible to measure a particle's momentum and position simultaneously with complete confidence.

aquifers

The "perched" variety of these structures usually sit above their "confined" type. These structures are usually found in the phreatic zone below the vadose zone. The reduction of these structures' volume is a major cause of human-induced subsidence. Much of the Keystone Pipeline controversy has revolved around the gigantic (*) Ogallala one of these structures. Overuse of these structures can lead to saline "intrusion." When these structures are under pressure, their drainage wells are called "artesian." For 10 points, name these layers of porous rock that are filled up to the water table.

beta (accept specific betas, like thermodynamic beta or beta blocker)

The Claisen condensation allows for the formation of these types of diketones or keto esters. In fluid mechanics, this letter gives the change in volume over change in pressure, and in thermodynamics it names one over Boltzmann's constant times (*) temperature. Rigel is described by this letter in the constellation Orion, and a class of drugs used to treat hypertension is termed these kinds of "blockers." A neutron releasing a proton, an electron, and an antineutrino is an example of this type of decay. For 10 points, give this letter of the Greek alphabet denoting the stage of software testing when a product might be released for usage.

neurons

The Hodgkin-Huxley model used these cells from a giant squid to describe the communication of these cells, and their migration occurs along radial glia. The Nissl substance in these cells consists of rough ER, and depending on their location, these cells can be (*) insulated either by Schwann cells or oligodendrocytes. Saltatory conduction occurs along the nodes of Ranvier on these cells if they have a myelin sheath. Synapses separate them from other cells and they transmit action potentials. For 10 points, name these nerve cells that contain soma, dendrites, and an axon.

primates (or Primates; anti-prompt on specific primates like lemurs, gorillas, humans, monkeys, chimpanzees, orangutans, gibbons, tarsiers, lorises, galagos, etc.)

The angiosperm radiation theory and the visual predation theory attempt to explain the origin of this animal order. The Haplorhini clade within this order has non-functional copies of GULO, and are thus unable to synthesize vitamin C. One species in this order has a mutation in the gene FOXP2 that provides an unusual capacity for (*) language, and an early member of this order was Australopithecus, of which the fossil Lucy was a member. Most members of this order possess opposable thumbs. For 10 points, name this order within the class Mammalia that includes lemurs, gorillas, and humans.

competition (accept word forms like competitive exclusion principle)

The contest form of this phenomenon is modeled by the Beverton-Holt equation, and its scramble form is associated with polygyny. It's not predation, but the Lotka-Volterra equations model this phenomenon using the logistic equation for population growth. George Gause proposed this phenomenon's namesake (*) exclusion principle, and it can occur between different species or within a species. Organisms physically exclude others from accessing a particular resource in one form of this phenomenon. For 10 points, give this term for the interaction between organisms that vie for a limited resource like food or water.

stomach

The greater omentum is a large fold of peritoneum that hangs down from this structure and this structure's fundic region contains zymogenic cells. A glycoprotein produced by this structure, called intrinsic factor, is necessary for the absorption of vitamin B12. (*) Bicarbonate and mucus are secreted by the foveolar cells of this structure, while parietal cells in this organ produce hydrochloric acid. The lower portion of this organ contains the pyloric sphincter, which connects it to the duodenum. For 10 points, name this digestive organ that lies between the small intestine and the esophagus.

spinal cord (do not accept or prompt on "spine"; those are the bones)

The radicular arteries supply blood to this structure, and it develops under influence of the Sonic hedgehog gene on the basal plate. This structure is the lower of the two protected by three membranes called the meninges, and its top begins at the (*) medulla oblongata. This structure has 31 individual segments, and like the structure surrounding it, it has cervical and lumbar regions. This structure oversees the knee jerk reflex, and together with the brain, it makes up the central nervous system. For 10 points, name this collection of nerves running down the back of the body and enclosed by a similarly named vertebral column of bones.

magnetic field

The strength of this object for sunspots was calculated by George Hale using spectral Zeeman splitting. An induced example of this object can affect the polarization of light due to the Faraday effect. The magnitude of this quantity is proportional to the current over the square of the distance from the wire according to the Biot-Savart Law. (*) As it is mutually perpendicular to the velocity and the resulting acceleration of a charged particle, a common right-hand rule can be used to find--for 10 points-- what vector field measured in Teslas that is symbolized by a B?

Horses Tiebreaker

These animals have evolved from the small, multi-toed Eohippus to the modern-day single-toed variety. The New World stilt-legged species of these animals became extinct in North America. These animals crossbreed to form sterile offspring like the (*) hinny. The only truly wild subspecies of these animals left are Przewalski's version. Breeds of these animals are loosely defined as hot-blooded, cold-blooded, and warm-blooded. For 10 points, name these animals that belong to the genus Equus and whose males are called stallions.

antibody

These molecules are classified via the Chothia and Kabat numbering schemes. Both primary and secondary types of these molecules are used in a Western blot to probe for a protein of interest. In the ChIP procedure, these proteins precipitate DNA-binding proteins to study their effects in vivo, a process known as (*) immunoprecipitation. These proteins' two light chains and two heavy chains are connected by disulfide bonds, and in mammals, they are named with "Ig" and a letter. For 10 points, name these Y-shaped proteins that bind to antigens to trigger an immune response.

45 degrees

This angle is the critical angle above which total internal reflection occurs in a material whose refractive index equals the square root of 2. The worldline of an object moving at the speed of light makes this angle with respect to the y-axis on a Minkowski diagram. For a granular material with a coefficient of static friction of 1, this is the value of the angle of repose. A projectile launched at this angle from the horizontal will (*) maximize its range for a given initial speed. Doubling this angle gives the angle between a normal force and the friction force it produces. For 10 points, give this angle equal to pi over 4 radians, which is the measure of both acute angles in an isosceles right triangle.

Johannes Kepler

This man's namesake conjecture posits that hexagonal close packing is the most efficient sphere packing arrangement, and a telescope named for this man finds exoplanets in the habitable region of their stars. The conservation of (*) angular momentum can be used to derive one of his laws, and that law states that a line connecting a planet to the Sun sweeps out "equal areas in equal times". Using Tycho Brahe's data, he derived a law stating that the orbit of every planet is an ellipse with the Sun at a focus. For 10 points, name this German astronomer who names three laws of planetary motion.

clay

This material was decorated with cords of rope in a Chalcolithic culture of Northern Europe, as well as in Jomon-period Japan. This material is manipulated in "jiggering" and "jollying." This material is mixed with water to make a slip, which was often used to decorate it. This material was first used near the beginning of the Neolithic, a bit before the invention of (*) agriculture. Archaeologists study bits of this material called "sherds." To replace coiling, the wheel was first invented to manipulate this substance via "throwing." For 10 points, name this material that's often glazed before being fired in kilns.

Leonhard Euler

This mathematician is the first namesake of a constant that is defined as the limiting difference between the harmonic series and the natural logarithm; the second namesake of that constant is Lorenzo Mascheroni. The number of positive integers relatively prime to the input is given by this man's totient function, and he showed that (*) vertices minus edges plus faces equals two for convex polyhedra. This mathematician is considered to have founded graph theory with his solution to the Seven Bridges of Konigsberg problem. For 10 points, identify this Swiss Mathematician, also notable for his namesake constant, e.

The Traveling Salesman Problem

This problem was first mathematically formulated by W.R. Hamilton and Thomas Kirkman. This problem became popular in Europe and the USA when the RAND Corporation offered prizes for steps in solving the problem. Three RAND Corporation employees expressed this (*) NP-hard problem as an integer linear program and developed the cutting plane method in order to solve it. For 10 points, name this mathematical problem which challenges people to find a path that connects multiple points in the shortest distance without returning to any of the points.

DNA Replication

This process begins in the ori-C region in bacteria. Separation of catenanes is facilitated by an enzyme that also reduces torsional stress during this process. That enzyme is called topoisomerase. An experiment that used a heavy isotope of nitrogen to show that this process is semiconservative is named for (*) Meselson and Stahl. Okazaki fragments form on the lagging strand during this process because of DNA polymerase's inability to work in the three prime to five prime direction. For 10 points, name this process that occurs in the S phase of the cell cycle and duplicates a cell's genome.

James Clerk Maxwell

This scientist corrected an instability in the van der Waals isotherm by proposing a namesake equal-area correction. He is the alphabetically later namesake of a distribution to which particles converge according to the H-theorem. Richard Feynman proposed a "Brownian ratchet" to implement one of this scientist's thought experiments, which involves an observer who can (*) separate particles by speed. This man co-names the equilibrium distribution of an ideal gas's speed with Ludwig Boltzmann. For 10 points, name this Scottish scientist who proposed a hypothetical "demon" that violates the Second Law of Thermodynamics.

New Horizons

This space probe tested its Ralph telescope during its flyby of 132524 APL, and it captured the first close-up images of Jupiter's Little Red Spot. This space probe identified geographic features nicknamed the "Brass Knuckles" and the "Heart," the latter of which is officially known as (*) Tombaugh Regio. After accomplishing its primary objective, this space probe's mission was extended to include a flyby of the KBO 2014 MU69. This space probe captured low-resolution images of Kerberos and Styx, and mapped the surface of Charon. For 10 points, name this NASA space probe that flew past the dwarf planet Pluto in July 2015.

stomach acid (or gastric acid; or gastric juice; ask for less specific on hydrochloric acid)

This substance is produced in response to vagus nerve stimulation, a process that involves entero-chromaffin-like cells, G cells, and D cells. The products of foveolar cells and the enzyme urease confer protection from this substance, and this substance activates some zymogens. PPIs inhibit the (*) secretion of this substance, and the overproduction of this substance exacerbates gastro-esophageal reflux disease and peptic ulcer disease. This fluid is neutralized by the alkaline nature of pancreatic juice, and it is mainly composed of hydrochloric acid. For 10 points, name this digestive fluid in a namesake digestive organ.

distillation

This technique is impossible at the Bancroft point of a system. This technique may use either a "pressure swing" or an entrainer, and it is often combined with reflux to increase its efficiency. Many zones of equilibrium known as "theoretical plates" are needed to overcome a small difference in volatility, in this technique's (*) "fractional" type. This procedure fails on a mixture of methanol, acetone, and chloroform, since those three compounds form a "saddle" azeotrope. This technique requires a heat source and a condenser. For 10 points, name this lab technique that separates two substances by boiling one of them off, often used to desalinate water.

funnel

Tullgren names a variety of these objects used to catch arthropods present in soil samples. One type of this object commonly used in liquid liquid extractions has a stopcock at its base to decant immiscible fluids, that is its "separatory" type. Vacuum filtration relies on one type of these objects lined with filter paper placed in the neck of a thick walled Erlenmeyer flask, that type is named for (*) Buchner. A weather phenomenon spawned from supercells forms when a cloud named after these objects touches the ground. For 10 points, name these pieces of laboratory equipment that share their name with a kitchen utensil used for pouring liquids through small openings.

Glacier

Types of these structures include "cirque" and "tidewater," the latter of which are a type that terminate into the sea. On Mars, deposits from these structures can be found at many Martian volcanoes. These structures grow at accumulation zones (*) and shrink in ablation zones through a process known as calving. The specific term for the sedimentation left behind by these structures is "moraine," and "terminal moraines" mark the maximum advance of these entities. For 10 points, name these dense bodies of moving ice.

rewards

Warning: specific term required. This kind of stimulus is often produced via the stimulation of medium spiny neurons in the nucleus accumbens. These stimuli were produced via electrical stimulation in rats by Peter Milner and James Olds. These stimuli are mediated by a substance that also allows action selection in the (*) basal ganglia. The substance that mediates this kind of stimulus also regulates motor control and is produced in the substantia nigra. The compulsive seeking of this kind of stimulus is the basis of addiction. This kind of stimulus prompts the release of dopamine. For 10 points, name this kind of stimulus, which is your brain telling you to feel good because it likes something.

kinetic energy

William Bertozzi found that an electron's value for this quantity after striking aluminum agreed closely with those predicted by special relativity. An object's value for this quantity is equal to linear momentum squared divided by twice the object's mass, and the rotational form of this quantity is proportional to the square of angular (*) velocity. This quantity is conserved in elastic collisions, and escape velocity can be found by setting this quantity equal to the negative of potential energy. For ten points, name this quantity equal to one half mass times velocity squared, the energy of motion, symbolized K.

cube

2. A problem involving this shape's difficulty arises from the fact that the Delian constant is not Euclidean. Like its dual, for whom its symmetries are named, this shape has 24 rotational symmetries. A regular hexagon can be formed by cutting this figure with a plane that intersects some of its edges at their midpoints. The (*) tesseract is a higher-dimensional analogue of this shape. This dual of the octahedron also has twelve edges, but it has eight vertices and six faces. One of the problems of antiquity was to double this figure. For 10 points, identify this three-dimensional analogue of the square.

Reduction

Acyl chlorides turn into aldehydes in this type of reaction. That reaction uses a catalyst similar to one named for Lindlar and is known as the Rosenmund type of this reaction. One reaction of this type takes place in ammonia and occurs with sodium and an alcohol. Benzene is turned into 1,4 cyclohexane in this type of reaction named for (*) Birch. Hydrogenation is a specific type of this reaction. For 10 points, name this type of reaction in which a species gains electrons, the opposite of oxidation.

parasites

Artemisinin and praziquantel treat conditions caused by these types of organisms. The mafia hypothesis describes the behavior of one type of them, and abdominal swelling accompanies schistosomiasis, a disease caused by one of them. Trypanosomiasis, or sleeping sickness, is caused by a (*) protozoan example of these organisms. Their "brood" type manipulates other organisms into raising their young. The Plasmodium genus of these organisms can cause malaria, and their examples include flukes and tapeworms. For 10 points, name this type of organism that benefits at the expense of a host.

lipids

Beta-hexosaminidase A ["Bay-ta hex-o-sam-in-i-daze A"] catalyzes the breakdown of one type of these molecules. Other types of these molecules, the sphingo- type, include phosphocholine ["phos-pho-ko-line"] and sphingomyelin ["sphin-go-my-uh-lin"]. In Tay-Sachs disease, examples of these molecules called gangliosides build up to a toxic level. One type of these macromolecules has a hydrophobic(*) head and hydrophilic tail and can assemble into bilayers; those are the phospho- variety. This group of molecules also includes cholesterol and triglycerides. For 10 points, name these macromolecules that can also be called fats.

boron

Bonds between this element and hydrogen are counted when calculating the Styx number. Ten atoms of this element and fourteen atoms of hydrogen form a white crystalline compound that notably smells like chocolate. That cluster is classified as nido, according to a set of electron-counting rules devised by Kenneth(*) Wade. This element, which is mined from the ores colemanite and ulexite ["yoo-lex-ite"], forms a trifluoride that is a strong Lewis acid but planar. This first element of the p block violates the octet rule by having only six valence electrons. For 10 points, name this metalloid with atomic symbol B.

Golgi Body

Brefeldin A disrupts the function of this organelle, and Rab G-Protein GTPases may define its stable compartments. Mannose-6 phosphate is added by this organelle, and it is commonly found in plasma B cells. If the microtubular structure of the cell is destabilized, the components of this organelle will be scattered throughout the cytoplasm. Those components are (*) flattened membrane stacks called cisternae, and they make up the cis network, while the trans network of this organelle is responsible for packaging proteins into vesicles. For ten points, identify this organelle that receives and modifies proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum, named after the Italian scientist who discovered it.

Porifera

Entotheonella are a species of bacteria that remove arsenic from this phylum. Cladorhizidae ("cla-duh-REE-za-day") is a carnivorous family of this phylum. Some members of this phylum use gemmules and stolons to reproduce. Pinacocytes line the outer layer of organisms in this phylum while choanocytes ("co-WA-nuh-sites") line the interior. All members of this phylum have no (*) body symmetry and are sessile. Members of this phylum are the most primitive members of the kingdom Animalia and are all invertebrates. For 10 points, name this phylum of animals that are commonly referred to as sponges.

black hole

Fuzzballs are descriptions of these things in string theory. Kruskal-Szekeres coordinates use hyperbolic asymptotes to model the geometry of these entities in four quadrants. The membrane paradigm is a method used to calculate the quantum mechanical effects on the exterior of these entities. These objects "evaporate" due to emission of (*) Hawking radiation. If these objects are rotating, they possess an ergosphere and can be modeled using the Kerr metric. Sagittarius A* is thought to be the location of one of these objects at the center of the Milky Way, and the Schwarzschild radius measures the size of these entities' event horizons. Singularities are thought to exist at the center of these things. For ten points, name these astronomical objects that do not allow anything, including light, to escape them.

red giants

Gamma Crucis is the closest one of these objects to the Sun, and less massive examples of them move from the horizontal branch to their namesake asymptotic branch after core helium is exhausted. After a helium flash in these stars, three helium nuclei are fused into a carbon nucleus via the (*) triple-alpha process. When these stars, which populate spectral class K or M, are created, the first dredge-up occurs. As these stars form when a main-sequence star exhausts its core hydrogen, the sun will evolve into one in 5 billion years. For 10 points, name these large stars that have a low-wavelength color and are smaller than their "super" variety.

transposons

Gerald Rubin and Allan Spradling used synthetic types of these entities to insert genes into Drosophila embryo. The most common type of these entities found in humans is called the Alu sequence, which is estimated to form over 15% of the genome. The first one of these to be discovered was the Ac-Ds ("a c d s") system, which are (*) class II of these entities. In bacteria, they can move between chromosomal and plasmid DNA and often contain an additional gene. The first synthetic ones of these for mammalian cells is called "Sleeping Beauty" and they were discovered during studies of maize. For 10 points, name these DNA sequences, called "jumping genes," that can change their position within a genome.

Doppler Effect

Inducing this effect via a persistent current in BEC's allows the measurement of the background flow velocity of phonon modes. Walter Kundig used the Mossbauer effect with an ultracentrifuge rotor to verify the transverse form of this quantity that formed the basis of the Ives-Stilwell experiment.(*) Echocardiograms use this phenomenon to measure the speed of blood flow, and Hubble used this phenomenon to prove the expansion of the universe. For 10 points, name this effect in which the pitch of a sound drops as the source moves away from the observer.

soil (accept dirt, accept earth)

Kastanozem and chernozem are types of this substance. Edaphology is the study of this material with regard to living things. This material's color is specified using the Munsell system, and its parent material is classified as residuum, colluvium, or (*) alluvium. The formation of these materials is called pedogenesis, and their namesake "profile" is divided into O, A, B, and R horizons. Humus and clay are stabilizing factors in this material, which is replaced with nutrient solutions in hydroponics. For 10 points, name this material that may include silt and sand in which plants grow.

Java (do not accept "Javascript" or "JS")

On certain systems, programs in this language are translated into Dalvik byte code. Graal is a project that aims to make this language perform more like native languages. This language makes use of an automatic garbage collector in order to conserve memory. Unlike languages that came before it, this language does not require different software for (*) different systems, because this language's namesake virtual machine executes all bytecode produced by compiling programs in this language. For 10 points, name this platform-independent, class-based programming language developed originally at Sun Microsystems, whose logo is a coffee cup.

maize

One theory believes that this organism was first created using Tripsacum. The MFAC hypothesis is being questioned due to the possible use of this organism in towns such as Aspero and Caral. Discovering its "controlling elements," Barbara (*) McClintock's main research was on this organism. Erosion from the planting of this crop hastened the fall of Cahokia. This staple food grows using C4 carbon fixation and is in the polyculture known as the Three Sisters. Domesticated from teosinte ("tee-uh-sint"), for 10 points, name this main staple food of the Pre-Columbian Americas, which grows in cobs.

meiosis (do not accept or prompt on "mitosis")

PRDM9 is a histone methyltransferase specific to this phenomenon, and SC proteins are essential to the formation of the synaptonemal complex during it. Its first step includes leptotene and pachytene stages, and is ended by diakinesis. (*) Turner's syndrome occurs from an anomaly in this process, and a similar "nondisjunction" event causes the XXY genotype. This process produces three polar bodies and a mature ovum in females. The first phase of this process results in a two n to n chromosomal reduction, and the second phase of this germ cell process results in four daughter cells. For 10 points, name this process of cell division usually contrasted with mitosis.

cerebellum

Patients with damage to this structure exhibit "intention tremor." It is very sensitive to alcohol, and tests for damage to it are similar to drunk driving tests. Input to this part of the metencephalon comes from the Inferior Olive via climbing fibers. This region has a regular structure consisting of parallel fibers, tiny granule cells, and gigantic Purkinje cells, which may have a general (*) "error correction" function. Although it only takes up 10% of the volume, it contains about 80% of the brain's neurons. It sits behind the pons and under the occipital lobe. For 10 points, name this region of the brain important for coordination and motor control, which looks like another little brain behind the cerebrum.

cancer

Rituximab may be used to treat one variety of this condition by binding to the CD20 receptor, and the Sticker's variety is transmissible in dogs. The Gardasil vaccine may decrease the risk of getting another variety, and genes that suppress this condition follow the two-hit hypothesis. Examples of these genes are pRb and p53, while other genes such as Ras can be (*) mutated to cause this condition. Cells of this type don't experience anchorage or density dependence, and can therefore form tumors. For ten points, name this condition in which cells reproduce too quickly and spread throughout the body by metastasis, which is typically treated by radiation and chemotherapy.

angular momentum

Rotational invariance is the associated symmetry of this quantity by Noether's theorem. The quantum operator for this quantity equals negative i h-bar times the cross product of radius and the gradient. Torque is equal to the time derivative of this quantity which is equal to the (*) cross product of radius with a similarly named quantity. The conservation of this quantity is often demonstrated through a figure skater pulling in her arms. For 10 points, name this quantity equal to moment of inertia times angular velocity, often symbolized L.

lactose intolerance (accept word forms; prompt on descriptions like dairy allergy and synonyms)

SNPs ["snips"] found in the introns of the MCM6 gene are linked to this condition, which is diagnosed by the hydrogen breath test and stool acidity test. A reversible, "secondary" form of this condition may develop as a result of Crohn's disease or celiac disease. The emergence of individuals without this genetic condition is linked to the invention of (*) animal husbandry and domestication. People with this condition take beta-galactos-idase supplements, and it's caused by the absence of a similarly named enzyme. For 10 points, name this trait that might cause you to drink plant-based substitutes like soy milk, so as to avoid dairy products.

ocean waves (also accept water waves)

Solitons are among the solutions for the Korteweg-de Vries equation, which models these entities. The Iribarren number describes these things, which can move in groups called swells as a result of weather systems. Guyots are created from seamounts by (*) erosion from these entities, and their extremely large rogue type is formed from their collisions. In shoaling, these things' height increases before they break on the shore. For ten points, name these wind-driven oscillations that transfer energy and move in a transverse direction, occurring on the surface of the ocean.

functions (accept methods; be lenient and prompt on program and synonyms throughout since at lower level languages they're sort of the same thing)

Some of the "strategies" for evaluating these entities can include "CBN" or "CBV," and if they are termed "pure" then they must lack "side-effects." Alonzo Church defined his lambda calculus using nested examples of these entities, and they lend their name to a (*) paradigm of programming exemplified by Lisp and OCaml and contrasted with iterative programming. In Java, your primary program is declared using the "public static void main" example of these entities. These entities can be recursive, and they often return a value. For 10 points, name these procedures you can define in one place and call and run from another.

heart

Symptoms of Keshan disease include weakness of muscle in this organ, making it abnormally large. Damage to this organ can be specifically detected by rising levels of troponin I and troponin T. This organ's foramen ovale closes immediately after birth, as it is among two fetal shunts that bypass the(*) lungs to bring blood here. In this organ, branches of the bundle of His transfer action potentials to control the rate of contraction. This organ's muscle is damaged when blood flow is blocked in a myocardial infarction. For 10 points, name this organ, whose left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood to the rest of the body.

mercury (accept Hg before mention)

The Castner-Kellner Process produces a mixture with this substance and sodium while producing chlorine. In the patio process, this element is used to extract silver from ore. The most common source ore for refining this substance is the red sulfide mineral cinnabar. The chloride of this element is a common component of reference electrodes, known as (*) calomel. This element cannot form a monocation with a charge of 1+, and its alloys are known as amalgams. This transition metal's sulfide is cinnabar it is commonly used in thermometers. For ten points, identify this element, a liquid at room temperature, with symbol Hg.

boron

The beta-rhombohedral allotrope of this element has a unit cell of 105 to 108 atoms of this element. Compounds containing this element and hydrogen can be called "hypho" and "arachno", and are described by Wade's rules. This element's (*) nitride forms ceramics and nanotubes, and its hydride is a strong reducing agent. This element is frequently found in banana bonds and the minerals sassolite and borax. Its silicate is used in Pyrex glassware, and this element can violate the octet rule with a valence shell of six electrons. For 10 points, name this element with atomic number 5 and symbol B.

circadian rhythms

The discovery of peroxiredoxins in erythrocytes demonstrated that these processes can be controlled by redox states. Hardin et al. proposed the transcription translation negative feedback loop model to explain these processes, which can also be monitored with salivary cortisol levels. In mammals, the (*) suprachiasmatic nucleus controls these processes. Hall, Rosbash, and Young's study of the molecular mechanism of these processes won them the 2017 Nobel Prize in Medicine, and rapid travel across multiple time zones can disrupt these processes, leading to jet lag. For 10 points, name these biological processes that tend to occur in 24-hour periods.

colloids

When the concentration of surfactant is greater than the CMC, and the Krafft temperature is exceeded, Micelles can form within these substances. These substances are stabilized by peptization and the electric potential at the double layer interfaces is defined as the zeta potential. Clumps of particles are formed during (*) flocculation in this class of substances, which reflect blue light by the Tyndall effect. Aerosols, gels, and emulsions are all subtypes of, for ten points, what substances in which particles are dispersed intermediately between suspensions and solutions, exemplified by milk?

basalt

When vertical fractures occur in the columnar jointed form of this rock, several hexagonal shapes form. When this rock is low in sodium and calcium, and high in silica and iron, it is classified as tholeittic. Major minerals that make up this rock include pyroxene, plagioclase, and olivine, making it a mafic rock. An intrusive, chemical equivalent to this rock known as (*) Gabbro is created when it forms beneath the earth's surface and becomes holocrystalline. This rock is formed by the rapid cooling of lava, and belongs to the same class as granite. For ten points name this igneous rock that makes up most of the oceanic crust.

kidneys

Wire-loop lesions in this organ can appear in the focal and diffuse stage of an autoimmune disease. This organ's medullary pyramids are separated by Bertin columns. Those pyramids empty into a minor calyx, which eventually exits through this organ's hilum. Function of this organ can be measured by injecting inulin to determine the GFR. (*) ADH or vasopressin acts on the distal convoluted tubule of this organ, which controls the amount of water reabsorption. It takes fluid through the Bowman's capsule and loop of Henle in its nephrons. For 10 points, identify this bean-shaped organ which filters blood to produce urine.

k

19. A quantity represented by this letter equals two pi over the wavelength and is termed the wavenumber. This letter represents a constant equal to one over four pi times the permittivity of free space, which appears in Coulomb's Law. This letter also represents a constant multiplied by the displacement to give the (*) spring force according to Hooke's law. A unit with this abbreviation has a value of 273.16 at the triple point of water and zero at absolute zero. For 10 points, name this letter that constitutes the abbreviation for the SI unit for temperature.

Pauli exclusion principle

Because particles like helium-4 do not obey this statement, a large proportion of such particles are able to fall into the ground state at low temperatures. Formally, this statement says the wave functions of fermions are anti-symmetric with respect to exchange, and it explains the (*) electron degeneracy pressure that supports white dwarfs. This statement says two fermions cannot have the same four quantum numbers, which practically means that two electrons in the same energy level and orbital must have opposite spin. For 10 points, give this quantum mechanics "exclusion principle" named for an Austrian physicist.

endothermy (accept homeotherm, accept warm-blooded)

A process associated with this trait is found in plants such as Eastern skunk cabbage and Voodoo lily. That process occurs in brown adipose tissue and dissipates the energy generated by the proton motive force. A few large reptiles display this trait, which was most famously documented in a female Burmese python. (*) Countercurrent exchange is a hallmark of this trait. Organisms that display this trait are the only ones that can generate a fever, and this trait allows animals to thrive in polar climates. For ten points, name this trait exhibited in mammals and birds that allows them to regulate their internal body temperature.

chloroplasts

A process that occurs in this organelle can be modelled with the "Z-scheme." In some organisms, this organelle produces PEP instead of 3-phosphoglycerate, and it can make CO2 from malate in bundle sheath cells. This organelle is the site of the non-standard processes "C3," "CAM," and "C4." This organelle contains molecules like P700, P680, and carotenoids. Like the mitochondrion, this (*) double-membraned organelle has its own DNA and was probably originally a prokaryote that got engulfed. This organelle consists of the fluid stroma, which surrounds the grana, which are stacks of thylakoids. For 10 points, name these plant organelles that contain chlorophyll, the site of photosynthesis.

photography (or photographs; accept film since the techniques are similar)

A technique currently popular in this type of art is the Brenizer method, which helps extend the range of equipment like one nicknamed the "nifty fifty." Miniature-looking works in this genre can be created using special "tilt-shift" devices. The technique of (*) "crushing the blacks" helps impart a vintage style to this artform and is heavily used in products sold by companies like VSCO ["visco"]. This artform possesses a "Rule of Thirds," and it's complemented by programs like Adobe Lightroom. ISO, aperture, and shutter speed make up its "exposure triangle." For 10 points, name this field of visual art created with a lens and a camera.

NAD (or nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide; accept NAD+ and NADH; do not accept or prompt on "NADP", "NADP+", or "NADPH")

Cholera toxin transfers part of this molecule to Gs alpha, and CD38 catalyzes the transformation of this molecule into cyclic ADP ribose. The phosphorylated form of this molecule is generated by the pentose phosphate pathway in animals and by photosystem I in plants, and the concentration of this molecule's (*) reduced form can be determined by measuring absorbance at 340 nanometers. Two of these molecules are reduced per glucose entering glycolysis, and three of them are reduced per acetyl-CoA entering the citric acid cycle. For 10 points, name this dinucleotide coenzyme and electron carrier that is usually mentioned along with FAD [pronounce each letter separately].

chirality

Asymmetric catalysis is used to favor reaction products with a specific type of this property over another. Molecules with this relationship can be differentiated in a process known as kinetic resolution. This property was first discovered by Louis Pasteur with his experiments on tartaric acid when he saw differences in the(*) rotation of plane-polarized light. Compounds with this property can be called R or S, and L- and D- glucose share this relationship. For 10 points, name this property that denotes molecules that are non-superimposable mirror images of each other.

volume (accept molar volume until "the log of this state function"; prompt on V)

Internal energy is minimized when this quantity and entropy are both kept constant, and work done by an ideal gas in an isothermal process is proportional to the difference in the log of this state function. This quantity is "corrected" by minus a constant b times the "number of (*) moles" in the van der Waals equation. Avogadro discovered gases with an equal value of this quantity have an equal number of particles, and this quantity is proportional to temperature by Charles's Law. Boyle's law says this quantity is inversely proportional to pressure. For 10 points, name this quantity measured for example by cubic meters.

cell counting (accept just "counting them after "number of cells" is read; accept obvious synonyms as long as cell is mentioned; accept specific types of cells, including bacteria counting)

Description acceptable. Coulter's variant of this technique relies on his namesake principle that particles produce a change in impedance proportional to their volume. Modern forms of this technique might combine flow cytometry or image analysis with (*) fluorescent markers. Staining with Trypan blue is often used for this technique with hemo-cyto-meters, which are glass slides with namesake rectangular "chambers" used to perform it. A simple way to perform this type of action evenly distributes entities in a petri dish and proportionally multiplies the number in one section. For 10 points, describe this action that literally just quantifies the number of cells.

diffraction

Due to this phenomenon, wavelength over diameter times one point two two equals angular resolution, by Rayleigh's Criterion. This effect can be modelled by considering each point on a wavefront as a source of a spherical wave, by Huygens' principle. This phenomenon creates the Airy Disk and Newton's (*) Rings. When this effect occurs with X-rays in crystals, it's modelled by Bragg's law. It occurs whenever light passes an obstacle, as a result of interference. For 10 points, name this optical phenomenon that can be produced by a double slit, like Thomas Young did, or by its namesake kind of "grating."

catalysts

During a portion of glycolysis, PFK acts as both a reactant and one of these substances. Within these substances, the relationship between the rate of diffusion and reaction is given by the Thiele Modulus. The effectiveness of these substances can be reduced by certain Lewis bases in a process called (*) poisoning. A heterogeneous substance of this type has a different phase from the other molecules in the reaction. In biology, these substances are called enzymes. For ten points, name this type of substance that lowers the activation energy of a reaction without participating in it.

cosine

For a droplet on a flat surface in equilibrium, the Young-Laplace equation multiplies the liquid-vapor surface tension by this function of the contact angle. The power factor for an AC circuit can be calculated as this function of the phase angle. For small angles, this function of the angle can be approximated as (*) one. The law named for this function reduces to the Pythagorean theorem for right triangles, and the magnitude of the normal force on an inclined plane is proportional to this function of slope angle. For 10 points, name this trigonometric function commonly defined as adjacent over hypotenuse and contrasted with sine.

three

Apéry's theorem states that the Riemann zeta function at this input is irrational, and Euclid's postulate of this number describes a circle with any center and radius. Central points in a shape with this many sides define the Euler line, and this integer is the first Mersenne prime. (*) Heron's formula is used to calculate the area of a shape with this many sides. This is the number of faces that meet at one vertex of a cube, and this many non-collinear points define a plane. For 10 points, name this integer which is the degree of a cubic function and the number of sides in a triangle.

eight

For the recursive function [read slowly] "f of x equals f of (x minus one) plus f of (x minus two)," with bases cases "f of zero equals one" and "f of one equals one," this is the number of additional times that the function will be called when computing f of four. The n-queens problem is usually stated with n as this value. In the standard RGB color system, this number of (*) bits is used to store each individual color value. In binary, this many consecutive ones are used to write the hexadecimal number FF and the decimal number 255. It's the number of bits in a byte. For 10 points, name this number expressed 1000 ["one zero zero zero"] in binary, the base of the octal numeral system.

Six

Having this many people in a room guarantees that three of them either know or don't know each other; that is known as Ramsey of three comma three. The smallest finite non-abelian group has this many elements, and this is the larger number in the first Ruth-Aaron Pair. This number appears in the denominator when one over n squared is summed from one to infinity. (*) This number divides pi squared in the Basel problem, and this is the smallest perfect number. A regular polygon can have at most this many sides and still tessellate a plane. For 10 points, identify this number of sides of a hexagon.

colors

Homage to the Square artist Josef Albers wrote a seminal treatise about these features named for their "Interaction." A unique one of these features defines each narrative section of Zhang Yimou's film Hero. An "International" one of them was designed by Yves ["eeves"] Klein, and they're described by terms like "gules" and "sable" when used in heraldry. A school which sought to keep these things (*) discrete instead of mixing them was called Divisionism and heavily overlapped with Pointillism. For 10 points, name these fundamental elements of art, which may have a saturation or hue and be either "warm" or "cool."

carbon dioxide (accept CO2; accept dry ice until mentioned)

Reactions with organolithium reagents are generally conducted in a bath of this compound and acetone, and one form of this molecule is a good lipophilic solvent often used in a certain "drying" reaction. The Keeling curve plots the concentration of this molecule, and when dissolved in water, this gas forms the (*) weak acid that's the major cause of ocean acidification. The increase of this gas in the blood decreases the ability of hemoglobin to bind oxygen, and the solid form of this gas sublimes at room temperature. For 10 points, name this gas that's called dry ice in its solid form.

copper (prompt on Cu)

Salts containing the +1 ion of this element and a halide or cyanide counterion are reacted with aryl diazonium salts in the Sandmeyer reaction. The largest class of high-temperature superconductors are oxides of this element, and contain it in its +2 and +3 oxidation states. This element has a full (*) 3-d orbital but a half-filled 4-s orbital, and its sulfate salt imparts a deep blue color. With zinc, this element makes up the Daniell cell, the most common example of galvanic cells. This metal alloys with tin and zinc to make bronze and brass, respectively. For 10 points, name this element often used to make wire.

arthritis (accept specific types like gout)

Some forms of this condition are treated with etanercept, a biologic containing soluble TNF receptor 2. Bouchard's nodes and Heberden's nodes are found in patients with one form of this condition, and ankylosing spondylitis is one form of this condition that primarily affects the spine. This condition is associated with inflammation of the (*) synovium and loss of articular cartilage. Uric acid crystallization causes one form of this condition known as gout, and this condition's rheumatoid type is an autoimmune disease. For 10 points, name this group of conditions characterized by joint pain and stiffness.

Platyhelminthes (accept flatworms before read)

Some members of this phylum are unable to synthesize fatty acids and absorb them through microtriches on their teguments. Many hermaphroditic species in this phylum undergo a type of "fencing" to decide the mother and father during mating. The Turbellaria class in this phylum includes the (*) non-parasitic planarians, and they lack a central body cavity. These organisms are usually contrasted with other bilateral invertebrates like annelids and nematodes, and the usually parasitic organisms in this phylum include flukes and tapeworms. For 10 points, name this animal phylum also known as the flatworms.

carrying capacity

This value is found in the denominator of the competitive Lotka-Volterra equations and in the differential form of an 1838 equation published by Pierre Verhulst. Organisms that place greater energy investment in progeny and produce (*) fewer offspring often employ a strategy that reaches this value. This term is asymptotically reached by a sigmoid growth model, at which point the rate of population growth tends to zero. For 10 points, name this value, often denoted "k," that represents the maximum population an environment can indefinitely support.

Distance

Though not dimension, Hausdorff names a version of this quantity that takes two subsets as its inputs. Dynamic programming can be used to implement a version of this quantity that is named for Levenshtein. The Manhattan or (*) taxicab version of this quantity is defined using absolute values and for rational inputs, can only take on rational values. Pythagoras created a theorem which defines the Euclidean version of this concept. For 10 points, name this quantity that has a namesake formula written as the square root of x1 minus x2 squared plus y1 minus y2 squared and is defined as how far apart two points are in space.

nuclear fusion

Two researchers incorrectly claimed in 2002 that this process could occur in the conditions of imploded cavitations in liquid acetone. Mark Oliphant was the first to demonstrate this phenomenon in a lab. One method to achieve this process involves heating and compressing a pellet of (*) deuterium and tritium. The CNO cycle and the proton-proton chain are examples of this process that occur in stars, where its heaviest possible product is iron. This process's "cold" type would occur at room temperature. For 10 points, name this nuclear reaction in which atoms of lighter elements collide to form heavier elements.

pentagon

5. A cyclic one of these shapes with rational side lengths and rational area is named for Robbins. The exponents of the series expansion of the Euler function are a sequence of numbers named for this shape. Carlyle circles can be used to construct a regular one of these shapes because the number of sides is the second Fermat prime. These shapes are the faces of a Platonic solid with (*) twelve faces called the dodecahedron. A regular one of these shapes has exterior angles measuring 72 degrees, and the sum of the interior angles of one of these shapes is 540 degrees. For 10 points, name this polygon with five sides.

mustard gas

. Exposure to this compound can be indicated by the presence of glutathione and 1,1' -sulfonylbismethyl thioethane ("sul-foe-nill-bis-meth-ull-thigh-oh-eth-ane") or SBMTE in urine. Thiodiglycol can be used to produce this substance. Wilhelm Steinkopf notably developed production methods for this substance in (*) 1916 on behalf of his country's army. This non-sarin weapon is believed to have been used in the 1988 Halabja attacks by forces loyal to Saddam Hussein. Symptoms of exposure to this weapon include changes in skin color and, more notably, massive blisters on the lungs and skin. For 10 points, name this gaseous biological weapon that shares its common name with a condiment that is not ketchup.

Pierre de Fermat

1. This man developed the method of adequality to find the maxima and minima of functions. With Torricelli, this man names a triangle center that minimizes the sum of the distances from the center to the vertices. A theorem by this man states that if p is prime, "a" to the "p" minus "a" is a multiple of "p". Another of this man's theorems is implied by the modularity theorem for elliptic curves and was proven by (*) Andrew Wiles. For 10 points, name this French mathematician who stated that "a to the n" plus "b to the n" could not equal "c to the n" for n greater than two, in his namesake "last theorem".

dissolution

20. The enthalpies of the last two steps in this process are summed to get the enthalpy of hydration. This process can be thought of as consisting of two endothermic steps that require the breaking of ionic and intermolecular interactions, and one exothermic step in which new interactions form. The equilibrium constant for this process is termed Ksp ["K-sub-SP"], which is notably very low for silver chloride, and results in its (*) precipitation out of water. When this process can no longer occur, a mixture is said to be saturated. For 10 points, name this process in which solutes like table salt break up into their constituent ions in a solvent like water.

Earth

3. This astronomical body contains zircon deposits that show evidence of the late heavy bombardment. The THEMIS mission studied this body's magnetosphere. This body experienced a Huronian glaciation that may have been caused by the Great Oxygenation Event. A collision with (*) Theia may have resulted in the creation of this planet's only satellite. This planet has an axial tilt of roughly 23.5 degrees, which is the reason why it has its four seasons. For 10 points, name this subject of the Pale Blue Dot photograph, which is the third planet from the sun.

luminosity

5. The bolometric magnitude equals minus five halves times the logarithm of the ratio of two of these quantities. This quantity is roughly proportional to the fourth power of galactic velocity dispersion according to the Faber-Jackson relationship. Arthur Eddington names a limit on this quantity for an object in hydrostatic equilibrium. Henrietta Leavitt discovered a relationship between this quantity and (*) period in Cepheid variables. This quantity can be measured by either the absolute or relative magnitude. For 10 points, name this quantity plotted against temperature in a Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, measures an object's brightness.

supernova

A "stripped" kind of this phenomenon occurs in objects that have lost most of their mass and are named for Wolf and Rayet. Most of these phenomena happen in AGB objects. One type of these phenomena begins with a carbon detonation. One of these phenomena was observed in China in (*) 1054 and created M1. When the Chandrasekhar limit is reached by a white dwarf accreting matter from a nearby star, the Type Ia kind of these events occurs. Most heavy metals are synthesized in them. For 10 points, name these explosions that occur at the end of some stars' lives.

-50 imaginary points to anyone who mentions the word "fifty" after this tossup is over)

A 2009 experiment showed success using AAV vectors in gene therapy to treat this condition in squirrel monkeys. Subtypes of this condition differ in which of certain "L-, M-, or S-" cells they affect, and deuteranopia and protanopia are subtypes of this condition. The (*) Ishihara test for this condition uses numbers in a plate of differently sized dots. Approximately eight percent of males suffer from a hereditary, X-linked subtype of this condition termed "red-green," and the "total" subtype removes the ability to distinguish any pigments. For 10 points, name this condition that might cause an individual to only see shades of gray.

logic

A book about this general field of philosophy presents three "figures" based on the ordering of the components of "major" and "minor" elements. Some statements in this field are represented by mnemonics like "Barbara." A series of six works on this subject begins with a text about substance, quantity, relation, and the other seven Categories. This field is the subject of the Prior (*) Analytics and other works in Aristotle's Organon. This field uses rules like modus ponens and the law of the excluded middle, and often proceeds via syllogistic deduction. For 10 points, name this field of philosophy that evaluates the validity of arguments like "If A, then B."

potassium (accept K+; prompt if both sodium and potassium are given, as in sodium/potassium pump)

A class of antidiabetic drugs called sulfonyl-ureas block a protein responsible for transporting this ion out of islet cells. In Drosophila, the Shaker gene is a channel for this ion, and the serum concentration of this ion is notably only 3.5 to 5.0 millimolar, and is elevated in (*) hyperkalemia. The movement of this ion to the outside of the neuron is the cause of hyperpolarization. The bulk of this ion is found in the intracellular space, and through the use of active transport and a namesake ATP-dependent "pump," two of these ions are exchanged for every three sodium ions. For 10 points, name this positive ion of an element commonly found in bananas.

Matrix

A common one of these objects in ecology can find the number of females in a species' population after n years and is named after Leslie. Mueller calculus uses these objects to manipulate Stokes vectors in order to describe the polarization of light. Multiplication is not commutative in these(*) objects. These objects can be put into reduced row echelon form through Gaussian elimination. The identity version of these objects has ones along the main diagonal and zero everywhere else. For 10 points, name these rectangular arrays of numbers for which a determinant can be calculated.

nickel

A finely divided form of this element is used as a catalyst in the hydrogenation of ethene. In the Oxford process, coal and sodium sulfate are used in this element's refinement. The primary ore of this metal is pentlandite and the radioactive decay of this metal (*) to cobalt-56 forms the characteristic light curves of type Ia ("one a") supernovae. In the Davisson-Germer experiment, electrons were fired at a crystal of this element, which is purified through the Mond process. For 10 points, name this transition metal with atomic number 28 and symbol Ni.

rational

A function named after Dirichlet is equal to 0 when its input is not in this set. Gauss' Lemma says that if a polynomial with integer coefficients is irreducible over the integers, then it is also irreducible over this field. Another theorem says that all of the roots of a polynomial which are in this set can be found by using its leading and constant coefficients. After proving that a number was not in this set, Hippasus was supposedly drowned. Lambert proved that (*) pi was not in this set, which all terminating or repeating decimals belong to, but numbers like e or the square root of 2 do not. For ten points, name this set, represented by the letter Q, whose elements can be represented as a fraction p over q, for integers p and q.

double bond

A functional group containing this entity acts as a nucleophile in a reaction with a peroxyacid to form an epoxide in the Prilezhaev reaction. E-Z notation is the IUPAC method of describing the absolute stereochemistry of these structures and is an extension of the cis-trans (*) method. Carbonyls have one of these structures between the carbon and oxygen atoms. The simplest straight chain hydrocarbons containing these structures have a characteristic 'n' carbon atoms and '2n' hydrogen atoms, and diatomic oxygen contains one of these structures. For 10 points, name this type of bond denoted by four electrons or two lines in a Lewis diagram.

Jupiter

A polar orbit around this planet was entered by the second of NASA's New Frontiers probes in July 2016. A future NASA probe will explore three objects that are in 4-to-2-to-1 orbital resonance with this planet. This planet, which is orbited by Amalthea, creates tidal forces that make one of its moons the most geologically (*) active thing in the Solar System. This planet's collision with the comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 was seen by a probe named for Galileo, who observed this planet's moons of Ganymede and Europa. Space probes often use this gas giant for a "gravitational slingshot." The Great Red Spot is found on—for 10 points—what largest planet?

amines (do not accept or prompt on "amides" at any point)

A test for these compounds reacts them with benzene-sulfonyl chloride in basic solution and is named for Hinsberg. One synthesis of these compounds using alkyl halides proceeds poorly because the product reacts further, and another is named for Gabriel. These compounds have pKb values of approximately (*) 5, and they're not phosphines, but the tertiary variety of these compounds often have a fishy smell. They can form by the reduction of nitro compounds, and they react with carboxylic acids to generate amides. For 10 points, name these organic compounds and functional groups in which a nitrogen with a lone pair is attached to alkyl or aryl groups.

sine

An extended law named for this function has a 2R term, and this function is used in the Fourier transforms of odd functions. The hyperbolic type of this function is equal to e to the x minus e to the negative x all over two. The magnitude of the (*) cross product of two vectors equals the product of their magnitudes times this function of the angle between them, and the derivative of this function is cosine of x. This function is positive when an angle is in the first or second quadrants, and it squared equals one minus cosine of x squared. For ten points, name this function of an angle which is equal to the side opposite that angle over the hypotenuse in a right triangle.

sample size (or population size; accept n before mention; prompt on "how many data points/samples/experiments/people in a study/etc. there are" before "data points" is read)

For a Cauchy distribution, the posterior distribution of the population mean is bizarrely independent of this value. It's equal to the sum of the values in the cells of a two by two contingency table. Bessel's correction subtracts one from this number in certain calculations of the (*) standard deviation. As this number increases, the average of observed experimental values gets closer to the expected value as described by the law of large numbers. This value is usually symbolized by lowercase n, and the mean is the sum of the data values divided by this number. For 10 points, give this quantity counting the number of data points in a set.

one half

For a body undergoing circular motion due to gravity, total energy equals potential energy times this factor. In special relativity, length contraction is proportional "one minus beta-squared" all raised to this power. The reduced mass of a pair of identical bodies equals this number times the mass of one body. For a solid disk in the x-y plane, the moments of inertia about the x and y axes both equal (*) this constant times the moment of inertia about the z axis. This fraction appears in the potential energy formula for a harmonic oscillator, and it multiplies "a t-squared" in the acceleration term for projectile motion. Kinetic energy equals—for 10 points—what fraction, times mass times velocity-squared?

torque (accept moment of force, prompt on "tau")

For a deformable beam, this quantity has a value at each point equal to the negative flexural rigidity of the beam times its curvature. For a dipole in an electric field, this quantity is equal to the cross product of the field strength and the dipole vector, and it's zero for gravitational interactions because the force always points in the direction of the (*) radial vector. This value is the rate of change of a system's angular momentum. This value is equal to "uppercase I times alpha," or the moment of inertia times the angular acceleration. For 10 points, name this rotational analogue to force.

integrals

Fubini's theorem is one technique for evaluating these objects and utilizes the iterated form of these constructs. A test named for this construct can determine whether an infinite, non-negative series converges. Green's theorem relates the (*) line form of these around a closed curve to the double form over a plane region. One method of evaluating these entities for rational functions utilizes partial fraction decomposition while another method substitutes trigonometric functions into these entities. This operation can be approximated by Simpson's rule and a Riemann sum. For 10 points, name this operation that gives the area under a curve, the inverse of differentiation.

heart attacks (or myocardial infarction; do not accept or prompt on "cardiac arrest")

GRACE and TIMI scores are used to predict an individual's risk for this condition, and the Killip classification is applied to patients with this condition. Elevation of the ST segment distinguishes the two main forms of this condition. P2Y12 inhibitors are prescribed in response to this condition, and the presence of (*) Levine's sign is suggestive of it. Because it's a blood thinner, aspirin is often prescribed in response to this condition, and its symptoms include shortness of breath and chest pain. This condition can lead to cardiac arrest. For 10 points, name this often fatal condition that occurs when blood flow to the heart is blocked.

determinant

Hadamard names a problem about finding the maximum value for one of these, and the Wronskian one of these can determine if a set of functions is linearly independent. One of these is used to calculate the cross product of two vectors, and (*) Cramer's Rule uses these to calculate solutions to systems of linear equations. The Rule of Sarrus can only be used to calculate a specific type of these, while expansion by minors is another algorithm to calculate this value for a matrix. For ten points, name this value, which is equal to ad-bc for a 2 by 2 matrix.

Pierre de Fermat (accept answers like Fermat's Last Theorem)

He's not Torricelli, but this man names a point P in acute triangles for which the sum of the distances from P to the vertices is minimized. This man's namesake numbers have the form "2 to the 2 to n plus 1," and he names a statement that for a prime p, then [read underlined part slowly] (*) p divides "(a to the p) minus a." One of this man's statements was proven using the Taniyama-Shimura conjecture by Andrew Wiles and states that there are no nontrivial integer solutions to the equation "a to the n" plus "b to the n" equals "c to the n" for n greater than two. For 10 points, name this French mathematician with namesake "Little" and "Last" theorems.

Solvents

In Fischer Esterification, toluene acts as one of these substances, and salts in the liquid state are known as the "future" of these substances. Two methyl groups surround a central sulfur atom in one type of these substances known as (*) DMSO. Higher dielectric constants and the ability to participate in hydrogen bonding are characteristics typical of protic types of these substances. Aqueous solutions are solutions in which water acts as this substance. For 10 points, name this type of substance in which solutes are dissolved.

potential energy (prompt on energy; accept specific types like electrical potential energy or gravitational potential energy; do not accept or prompt on just "potential")

In Newtonian gravity, this quantity satisfies Poisson's equation. This quantity is equal to half the difference between the Hamiltonian and Lagrangian, and the operator for it is symbolized with a capital V. For a dipole, this quantity is given by negative the dipole moment (*) dotted with the electric field. In one form, this quantity is one-half charge times capacitance squared, and it is one-half k times the displacement squared in a spring. This quantity is mass times little g times height in its gravitational form. For 10 points, name this form of energy contrasted with kinetic.

reflection

In metals, this process only occurs in the absence of Langmuir waves below the plasma frequency. The intensity of this process is given by the square of "n-1 minus n-2, over n-1 plus n-2" according to the Fresnel equations. For a properly polarized input, this process does not occur at Brewster's angle. Light propagating above the (*) critical angle is transmitted in optical fibers via the "total internal" type of this process. After the specular type of this process, the angle of the outgoing ray equals the angle of incidence. For 10 points, name this optical process in which light bounces off of surfaces like mirrors.

big G (accept universal gravitational constant or Newton's constant; accept "uppercase G" and prompt on just "G," but do not accept or prompt on just "lowercase g")

In physical theories, large extra dimensions are often invoked to try and explain why this parameter is so small, and the critical density of the universe is equal to three times the Hubble parameter squared divided by eight pi times this parameter. In Planck units, the speed of light, Dirac's constant, and this constant are set to have a value of (*) 1, and it was first measured using lead balls and a torsion balance. In SI units, this constant has a value of 6.67 times 10 to the minus 11 Newton meters squared per kilogram squared. For 10 points, name this constant that was first measured by Henry Cavendish.

Blue

One compound that has this color has a seven to eighteen ratio between its central metal and the bonding ligand, and that same compound was believed to be two different materials, one of which is named for Turnbull. The 2014 Nobel Prize was awarded for creating a diode of this color. A coordination complex containing iron and cyanide is known as (*) Prussian [this color]. Indicators, such as litmus paper, turn this color upon the presence of a base, and a variety of corundum called sapphire is this color. For 10 points, name this color that describes elements such as indium and cobalt.

skin

One disease of this organ is often treated using CCPDMA or Mohs surgery. Nevi appear in this organ. Eccrine glands are found in this organ, which is mostly composed of squamous cells. Another disease of this organ can be treated with benzoyl peroxide and is caused by overactive sebaceous glands. Applying zinc oxide and titanium dioxide can help prevent a disease of this organ that is characterized by different colours and (*) irregular borders. Vitamin D3 is produced in this organ. Red bumps on this organ can be caused by the buildup of keratin in the hair follicles below its epidermis. For 10 points, name this large organ that is affected by melanoma and acne.

Aspirin

One disease treated by this compound causes patients to exhibit a characteristic "strawberry tongue." While that illness, Kawasaki disease, mainly affects children, this drug shouldn't normally be administered to children for fear of developing (*) Reye's syndrome. Other diseases treated by this drug include pericarditis and rheumatoid arthritis. This nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug is also known as acetylsalicylic acid and has been historically harvested from willow trees. For 10 points, name this drug developed by Bayer that treats pain, fever, and inflammation.

noble gas

One element in this family can form a Rollin film below a specific temperature. Albert Behnke demonstrated the use of one element in this group as an anesthetic; that element's hexafluoroplatinate was the first compound containing one of these elements to be synthesized. Lord Rayleigh and William (*) Ramsay discovered many of these elements together. The symbols of these elements are often placed in brackets when writing electron configurations. This family contains the second most abundant in the universe and elements in it possess a filled outer electron shell. For ten points, name this group on the far right side of the periodic table, containing elements like neon, xenon and helium.

titration

One form of this process involving hard water and EBT ends with the solution turning steel blue. In that "complexometric" form of this process, magnesium and calcium ions are chelated by EDTA. Performing this process on a weak polyprotic acid yields multiple(*) equivalence points which can be approximated using methyl orange or phenolphthalein ["fee-nol-THAY-leen"] as indicators. This technique uses a burette to slowly add a solution to the analyte. For 10 points, name this lab technique used to measure the concentration of an unknown solution.

exoplanets (accept extra-solar planets; accept descriptions like "planets outside our solar system" before "For 10 points"; prompt on just planets; anti-prompt

One of these objects unofficially named Bellerophon was discovered in 1995 using the pulsar timing method by Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz. These objects can be observed using small shifts in radial velocity, or by observing periodic (*) dimming events using the "transit" method. Examples of these objects include 51 Pegasi b and Gliese 229 B, and their discovery is the main goal of the Kepler Mission. Ideally, these objects would lie in the Goldilocks zone, since they would then likely have liquid water and be habitable. For 10 points, name these bodies that orbit stars other than the Sun.

waves

One of these phenomena named after Draupner was uncharacteristically large, and Merian's formula applies to a type of them called a seiche ["saysh"]. The shape of these phenomena can be described as a trochoid, and "rogue" ones have height more than twice the significant or mean height. These phenomena can create sea stacks from arches, while seasonal variations causing high and short ones of these phenomena can explain the formation of sand (*) bars. Shoaling causes an increase in height of these phenomena, while angled ones create longshore currents. For 10 points, identify this rolling motion of water in the ocean, a large example of which is a tsunami.

coal

Proximate analysis and vitrinite reflectance are two ways of determining this substance's rank. This substance's moisture content can be measured by heating it with toluene, and Hilt's law applies to this substance. The free swelling index is used to determine this substance's (*) coking value. An integrated gasification combined cycle is used in a "clean" technology named after this substance. Ranks of this substance include lignite and anthracite, and it can be found in namesake beds or seams. For 10 points, name this black sedimentary rock that forms from dead plant matter.

volume

The Bellows Conjecture states that all flexible polyhedra have a constant value for this quantity, and a theorem by Pappus says that this quantity is equal to the area of a figure times the distance traveled by its centroid when rotated about an axis. Gabriel's horn has a (*) finite value of this quantity, while Cavalieri's principle says that this quantity is the same for two solids with equal heights and equal distances from parallel planes to their bases. The washer and disk methods can be used to find this quantity when a solid is rotated about an axis. For ten points, name this quantity which is 4/3 pi r^3 for a sphere, the amount of space an object occupies.

seafloor spreading

The Glomar Challenger first provided conclusive evidence for this process. One theory that helped confirm the existence of this process relied on the symmetric magnetization reversal of the crust and was called the (*) Vine-Matthews-Morley hypothesis. This theory was first published by Rear Admiral Harry Hess in 1962 and is caused by convection currents in the asthenosphere. In this effect, basaltic magma rises up fractures in the crust and cools on the ocean floor to form more bed. For 10 points, name this process by which new oceanic crust is formed at mid-ocean ridges that helps explain continental drift.

stacks

The Java Virtual Machine is typically said to have an architecture based on this structure. With finite state machines, these structures are used in a variety of automata called PDAs. A memory location named after this structure grows downward and is used as function scratch space, in contrast to the (*) heap. Reverse Polish, or postfix, notation for arithmetic usually uses these data structures, and an excess of recursive calls often leads to their "overflow." These structures are Last In-First Out, and they come with "push" and "pop" operations. For 10 points, name these data structures usually contrasted with queues.

Second Law of Thermodynamics

The Principle of Carathéodory is one formulation of this statement, and Loschmidt's paradox and Poincare recurrence reveal flaws in Boltzmann's H-theorem regarding this statement. An expression of this law states that heat cannot move from a cold to hot body by (*) itself; that expression is the Clausius statement. A hypothetical creature capable of separating fast and slow molecules, called Maxwell's demon, would violate this law. For 10 points, name this law stating that, for a closed system, entropy always increases.

interest rate

The ZLB problem, which can lead to economic stagnation and a liquidity trap, occurs due to a near-zero value of this quantity. In June 2012, criminal settlements by Barclays revealed that several banks were falsely reporting their value for this quantity, which became known as the Libor scandal. One can achieve an economy of scale by (*) borrowing from banks at a low value for this quantity. The APR is a common type of this quantity, whose "simple" type is only calculated on the principal, as opposed to its "compound" type. For 10 points, name this quantity which measures how much money a borrower pays on a loan.

Hyper Text Markup Language

The creator of this language also worked on an earlier document system at CERN. That system, known ENQUIRE, stored information in units known as cards, and was developed by Tim Berners-Lee. This language introduced canvas elements in its fifth version in an attempt to supplant an (*) Adobe product. Files in this language, which is developed by the W3C, begin with a DOCTYPE declaration and contain elements delineated by tags. This language is often used in conjunction with CSS and Javascript. For ten points, name this standard markup language used for the creation of web pages.

antibodies

The diversification of these entities is affected by RAG proteins and mi-650, and they can form a pFc' fragment when the enzyme pepsin digests them. One function of these entities is the activation of MACs via the classical pathway, and they are needed for many research techniques such as flow cytometry and ELISA. Cell fusion results in hybridoma cell lines that produce the (*) monoclonal variety, and these entities have both variable and constant regions. These proteins come in varieties such as IgG and IgM, and they are produced during infections by plasma B cells to identify and neutralize pathogens. For ten points, identify these Y-shaped proteins that bind to antigens.

speed of light

The energy-momentum tensor is divided by this quantity raised to the fourth power in Einstein's field equations. The Lorentz factor equals one over the square root of one minus velocity squared over this quantity squared. The refractive index of a material is the ratio of this (*) constant to speed, and it is the conversion factor between frequency and wavelength of an electromagnetic wave. This quantity is constant regardless of the observer's inertial reference frame, and it is equal to approximately three times ten to the eighth meters per second. According to Einstein, for 10 points, energy is equal to mass times what constant squared?

quarks

The existence of these particles disproved a model proposed by Shoichi Sakata. The Upsilon Particle, discovered at Fermilab in 1977, provided experimental data for one of these particles and its antiparticle. (*) Deep inelastic scattering provided the first evidence for the existence of these particles, and they have color charge, according to QCD. Mesons are composed of one of these particles and its antiparticle, and baryons contain three of them. Making up hadrons like protons and neutrons, for 10 points, name these elementary particles that exist in six flavors, including charm and strange.

chalcogens

The heaviest element in this group is named after a California laboratory. Bismuth decays into an element of this group via beta-minus decay; that element was the first radioactive element discovered by Marie Curie. Fourteen atoms of an element in this group are consumed in the combustion of (*) ethane, and perchlorates contain four atoms from this group. Members of this group include selenium, tellurium, and polonium. For 10 points, name this group containing elements with six valence electrons, including oxygen.

bile

The hormones secretin and CCK stimulate this substance's release through the Sphincter of Oddi. This substance passes through the cystic duct. The prefix "chole-" comes from the Greek word for this substance. This substance includes a waste product from red blood cell recycling that's made when porphyrin is degraded through a "-verdin" intermediate. Lipids are emulsified by this alkaline substance's namesake (*) "acids" and "salts." Pigments in this substance formed from the degradation of bilirubin create the normal brown color of feces. For 10 points, name this yellow-brown goop made by the liver and stored in the gallbladder, which is bitter and helps the body digest fats.

electric current

The introduction of a term with units of this quantity allowed Maxwell to formulate the equation for light as an electromagnetic wave. That term was introduced into Ampère's law and is called "displacement [this]." This quantity squared is proportional to the energy stored in inductors. Devices that measure this quantity are hooked up in (*) series, and have very low internal resistance. It times voltage gives power. It only flows in one direction through diodes. For 10 points, name this flow of charge, which comes in "alternating" and "direct" types.

hurricane (accept any of depression or cyclone or typhoon; accept tropical storm before mention; prompt on things like storm or thunderstorm)

The maximum potential intensity of these systems is a strong function of the difference in Convective Available Energy between saturation and the boundary layer. During El Nino years, increased vertical shear in the Atlantic reduces the intensity of these systems, and they generate through secondary circulation, in which (*) ocean-surface saturated air rises, condenses, and precipitates. These systems are ranked in intensity on the Saffir-Simpson scale. The barometric pressure of these phenomena is lowest at their centers, and they evolve from tropical storms. For 10 points, name these massive storms, exemplified by Matthew and Katrina.

ovaries

The most common host cells for developing therapeutic recombinant proteins come from Puck's CHO line, which he developed using cells from this organ in Chinese hamsters. Theca cells in this organ secrete androstenedione, which adjacent granulosa ["gran-yoo-low-sah"] cells convert into estradiol ["ess-trah-dye-all"]. An "LH surge" in this organ triggers(*) Graafian follicles to burst open, later forming the corpus luteum. After ovulation, cells can leave this organ through Fallopian tubes to travel to the uterus. For 10 points, name these female reproductive organs that are the site of egg cell formation.

coal

The quality of this substance varies inversely with its distance from Earth's core, according to Hilt's law. The Bergius [burj-EE-us] process uses sulfide catalysts to hydrogenate this substance, and Fischer-Tropsch plants must first gasify this substance, using an IGCC to convert it into syngas, before it can be converted into (*) hydrocarbons. The lowest rank of this mineral is lignite, which is formed by the compression of peat. Varieties of this mineral include bituminous and anthracite, and it is found in seams and beds. For 10 points, name this black sedimentary rock commonly burned to produce energy.

isomerism

The reason why thalidomide caused birth defects can be explained because thalidomide exhibits this phenomenon, and Friedrich Wohler first discovered this property when experimenting with silver cyanate. Branching hydrocarbons often exhibit this property, and molecules that exhibit one form of this property are labelled as (*) "cis" or "trans"; that form is the "stereo" type of this phenomenon. Two molecules that exhibit the optical form of this phenomenon are analogous to left and right hands. For ten points, name this property of molecules which have the same molecular formula but different chemical structures.

kinetic energy

The value of this for particles equals the quantity the Lorentz factor minus one, times mass times the speed of light. In the absence of outside forces, the value of this for superfluids remains constant. The value of this for a photon is given by multiplying (*) Planck's constant by frequency. The rotational form of this quantity is given by one half the moment of inertia times the angular velocity squared while for non-relativistic velocities, the translational form is equal to one half of the mass times velocity squared. For 10 points, name this type of energy that is caused by the motion of an object, in contrast with potential energy.

Temperature

The value of virial coefficients depend on this quantity. The wavelength corresponding to the maximum intensity of radiation emitted by a black body is inversely proportional to this quantity, according to Wien's law, and the total intensity of radiation is proportional to the (*) fourth power of this quantity. According to the Joule-Thomson effect, this quantity decreases for a gas upon expansion, as it is directly proportional to volume, as well as pressure. For 10 points, name this quantity which is measured in Celsius or Kelvins.

two

There are this many zeroes in a one's complement representation system, and in general, a single parity bit cannot detect bit errors that are multiples of this number. One loop nested inside another loop can result in a runtime of big O of N to this power because each iteration of the outer loop requires an iteration of the inner loop. In C++ and Java, there are this many bytes in a "short" integer. There are this many (*) nibbles in a byte. For computer storage, "mega" and "giga" are defined in terms of powers of this number, not ten. A bit can take on this many values. The boolean AND and OR gates take this many inputs. For 10 points, how many children can a node of a binary tree have?

intermolecular forces

These phenomena are modelled by the "r to the minus 6" term in the Lennard-Jones potential. One of these phenomena increases in strength with increasing polarizability, and thus with larger electron clouds, explaining why bromine is a liquid at STP. These phenomena are particularly strong in (*) water, explaining its high boiling point. One of these phenomena is the result of induced dipoles, and another is the result of a highly electronegative element bonded to hydrogen. For 10 points, what forces, including dipole-dipole interactions, London dispersion forces, and hydrogen bonds, cause attraction and repulsion between molecules?

endoplasmic reticulum

These structures are stacked and connected through helical ramps called Terasaki ramps. Vesicles that move from this organelle to another one are tagged with COPII ("C. O. P. 2") while those that move back carry the COPI ("C. O. P. 1") tag. One type of this structure works in the production of steroid hormones and detoxification. Like the Golgi Apparatus, this (*) organelle is made up of flattened membrane disks called cisternae. The general functions of this organelle include the synthesis and export of lipids and proteins. The membranes of this organelle are continuous with the outer nuclear membrane. For 10 points, name this cellular organelle whose "smooth" and "rough" types are differentiated based on ribosomal presence.

atomic orbitals

They're not electrons, but angular momenta in these entities can cancel by Russell-Saunders coupling. A set of these entities has subscripts "x squared," "xz," "yz," "xy," and "x squared minus y squared." One of these entities is shaped like a torus surrounding a dumbbell. Madelung's rule gives the energies of these things but does not explain their unusual configuration in palladium, chromium, and copper. The Pauli exclusion principle and (*) Hund's rule are the basis for the Aufbau principle for these entities. The second, or "azimuthal" quantum number classifies them into s, p, d, and f varieties. For 10 points, name these regions of an atom that can be occupied by up to two electrons.

integration

This action can be performed in a different coordinate system by using the Jacobian determinant. This operation over a region or its boundary are related by Stokes' theorem. Near vertical asymptotes, limits have to be used for the "improper" versions of them. You can do this to all rational functions by decomposing them into (*) partial fractions. It is usually defined as the limit of Riemann sums, which approximate the area under a curve. For 10 points, name this operation that, by the fundamental theorem of calculus, yields the antiderivative.

water

This compound reacts with penicillin to inactivate transpeptidase. The transfer of four electrons to complex IV of the electron transport chain produces two molecules of this compound. Excitation of P700 causes the "splitting" of this compound by P680. At 25 degrees celsius, a reaction in this compound is described by the constant "10 to the negative-14th." In vascular plants, this compound is transported in the (*) xylem. During the day, CAM plants close their stomata to prevent loss of this compound. K-w measures this compound's autoionization and K-s-p measures a compound's solubility in this liquid. For 10 points name this "universal solvent" with formula H-2-O.

Systemic lupus erythematosus

This disease is influenced by gene polymorphisms that affect the human leukocyte antigen family. Females with this systemic disease often exhibit Raynaud's phenomenon. People afflicted with this disease have high amounts of immature B-cells, which promotes inflammation, including (*) Libman-Sacks endocarditis. People who have drug-induced versions of this disease see their symptoms recede if they stop their medication. For 10 points, name this autoimmune disease that when exposed to sunlight causes a butterfly shaped rash on the face to appear.

Andromeda galaxy

This entity contains the Mayall II globular cluster, and Ernst Hartwig detected the only recorded supernova in this entity, SN 1885A. Heber Curtis used dark cosmic dust in this entity, as well as its Doppler shift, to show that it was not part of the Milky Way. William Herschel noted a red color in the center of this entity, which will collide with the (*) Milky Way in roughly 4 billion years to most likely form an elliptical galaxy. This largest member of the Local Group is number 31 in the Messier catalogue. For ten points, name this spiral galaxy, the closest major one to the Milky Way.

infinity

This is the value of the highest energy level of the quantum harmonic oscillator. In the absence of damping, the Q-factor of a resonant system takes on this value. This is the maximum number of particles that can occupy the same quantum state in a Bose-Einstein condensate. In high-energy physics, renormalization is a process of canceling terms that take this value. Max Planck fixed the (*) Rayleigh-Jeans law by removing a limit in which the radiated power tends to this value. For 10 points, name the length of time that Zeno incorrectly believed Achilles would take to catch a tortoise, which in reality is the value to which divergent quantities tend.

oxidation

This kind of reaction produces an aldehyde from an alcohol. Hexavalent chromium compounds like dichromates promote this kind of reaction, as do all electron acceptors. This happens to carbon in combustion reactions. This process occurs first for less "noble" materials in the galvanic series. To balance this kind of half-reaction, electrons are added to the (*) right-hand side. This kind of reaction happens at the anode, and it happens to iron to form rust. For 10 points, name this kind of reaction that involves the loss of an electron and is contrasted with reduction.

Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier

This man predicted the existence of silicon and the elemental nature of sulfur. This scientist proved that breathable air is converted to carbon dioxide, or "fixed air," using respiration or combustion rather than a mythical element which was thought to be the product of combustion. That element, (*) phlogiston, was discarded along with the four classical elements in exchange for a new nomenclature partially designed by this man to help with his theory of oxygen and chemistry. This man's measurements proved that although matter may change shape and properties after reactions, its mass always stays consistent. For ten points, name this formulator of the law of conservation of mass, nicknamed the "father of modern chemistry".

James Clerk Maxwell

This man showed that the viscosity of gases was independent of their pressure, a result first verified by him and his wife Katherine. A set of equations involving the second derivative of each thermodynamic potential with respect to their natural variables is named for this physicist, and he proposed the displacement current as a modification to (*) Ampere's Law. A thought experiment proposed by this physicist considers a figure that separates gas particles by their speed and apparently decreases entropy; that figure is this man's namesake "demon." For 10 points, name this Scottish physicist who described electromagnetism in a set of four namesake equations.

Édouard Lucas

This mathematician found the only cannonball number, or a number which is both a square-pyramid number and a square number, namely 4,900. He also developed a primality test for Mersenne numbers and holds the record for largest (*) prime number found by hand, which is 2127-1. His work Récréations Mathématiques references the Analytical Engine and the Tower of Hanoi puzzle, which he invented and marketed under the name N. Claus de Siam, an anagram of a form of his own name. For 10 points, name this 19th-century French mathematician who lends his name to a series of numbers which are similar to the Fibonacci numbers, but begin with 1 and 3 instead of 1 and 1.

area

This quantity can be calculated using Bretschneider's formula. The Reeve tetrahedron proves that Pick's theorem to find this quantity using lattice points cannot be generalized to polytopes, and the shoelace formula can be used to calculate this quantity if coordinates of vertices are known. Bramagupta's formula, which can be used to calculate this property of a cyclic (*) quadrilateral, is a generalized form of a formula which applies only to triangles, known as Heron's formula. Simpson's rule is used to estimate this value under a curve, which is calculated by definite integrals. For 10 points, identify this quantity, which, for a square, is equal to the side length squared.

Gregor Johann Mendel

This scientist's findings were used by Archibald Garrod to study alkaptonuria. The author of Intracellular Pangenesis, Carl Correns, worked with theories by this scientist, as did Hugo de Vries. R. A. Fisher used Pearson's chi-squared test to accuse this scientist of (*) falsifying data because the ratios in his experiments were "too perfect." This founder of the Austrian Meteorological Society described his research on Pisum sativum in one paper, "Experiments on Plant Hybridization," which introduced the laws of segregation and independent assortment. For 10 points, identify this scientist and friar who studied genetics using pea plants.

Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation

Though not a black hole, BICEP2 was used to find primordial gravitational waves in this entity. Unevenness in this entity was explained by redshift in the Sachs-Wolfe effect. Particles in this entity can undergo scattering to higher energies as a result of inverse Compton scattering in the Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect. This entity is a (*) "relic" from the creation of the universe and shows evidence for the Big Bang. This entity was discovered at Bell Labs by Penzias and Wilson and has a temperature of 2.7 degrees Kelvin. For 10 points, name this radiation source left over from the Big Bang.

landslide (prompt on mass wasting until read)

Turbidite deposits can be formed by the submarine variety of these phenomena. Sturzstorms are a type of these phenomena with relatively large horizontal distance, and one of these events in 1958 in Lituya Bay, Alaska generated a megatsunami that washed out trees higher than half a kilometer up. These events are a form of (*) mass wasting, and slope stability analysis is used to assess the probability of them happening near manmade structures. They can be classified as flows, topples, or falls. For 10 points, name this event in which a large amount of rock and sediment moves catastrophically down a slope.

Strong Nuclear Force

Yang and Mills created a theory of this force that is a non-abelian gauge theory. Another theory describing this force has a lattice variety, and that theory describing this force takes place in an SU(3) symmetry group. Pions were believed to carry this force but it is now known that this is mediated by the exchange of (*) gluons. Color confinement is a consequence of this force that is described by quantum chromodynamics, or QCD. For 10 points, name this force that confines quarks into hadrons, is the most powerful of the four fundamental forces, and holds atomic nuclei together.

simple harmonic oscillators (accept SHOs, prompt on "harmonic oscillators")

The energy eigenspectrum associated with this system's quantum analogue can be solved for analytically using Hermite Polynomials or algebraically using the creation and annihilation operators. If its potential is truncated quadratically in the Taylor series centered around the minimum potential, any arbitrary system can be (*) modelled by this system. The general homogeneous solutions to this system's equations of motion are complex exponentials in time. Approximating sine of x to first order allows for the use of this system for ideal pendulums at small angles. For ten points, name this physical system which can be used to model frictionless, Hookean springs.

Georg Friedrich Bernhard Riemann

This man showed that there exists a biholomorphic function onto the open unit disk in his mapping theorem. This man's lecture "On the Hypotheses on which Geometry is Based" outlined his namesake field of geometry. This mathematician names a set of equations with Cauchy that determine the holomorphism of a complex function, and his namesake (*) hypothesis states that all of the nontrivial zeros of his zeta function have real part one-half. This man lends his name to a method of approximating an integral using rectangles. For 10 points, name this German mathematician who studied differential geometry and complex analysis.

electric charge

10. It's not acceleration, but this quantity is squared in the numerator of the Larmor formula. The quantization of this quantity is provided for by the existence of a single magnetic monopole. This quantity is multiplied by the cross product of the velocity and the magnetic field in the formula for the Lorentz force. This quantity equals zero inside a perfect (*) conductor. The electric dipole moment equals this quantity times the separation, and this quantity multiplied by the electric field gives the force. For 10 points, name this quantity that is measured in coulombs.

T cell

10. These cells interact with medullary cells expressing the AIRE transcription factor during negative selection, which they experience in addition to positive selection. Receptors on the surface of these cells contain an alpha and a beta chain and recognize antigen fragments presented by Class I and Class II major histocompatibility complexes. The cell-mediated response often involves the (*) cytotoxic variety of these cells, which are activated by the helper variety of these cells that also activate other cells, like those involved in antibody production. For 10 points, name these immune lymphocytes, which, unlike B cells, mature in the thymus.

electric current

11. Minority carriers can produce the "diffusion" type of this quantity in a semiconductor. The closed loop integral of the H field equals the enclosed "free" type of this quantity. The magnetic moment of a loop equals this quantity times area. The inductance of an inductor can be found by dividing the magnetic flux by this quantity. This quantity divided by area equals conductivity times the electric field in the original formulation of (*) Ohm's law, which also sets this quantity equal to voltage over resistance. For 10 points, name this quantity that is measured in amperes.

teeth

11. Nerve fibers named after Howard Mummery are found deep within these structures. Birds and reptiles are born with one of these structures that they use to break open the shell of the egg. The bottom of these structures is covered by cementum, which is partially made of hydroxyapatite. The blood and nerve-rich (*) pulp is surrounded by yellow dentin in these structures. Fluoride is often added to the water supply to strengthen the enamel found on the outside of these structures. For 10 points, name these bony structures exemplified by canines, incisors, and molars.

quarks

11. Quantum chromodynamics predicts that these particles cannot be isolated and observed due to confinement, and they remain bound to each other because they experience asymptotic freedom. With gluons, these particles constitute a "plasma" that forms under extremely high temperatures and densities. Half of these particles have a charge of (*) two thirds, while the other have a charge of negative one-third. Three of these particles comprise a baryon, and one of these bound to its antiparticle comprises a meson. For 10 points, name these subatomic particles which come in flavors like top and charm and comprise protons and neutrons.

six

11. This number is the denticity of the compound EDTA. The cycloalkane with the smallest ring strain contains this many carbon atoms, and is often drawn in its most stable chair form. This is the total number of electrons shared between the atoms in trigonal planar molecules like boron (*) trifluoride. The simplest aromatic hydrocarbon contains this many carbon atoms, and is often drawn as a circle surrounded by a polygon with this many sides due to the delocalized pi bond electrons. For 10 points, name the number of carbon atoms in benzene and cyclohexane, which is also the atomic number of carbon.

ribosomes

12. In bacteria, a section of the nucleic acid contained in these organelles recognizes Shine-Dalgarno sequences. Elongation factors help guide the substrates of the peptidyltransferase enzyme towards their proper locations in the A, P, and E sites of this organelle. In prokaryotes, this organelle is made of (*) 30s and 50s subunits. The nucleolus synthesizes the RNA that comprises part of these organelles, where anticodons on transfer RNA molecules recognize codons on messenger RNA molecules. For 10 points, name these organelles which are the site of translation and protein synthesis.

hydrogen

12. One type of this element was confined in a Penning trap as part of the ATHENA project. The ionization of an isotope of this element in fusors produces a pink glow. The Lyman-alpha forest arises due to the presence of this element. The transition between two hyperfine levels of this element produces the (*) 21 centimeter line. The lowest electron energy level in this element is -13.6 eV. Six atoms of this element produce a helium atom in the proton-proton chain reaction. The Bohr model most accurately describes this element. For 10 points, name this most abundant element in the universe that typically consists of one proton and one electron.

aluminum

12. The main source of this element in ore is composed of the minerals gibbsite, boehmite, and diaspore. It's not sodium or calcium, but this element is a cation in the minerals that make up the continuous branch of Bowen's reaction series. The natural pH indicator Hydrangea macrophylla changes color due to the presence of this element in the soil. This element is the cation in a mineral that becomes red due to the presence of chromium and measures a (*) 9 on the Mohs scale of mineral hardness. This element is extracted in the Bayer process and refined in the Hall-Héroult process. For 10 points, name this element found in corundum and bauxite with chemical symbol Al.

photoelectric effect

13. APDs work by using avalanche multiplication on the output of this effect. The ratio of output to input from this effect is the quantum efficiency. This effect can be quantified by the stopping potential. The maximum kinetic energy of particles emitted by this process equals Planck's constant times the frequency, minus the (*) work function. Even if the intensity of the stimulus is high, this effect cannot be initiated unless the frequency is high enough. The 1921 Nobel Prize was awarded to Albert Einstein for his explanation of this effect. For 10 points, name this effect in which light causes metals to emit electrons.

natural logarithm

13. An integral function named after this function integrates "one over this function" from zero to x. Stirling's formula approximates this function of "n factorial". The integral of this "function of x" equals "x" times "this function of x" minus "x." In polar coordinates, a spiral named after this function is generated by "theta" proportional to this function of r. The derivative of this function is (*) "one over x". This function of "a times b" equals this function of "a" plus this function of "b". The natural form of this function is in base e. For 10 points, name this function, which is the inverse of exponentiation.

leaves

13. In Mimosa pudica specimens, these structures can move rapidly by having their cells lose turgor pressure. Bundle sheath cells surround the vasculature present in these structures, which are connected to the rest of the organism via the petiole. In these structures, a cuticle and epidermis surrounded the palisade and spongy mesophyll. (*) Cotyledons are typically the first of these structures that open after germination from a seed. Guard cells control the opening or closing of stomata on these structures. For 10 points, name these plant organs which collect sunlight and sometimes turn yellow or brown in the fall.

gel electrophoresis

13. The SYBR ["cyber"] Safe stain is an alternative to a highly carcinogenic compound often used in this procedure. The results of this technique are transferred to a membrane in a lab procedure followed by the addition of a blocking buffer and primary antibodies. The results of Sanger chain-termination sequencing were first visualized with this procedure, which precedes (*) Western and Southern blots. This technique relies on the fact that nucleic acids are often negatively charged, so they migrate towards the positive end of a current. For 10 points, name this lab technique which commonly involves running DNA through an agarose gel.

catalysts

14. A petroleum fluid cracking process named after these kinds of substances often uses zeolites. These substances are termed heterogeneous if they are in a different phase than the reactants, which commonly adsorb on the surfaces of solid examples of these substances, such as the (*) iron oxide used in the Haber-Bosch process. Cars produce carbon dioxide and water with the help of platinum "converters" named for this type of substance. For 10 points, name these substances which lower the activation energy of other reactions, biological examples of which include enzymes.

fluid density

14. In fluid dynamics, the continuity equation sets the time derivative of this quantity equal to the negative divergence of this quantity times velocity. The speed of sound in a material equals the square root of the bulk modulus divided by this quantity. The kinematic viscosity equals the dynamic viscosity divided by this quantity. This quantity is constant in (*) incompressible flow. The ratio of this quantity to that of water is the specific gravity. This quantity times g times depth equals pressure, according to Pascal's law. For 10 points, name this quantity equal to mass divided by volume.

muscle tissue

14. Individuals with a faulty ryanodine receptor in cells of this tissue can experience malignant hyperthermia during anesthesia. Action potentials travel down transverse tubules in these cells after acetylcholine crosses a junction between these cells and neurons. In cells of this tissue, the protein troponin changes its conformation after binding with calcium ions released by the (*) sarcoplasmic reticulum. This tissue can come in striated, smooth, and cardiac varieties. For 10 points, identify this tissue, whose cells consist of myofibrils containing actin and myosin, and which includes the hamstring and bicep.

temperature

14. The kinetic energy of each degree of freedom is proportional to this variable, according to the equipartition theorem. The root mean squared velocity of a fixed number of gas particles is proportional to the square root of this quantity. The entropy of vaporization is defined as the (*) heat of vaporization divided by this quantity. Gay-Lussac discovered that all else equal, increasing this quantity will also increase the pressure of a gas. For 10 points, name this quantity that measures the average kinetic energy of a substance and can be measured in degrees Celsius.

point mutations

14. These things can be introduced by using restriction enzymes to swap "cassettes" of DNA containing them. Partially mismatched primers can be used in a "site-directed" technique for introducing these things. These events can be "silent" due to the degeneracy of codons, though these events can also be labeled as (*) "nonsense" if an insertion changes the reading frame and creates a stop codon. Sickle cell anemia arises when one of these events substitutes valine for glutamic acid in the beta-globin gene. For 10 points, give this term for changes in the DNA sequence of an organism.

electronegativity

15. A high disparity in this quantity is the reason why hydrofluoric acid is the only hydrogen halide that is not a strong acid in water. A variant of this quantity can be calculated as the arithmetic mean of the ionization energy and electron affinity according to a scale for it developed by Allred and Rochow. If the difference in this quantity between two bonded atoms is approximately between 1.4 and 0.4 on the (*) Pauling scale, the bond will polar covalent because one of the atoms will have a partial negative charge. For 10 points, identify this measure of how strongly an atom pulls electrons to itself.

reaction order

15. In unimolecular reactions following the Lindemann-Hinshelwood mechanism, this quantity becomes doubled at low pressure. It is typically zero in enzyme-catalyzed biochemical reactions when the reactant concentration is much larger than the enzyme concentration. In mechanisms involving homolytic cleavage of bonds and in Michaelis-Menten theory, it often has non-integral values. This number can be measured via the method of flooding, in which a chemical reaction takes place with all reactants in large excess except one. (*) For 10 points, identify this number, the exponent of each chemical species concentration in a rate law.

Reptilia

15. Members of the genus Sphenodon in this taxonomic class are native to New Zealand. Members of an order in this class are the only ectotherms to possess a four-chambered heart. An organism in this class squirts acidic blood from its eyes to deter predators and is called the horned devil. (*) Van der Waals forces enable some members of this taxonomic class to use hairs called setae to cling to walls. The Gila monster is a venomous member of this class, though the venom-producing ability of a species in this class native to Komodo is disputed. For 10 points, name this class of vertebrates that includes tuataras, crocodiles, and lizards.

hydrogen

15. This element can be added to certain molecules with a palladium catalyst named after Lindlar. Standard reduction potentials are normalized to the reduction of this element at a platinum electrode. A type of molecular interaction named after this element results from the tendency of elements like (*) oxygen and fluorine to attract electrons away from this element and give it a partial positive charge. A molecule of methane contains one carbon atom and four atoms of this element. For 10 points, name this element which bonds with oxygen to form water.

sodium

16. Proteins in polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis are sometimes denatured by a surfactant containing this element's cation and a dodecyl sulfate anion. When determining the chirality of a compound, it is common to use light at 589 nanometers, which is in this element's D line. Ion-exchange technology replaces calcium and magnesium ions with ions of this element to (*) soften hard water. Crystals of this element's chloride are known as halite, and this element's bicarbonate is often referred to as baking soda. For 10 points, name this alkali metal that bonds with chlorine to form table salt.

Gibbs free energy

16. The surface tension at constant temperature and pressure can be calculated by dividing this quantity by the surface area. The change in this quantity is equal to the inverse of Faraday's constant time chemical potential times the number of moles of transferred electrons. If the change in this quantity for a reaction is negative, it is both exergonic and (*) spontaneous. The change in this quantity is equal to the change in enthalpy minus temperature times the change in entropy. For 10 points, identify this measure of the free energy of a system named after an American scientist.

meiosis

17. The first step of this process features a zygotene stage during which the synapto-nemal complex is assembled. Genetic diversity is increased during this process when homologous recombination occurs during crossover. In human females, this process results in the creation of three (*) polar bodies due to unequal cytoplasmic division. Nondisjunctions are errors in this process that can lead to trisomies, such as Down syndrome, because the chromosomes in sperm or egg cells were divided unevenly. For 10 points, name this process of cell division, which, unlike mitosis, results in four haploid cells.

HIV

18. This human pathogen is often pseudotyped as VSV-G in research. A functional cure for an infection by this agent may be provided by transplanting tissue containing mutated CCR5 receptors. Because many of its transcriptional products are unspliced, this agent must use the rev protein to export them out of the nucleus. Large brown tumors on the skin are formed in (*) Kaposi's sarcoma, which is often indicative of infection with this virus. Drugs like AZT inhibit the reverse transcriptase that this retrovirus uses to initiate replication. For 10 points, name this virus, infection with which can progress to AIDS.

lungs

19. As these organs age, the residual volume associated with them increases while the vital capacity and average tidal volume decrease. The collapse of certain structures in these organs is prevented by a surfactant produced by cells in those structures. These organs are surrounded by a (*) pleural membrane that acts upon these organs via a negative pressure. The artery that enters this organ is the only artery that carries deoxygenated blood. These organs sit above the diaphragm, which controls their usage. For 10 points, name these organs which contain alveoli and which expand and contract when breathing.

powers of two

19. The Ramanujan sum of these numbers is negative one even though the regular sum is divergent. Dyadic rationals are fractions with one of these numbers in the denominator. According to the Euclid-Euler theorem, every even perfect number is the difference of two of these numbers. The number of vertices of a hypercube is one of these numbers. The sum of a row in (*) Pascal's triangle is one of these numbers. Mersenne primes are primes that are one less than one of these numbers. For 10 points, name this set of numbers which include 4, 8, 16, and 32, all of which are equal to the smallest prime number raised to the n power.

four

4. Varignon's theorem describes the construction of a parallelogram from a shape with this many sides. According to a theorem by Lagrange, every natural number can be represented as the sum of at most this number of perfect squares. This is the highest degree of a polynomial that always has a general algebraic solution according to the Abel-Ruffini theorem. This is the minimum number of faces a (*) three dimensional polyhedron can have. This number times a c is subtracted from b squared in the discriminant of a quadratic equation. For 10 points, name this number, the degree of a quartic function.

soil

5. A type of this substance found in boreal forests is formed by podzolization. This substance's pH is affected by its cation exchange capacity. A form of this material can be formed via drainage of a lacustrine plain. This material is divided into 12 classes using a texture triangle. This material is divided into horizons symbolized by the letters O, A, B, C, and R. This material loses stiffness in response to an applied stress, such as when it (*) liquefies during earthquakes. A type of this substance called loess results from aeolian processes. For 10 points, name this collection of minerals and organic matter on which plants grow.

nucleus

5. An object with this name is modelled by a semi-empirical mass formula named for Bethe and Weizsäcker. snRNPs [snurps] assemble in a biological structure with this name. Cloud seeding uses silver iodide to produce objects with this name around which water vapor condenses. A structure described by this word is contiguous with the (*) rough endoplasmic reticulum. An object described by this word deflected alpha particles in the Rutherford gold foil experiment. For 10 points, name this thing which is made of protons and neutrons in atoms.

Triassic Period

5. During this geological period, precipitation increased during the Carnian Pluvial Event. Postosuchus is an example of the rauisuchid archosaurs that lived during this period. The extinction event that preceded this period killed the majority of the proto-mammalian cynodonts. The theropod Coelophysis [see-loh-PHI-sis] lived during this period which saw the rise of the (*) prosauropod Plateosaurus. The supercontinent Pangaea broke apart during this period in which the first dinosaurs appeared. For 10 points, name this first geological period in the Mesozoic era that preceded the Jurassic.

pink

5. It's not white or brown, but a noise of this color has a power spectral density inversely proportional to one over the frequency. Manganese(II) salts are of this color due to the presence of high spin d5 orbitals. Calcium carbonate from crushed foraminifera shells makes Bermuda sand this color. The pH indicator (*) phenolphthalein turns this color in basic solution. A common example of incomplete dominance is the breeding of a snapdragon of this color. For 10 points, name this color that results from breeding a red snapdragon and a white snapdragon.

covalent bond

6. DNAses are inactivated when one of these interactions is disrupted by DTT or beta-mercapto-ethanol. Conjugated and aromatic rings are unusually stable because an alternating number of bonds of this type are present between atoms. Thiol groups in the side chain of cysteine are oxidized to form examples of this type of interaction that occur in the tertiary structure of proteins and are called (*) disulfide bonds. The pi and sigma types of these interactions form from the overlap between p orbitals and between s orbitals, respectively. For 10 points, name this type of bond which, unlike ionic bonding, involves the sharing of electrons.

potential

8. A "screened" one of these things includes a rapidly decaying exponential and is named for Hideki Yukawa. The "effective" type of this thing includes a term proportional to the square of the angular momentum and is used to calculate orbits. Force equals the negative gradient of this thing. For an inverse square law, a type of energy associated with this thing is inversely proportional to one over the distance. In a uniform gravitational field, that (*) energy equals the mass times g times the height. For 10 points, name this scalar field that describes a type of energy contrasted with kinetic energy.

memory

8. In Unix operating systems, the brk and sbrk subroutines control the use of this thing. In C, the library function "free" performs manual management on this thing. Volatile types of this thing require power to maintain operational. The buddy block system is one method of allocating this thing. The flash type of this thing uses NAND and NOR gates and is electronically (*) erasable. The most popular type of this thing is stored on integrated chips and is known as the random access type of this thing. For 10 points, name this thing that can be measured in gigabytes, which is exemplified by RAM.

nuclear fission

8. The RaLa Experiment tested devices that initiate this process. One quantity important for this process is inversely proportional to density squared and includes a fudge factor for deviations from spherical geometry. For this process to be sustained, the effective (*) neutron multiplication factor must be greater than or equal to one. Boron is used to capture neutrons released as a byproduct of this process. This process can only occur past the critical mass, and it often takes place in breeder reactors. The most common fuel for this process is enriched uranium-235. For 10 points, name this process in which the nucleus of an atom splits into smaller parts.

2 pi

8. The integral of curvature with respect to area equals this constant times the Euler characteristic, according to the Gauss-Bonnet theorem. The square root of this constant is multiplied by the standard deviation in the denominator of the probability density function for the normal distribution. The surface area of a (*) hemisphere equals this constant times the radius squared. The period of the function "sine of Bx" equals B divided by this constant, which is symbolized tau. For 10 points, name this constant, which can be found by dividing the circumference of a circle by its radius and is approximately equal to 6.28.

tangent

8. The law of this function states that this function of half "a minus b" over this function of half "a plus b" equals "a minus b" over "a plus b." The hyperbolic version of this function equals e to the two x minus one over e to the two x plus one. The derivative of this function equals this function squared plus one. The inverse of this function is asymptotically bound at (*) pi over two and negative pi over two. This function squared equals secant squared minus one. The graph of this function has asymptotes at odd integer multiples of pi. For 10 points, name this trigonometric function equivalent to sine over cosine.

electrons

8. The solvation of these particles imparts a blue color to solutions of alkali metals and water. The movement or transfer of a single one of these particles is designated by a fish hook arrow, according to arrow pushing notation. Abbreviated written configurations of these particles for an element begin with the symbol of the previous noble gas in brackets. Reduction involves a (*) gain of these particles, while oxidation results in a loss of them. For 10 points, name these particles which are transferred or shared in chemical bonds and which surround the nucleus of an atom.

½

9. The ground state energy of the quantum harmonic oscillator equals this constant times h-bar omega. The areal velocity of a moving particle equals this constant times the cross product of position and velocity. The electric field from an infinite plane equals this constant times charge density over the permittivity of free space. The moment of inertia of a (*) uniform disk is this number times M R squared. The period of a pendulum is proportional to l over g raised to this power. For 10 points, name this number that is multiplied by mass times velocity squared to give kinetic energy.

search (accept word forms; accept finding and word forms; accept shortest path finding and obvious equivalents; accept traversal and word forms)

A "beam" algorithm for this task is memory optimized and greedy. The Bellman-Ford algorithm for this task can notably handle negative weights, and pruning can be used to reduce the space involved in this task. The use of a heuristic differentiates the A-star algorithm for this task from a similar algorithm developed by (*) Edsger Dijkstra ["DIKE-struh"] for it. Algorithms that perform this task by adding visited nodes to a queue or stack include breadth- and depth-first, and splitting a list in half recursively is an example of its binary type. For 10 points, give the term for this task of locating a specific item on structures like a graph or list.

glaciers

A certain double eponymous law measures the rate of internal flow in these entities and models the relationship between stress and strain. Deep crevasses called bergschrunds can form when a moving one of these objects separates from the headwall, and masses of firn are precursors to these objects that gain mass in the Zone of (*) Accumulation, and lose mass in the Zone of Ablation. The Piedmont variety of these objects create a valley and coalesce at the base of a mountain, and these objects deposit debris which forms moraines. Calving is a process in which icebergs break off of, for ten points, what large sheets of ice that come in Alpine and Continental forms?

polymerization

A combination of titanium and organoaluminum catalysts can induce this process in alkenes. The average degree of this process is given by the equation 1 over 1 minus p in the Carothers equation. One of the first synthetic substances formed by this process was created from the condensation of phenol and formaldehyde units and is called(*) bakelite. This process, which is promoted by Ziegler-Natta catalysts, comes in step-growth and chain-growth types. It can produce products such as LDPE and PVC. For 10 points, name this process that involves the combination of repeating units called monomers.

bicarbonate ion

A compound with this anion is produced in a process whose first step uses a solution of ammonia and salt. This is the anion in the unstable mineral vaterite. This is the anion produced in the Leblanc and Solvay processes. This anion is formed along with a proton in a reaction catalyzed by a zinc-containing (*) anhydrase enzyme. Like chromates, hydroxides, phosphates, and sulfides, most compounds of this anion are insoluble. This anion is formed in ocean acidification, and a form of this anion is used in blood as a buffer. Adding acid to minerals containing this ion releases carbon dioxide. For 10 points, name this anion found in limestone, with formula "C-O-3 2-minus."

ethers (accept epoxides during the first sentence; do not accept or prompt on "esters")

A cyclic example of these functional groups is formed when a peroxy-acid like mCPBA is added to an alkene. A polymeric example of these functional groups is added to interferons in a process called PEGylation. These functional groups are the products of reactions named after Ullmann and (*) Williamson. In hydrogen bonding, compounds with this functional group can act as acceptors but not as donors. Commonly used solvents that feature this functional group include tetrahydrofuran and diethyl [this compound]. For 10 points, name these organic compounds that have the general formula R-O-R' ["R-oh-R-prime"].

reduction (accept word forms; prompt on redox; anti-prompt

A di-thiol is reacted with a carbonyl and then removed in one type of this reaction named for Mozingo. Wolff-Kishner name a type of this reaction that converts ketones and aldehydes to alkanes. Other examples of these reactions include the conversion of amides to amines, (*) alkenes to alkanes, and aldehydes to alcohols. This type of reaction occurs at the cathode of a voltaic cell. This type of chemical reaction has occurred when a central carbon goes from a plus one to minus one oxidative state, since the atom has gained electrons. For 10 points, name this process usually contrasted with oxidation.

Sagittarius

A dwarf elliptical galaxy named for this constellation was discovered in 1994, and a molecular cloud is known as this constellation B2. This constellation's sigma and zeta stars, Nunki and Ascella, are part of its Teapot Asterism, while NGC 6559, the Trifid Nebula, and the Lagoon Nebula comprise its namesake Triplet. It's not Aquarius, but this constellation's alpha star is (*) Rukbat, though its brightest star is Kaus Australis. A compact radio source found in it is thought to be associated with a supermassive black hole found at the center of the Milky Way and is termed A* ["A-star"]. For 10 points, name this constellation that somehow shows an archer.

Ludwig Boltzmann

A factor named for this scientist is equal to e to the quantity negative beta times the energy of the particle, and the sum of that factor for all energies is the partition function. This physicist is the second in an equation giving the power from a blackbody as proportional to the (*) fourth power of temperature, and he defined entropy as k-sub-b times the natural logarithm of the number of microstates. The constant named after this scientist equals the ideal gas constant divided by Avogadro's number and is symbolized lowercase k. For 10 points, name this Austrian physicist whose contributions to statistical mechanics include co-naming a distribution with Maxwell.

carbon

A form of this element is the most common anode in lithium-ion batteries. Cubic zirconia looks just like another form of this element. One form of this element is used as a nuclear moderator even though it caught fire at Chernobyl. This is the more abundant element in anthracene and naphthalene. There are seven atoms of it in toluene and six in (*) phenol. A form of this element is composed of loosely-bound repeating hexagonal sheets and makes a great lubricant. A highly porous form of this element is a great chemical scrubber, its "activated" form. For 10 points, name this element that forms nanotubes, fullerenes, graphite, and diamonds.

René Descartes (accept terms based on the word Cartesian, like Cartesian plane)

A formula named for this mathematician gives the curvature of a Soddy circle as the sum of three curvatures, plus or minus twice the square root of the sum of their pairwise products. A binary operation giving the set of ordered pairs of elements from each operand is this man's namesake (*) "product," and the number of positive or negative roots of a polynomial can be bounded with his "rule of signs". This man gives his name to the coordinate system where points represent distances from the axes, as in the standard 2D xy plane. For 10 points, name this French mathematician who also wrote the philosophical statement "I think, therefore I am."

induction

A generalization of a law describing this effect states that the curl of the electric field equals the negative partial time derivative of the magnetic field. Eddy currents, which dissipate heat, are generated by this effect, and the direction of the result of this effect is given by (*) Lenz's law. This effect is described by an equation which states that the time derivative of magnetic flux equals EMF; that law is named for Faraday. Generators and transformers rely on this effect. For 10 points, name this effect in which a changing magnetic field produces a current.

weak force (accept weak interaction)

A graphical construct used to visualize this interaction is the unitarity triangle. A matrix named for Cabibbo, Kobayashi, and Maskawa explains reactions mediated by this interaction. Stochastic cooling of proton beams was used to discover the mediators of this interaction, leading to the Nobel Prize of (*) Carlo Rubbia and Simon van der Meer. Cronin and Fitch used kaon decay to show that this interaction violates CP-symmetry. This force was unified with electromagnetism by Salam, Weinberg, and Glashow. For 10 points, name this fundamental force mediated by the W and Z bosons and responsible for beta-decay.

circles

A group named for these shapes is often constructed as the quotient of the reals by the integers. These shapes are fractally packed in the Apollonian gasket. The area of a quadrilateral that intersects one of these shapes exactly four times can be computed with Brahmagupta's formula. Parts of two of these shapes are (*) drawn in the classic construction of a perpendicular bisector. In the complex plane, the roots of unity lie on one of these shapes. These shapes are intersected by lines called secants and line segments called chords. These shapes consist of all points a fixed distance from a given point. For 10 points, name these shapes whose circumference is two-pi times their radius.

T

A polar and uncharged amino acid denoted by this letter is synthesized using aspartate in bacteria. Interleukin 2 promotes the differentiation of a type of cell denoted by this letter. That type of cell that can come in an "antigen-naïve" type can express the (*) CD4 and CD8 glycoproteins. A type of RNA with this first letter fits into the P and A sites of ribosomes, and that type has a cloverleaf structure containing an anticodon loop. A nucleobase abbreviated with this letter is a pyrimidine and is replaced by uracil in RNA. For 10 points, name this letter that names a nucleobase that pairs with adenine.

molarity (prompt on "capital M"; accept word forms, but do not accept or prompt on just "moles"; prompt on concentration before it's read)

A law named for Ostwald simplifies a fraction with values for this quantity in the numerator and denominator. This quantity times extinction coefficient times optical path length gives absorbance in Beer's Law, and the Van't Hoff factor times R T times this quantity gives (*) osmotic pressure. By the law of mass action, the chemical equilibrium constant of a reaction is given by taking the ratio of this value for the products and reactants raised to their coefficients. This value is represented in square brackets, and it's contrasted with a similar value that uses a lowercase m. For 10 points, name this standard measure of concentration given in moles per liter.

Huntington's disease

A low level of CREB binding proteins is indicative of this condition, and those with over 36 sequential glutamines in the relevant protein have it. The gene controlling this condition has the trinucleotide sequence CAG repeated many times, and it is located on the short arm of (*) chromosome 4. Physical capability gradually declines with this disease, and it often presents itself earlier in subsequent generations. This condition is first noticeable around age 40, and progresses extremely slowly. For ten points, name this incurable genetic disease that eventually causes involuntary movements, an English scientist's namesake chorea.

Staphylococcus

A member of this genus is the most common causative agent of necrotizing fasciitis; that member of this genus comes in the strain USA300. Members of this genus are classified based on their ability to produce coagulase, and they can become deadly if they acquire the cassette SCCmec. Members of this genus divide in irregular shapes, unlike their cousins that cause (*) strep throat. Diseases like toxic shock syndrome are caused by these gram-positive, round bacteria, which usually live on the skin. This genus includes the causative agent of the most common hospital-acquired infection. For 10 points, name this bacterial genus whose aureus species causes MRSA.

mitochondrion (or mitochondria; prompt on "powerhouse of the cell" before it's mentioned)

A membrane associated with this organelle is implicated in ALS, and the CoRR hypothesis explains one unique feature of these organelles. The intestinal parasite Giardia lamblia lacks these organelles, while para-basalids possess hydro-genosomes in their absence. The Baffle model attempted to explain the organization of this organelle's (*) inner membrane, which actually fold into cristae. Like the chloroplast, this organelle possesses and independent genome, and it is the location of oxidative phosphorylation. For 10 points, name this organelle that synthesizes most of the cell's ATP, colloquially known as the "powerhouse of the cell."

diffusion

A model for this process on the surface of a catalyst was made using carbon monoxide "jumping" through platinum to a "free space." James Maxwell and Josef Stefan independently developed an equation to describe this process for dilute gases and fluids, respectively. This process can be described by mobility times (*) Boltzmann's constant times absolute temperature. Graham's law identifies the rate of this process through a small hole as the inverse of the square roots of the molecular mass of a gas's particles. When water undergoes this process across a semipermeable membrane, it is called osmosis. For ten points, name this process in which substances go from areas of high concentration to low concentration.

j (accept either lowercase j or uppercase J, should they specify)

A polypeptide chain named for this letter is a linker-component of antibodies IgA and IgM. In NMR spectroscopy, this letter is used to denote the value of spin-spin couplings and encodes information about bond geometry. In electromagnetism, this letter symbolizes the current density field, and it's the first letter of a SI unit equivalent to a (*) newton-meter. The "hat" form of this letter usually denotes the unit vector pointing in the y-direction, in contrast with the x-vector symbolized as i-hat. For 10 points, give this letter whose capital form stands for the SI unit for energy, the Joule.

mechanical equilibrium

A process for which this condition holds at all times is termed a quasistatic process. In thermodynamics, state functions are only defined in systems with this property. Under the IAU definition, if a body is subjected to gravitational and pressure gradient forces, then it must attain the hydrostatic type of this condition to be a planet. The (*) ​thermal type of this condition holds transitively, according to the zeroth law of thermodynamics. This condition arises at an extremum of potential energy, with maxima and minima corresponding to its stable and unstable types, respectively. For 10 points, name this motionless condition in which all the forces on an object sum to zero.

Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction

A proof of this law writes an area differential as v times the cross product of time and length differentials and then applies the Lorentz Force Law. One form of this law states that the curl of the electric field is the negative time derivative of the magnetic field, and (*) Lenz's Law describes the negative sign found in this law. Maxwell generalized this equation and included in his namesake four equations, and it describes the force resulting from a change in magnetic flux. This law forms the basis for transformers since it describes using induction to generate electromotive force. For 10 points, name this law of electromagnetism named for an English physicist.

transistors

A specialized kind of these devices includes a "wordline" attached to "control" and "floating" components. These devices and their connecting wires are often produced from an oxide layer that's partially removed in photolithography. Quantum tunneling is used by these devices in solid-state (*) memory storage. A drain and a source are connected when a gate receives voltage in the "field effect" variety of these devices, which include MOSFETs. A "bipolar junction" was once used to make these three-terminal circuit components, which often serve as amplifiers. For 10 points, name these semiconductor-based switches, which store "1"s and "0"s in a computer's integrated circuits.

(striated) muscles

A specialized type of this tissue is joined up by intercalated discs. In this tissue, hydrolysis of ATP causes the "head" of a protein to snap forward, attach, and then snap back. This tissue gets an alternating light-dark appearance from its M and Z lines. In this tissue, signals transmitted along T-tubules activate the protein complex (*) troponin. Energy is provided to this tissue by creatine and glycogen. This tissue is activated by the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. This tissue is made of sarcomeres that contain "sliding filaments" of myosin and actin. For 10 points, name this tissue that contracts, allowing you to move.

feature detection and noise applies to all data, but DeepMask is specifically Facebook's algorithm for identifying images)

A standard reference item used for processing these items is named after Playboy model Lena Soderberg. A type of anisotropic diffusion used on these items can result in a "smoothing" named for Gauss. DeepMask is a piece of software that "segments" these items using feature detection while avoiding (*) noise. These items can be stored in rasterized formats, like TIFF, or in vector formats, such as the SVG filetype, which allows these items to scale well when undergoing dimension changes. These files are usually stored as grids of pixels of different colors. For 10 points, name these files that might be of formats like JPEG or PNG.

derivative

A theorem interchanging the order of one type of this operation is named after Clairaut, and the divergence of a field equals the sum of all the values of this operation. The coefficient of the nth term in a Taylor series is the nth order of (*) this operation over n factorial. Calculating a curve's arc length involves the square root of one plus the square of this operation. It equals zero at critical points, and applying this operation on velocity with respect to time gives acceleration. For 10 points, name this operation often calculated by the chain rule that gives the instantaneous rate of change at a point.

two

A theorem states that all simple polygons except triangles have at least this many ears, and the third term in Conway's look-and-say sequence begins with this digit. This is the number of inputs taken by the Ackermann function, and a famous conjecture states that there are infinitely many pairs of primes with a difference of this number. Taking this many derivatives of a function can tell you if it is (*) convex or concave. This number is equal to the sum of one plus one half plus one fourth up until infinity, and it is the number of solutions to a quadratic equation. For ten points, name this number which is the smallest and only even prime.

electric charge

A type of this quantity denoted by the letter X relates the baryon number and lepton number to the weak hyper-[this quantity], denoted Y-sub-w. Integrating the current with respect to time yields this quantity (*) contained within a surface. The derivative of it with respect to a surface element is its "density". The triboelectric effect gives it to materials when they are rubbed together, and Leyden jars store this quantity. It equals energy transferred over voltage and also equals current times time. For 10 points, name this quantity, symbolized Q and measured in coulombs.

gases

According to Mayer's relation, a constant named for these substances is equal to the difference between the specific heat for constant pressure and that for constant volume. Entropy usually increases when particles in this phase of matter are dissolved in a solvent. The compressibility factor, or Z, describes deviations of these substances from being(*) ideal. Pressure is inversely proportional to volume in these substances, according to Boyle's Law. Another equation describing these substances states that PV equals nRT. For 10 points, name this phase of matter that makes up the atmosphere.

sequencing DNA (prompt on partial; accept obvious synonyms that describe figuring out what your DNA says, like determining a genome (at least, before "Genome" is read); accept any organism, but especially human; accept sequencing RNA)

Alpha-hemolysin is a candidate for the nanopore-based variant of this technique. Treating the sample with bisulfite before performing this technique can reveal methylation patterns on CpG islands. The "next-generation" variant of this technique was pioneered by (*) Illumina, and it can be done on a larger scale with the "shotgun" method. Chain-terminating di-deoxy-nucleotides are used in Frederick Sanger's variant of this technique. Craig Venter was among the first to do this, and it was the goal of the Human Genome Project. For 10 points, give this action that describes determining exactly what the makeup of an organism's genetic code is.

e

Also, please read the answerline carefully—it makes some very fine distinctions]Stirling's approximation for factorial has a "n over this number, all to the n" term. The pdf of the standard normal distribution involves this number to the negative one-half x squared. The integral from 1 to this number of the function "1 over x" is equal to 1. This number equals the sum, over all the natural numbers n, of 1 over n-factorial. (*) It's also the limit, as n goes to infinity, of the quantity "1 plus 1-over-n" to the n, which you might run into while calculating compound interest. The derivative of "this number to the x", is just "this number to the x." This transcendental irrational is the base of the natural logarithm. For 10 points, name this number approximately equal to 2.718.

Ethers

An alkali metal can be used to create alkoxides, which are used to synthesize these compounds in an SN2 displacement reaction. Mercury is combined with an acetate ion that is used alongside sodium borohydride in a method known as oxymercuration in order to synthesize these. (*) Williamson names a method for the synthesis of these compounds, and Grignard reagents are stored in them. A cyclic variety of these compounds are known by the name "crown." For 10 points name these compounds which consist of oxygen bonded to two alkyl or aryl groups, and include epoxides.

Isaac Newton

An interference pattern created by the reflection of light between two surfaces is called this physicist's "rings." His 1704 book Opticks demonstrates how color arises from the reflection of components of white light. He names a law relating the rate of (*) heat loss to the surrounding temperature, called his law of cooling. Another law named for this man is an inverse-square law describing a force between two masses; that is his law of universal gravitation. His second law states that F=ma, for 10 points, name this English scientist who names three laws of motion.

sulfur

An oxyanion of this element is found in alum. Two compounds of this element form oleum. An oxyacid of this element is often formed with a vanadium-five-oxide catalyst. Analogues of alcohols with it instead of oxygen are called thiols. Two atoms of this element in nearby cysteine molecules form a "bridge." Its elemental form is a crumbly solid made of (*) eight-membered rings. A diprotic acid containing this element is formed by the contact and lead chamber processes. It is added to rubber in vulcanization. For 10 points, name this yellow element that forms a very poisonous, explosive, and rotten-egg-stinky gas with hydrogen.

feldspars (accept plagioclase feldspar or orthoclase feldspar or alkali feldspar; anti-prompt

Anders Celsius lends his name to a barium-containing member of these minerals. A sodium-rich example of these minerals is albite, and a calcium-rich one is anorthite. Two of these minerals are used to name the QAPF diagram, and these minerals all have exactly eight (*) oxygen atoms. One subclass of these minerals makes up the continuous branch of Bowen's reaction series, and another subclass defines 6 on the Mohs hardness scale. These minerals have orthoclase and plagioclase varieties. For 10 points, name these tectosilicate minerals that make up 60% of the Earth's crust, the most abundant mineral ahead of quartz.

Permian Period

Angaraland was one of the main continents of this era. One theory about an event in this period suggests that frozen methane hydrate deposits melted following the initial eruption of the Siberian Traps. The largest (*) insects to exist on Earth ever lived in this period, the end of which marked the extinction of the trilobites. Seed ferns and early conifers first developed midway through this period, which followed the Carboniferous. This period was the last of the Paleozoic Age and was the first in which Pangaea existed. A mass extinction named for this time led to perhaps 90 percent of living species dying. For 10 points, name this period that preceded the Triassic.

RNA

Aptamers from this substance were the first discovered and are still the preferred source for in-cell SELEX ["SELL-exx"] processes. In another process, this molecule is successively cleaved by Drosha and then Argonaute. The "micro" and "small interfering" types of this molecule can be broken down by a namesake(*) "interference" process. Eukaryotic modification of this molecule, such as the splicing of introns and addition of a 5-prime cap, can affect levels of gene expression. For 10 points, name this single-stranded nucleic acid that is produced from DNA during transcription.

angiosperms

Archaefructaceae was the first known family of these organisms to appear, which occurred during the early Cretaceous period. Organisms in the orders Nymphaeles and Austrobaileyales are examples of their "basal" type. These organisms form endosperm tissue, and they produce a pericarp after double (*) fertilization. They are divided into monocots and dicots depending on their number of cotyledons, and their most notable feature contains a stamen and a pistil. For 10 points, name these seed-producing plants that have fruits and flowers, contrasted with gymnosperms.

macrophages

At the site of tissue damage, these cells release cytokines that cause endothelial cells to express selectins. CCL2 recruits the precursors to these cells during a process called diapedesis. Two forms of these cells are differentiated based on their ability to metabolize arginine into ornithine and nitric acid. Formed from (*) monocytes, types of these cells specific to the kidney are called mesangial cells while those specific to the liver are known as Kupffer cells. During immune response, these cells present antigens to T cells through their MHC class II receptors. For 10 points, name these immune cells that digests cellular debris and foreign substances through phagocytosis.

Capacitors

Because the curl of an electrostatic field is zero, these devices must have a fringe field on their edges. A freely-suspended one of these objects was the central item in the Trouton-Noble experiment. A low pass filter is created when one of these devices is placed parallel to a source in series with a resistor, and its cutoff frequency will be(*) 1 over two pi RC. The simplest type of these devices has a dielectric between its parallel plates, and early examples of them are Leyden Jars. For 10 points, name these devices that store electrical charge, whose namesake quantity is measured in Farads.

current

Both the skin effect and the proximity effect reduce the amount of this quantity. The density of this quantity equals conductivity times the electric field. The EMF of self-inductance is proportional to the time-derivative of this quantity. A term with units of this quantity was introduced by Maxwell and is known as its "displacement" type. The magnetic field created by this quantity is given in the (*) Biot-Savart (" bee-OH sah-VAR ") law. This quantity times voltage equals power. This quantity times resistance equals voltage in Ohm's Law. For 10 points, name this speed of the flow of charge, whose SI unit is the ampere.

Golgi apparatus

CDGs are disorders of this organelle, and a defective enzyme in this organelle causes I-cell disease. Brefeldin A blocks ADP-ribosylation factors in this organelle, and this organelle is the site of O-linked glycosylation. Vesicles coated by the COPII protein head to this organelle, and (*) mannose-6-phosphate directs molecules to the lysosome from this organelle. It has a cis face and a trans face and consists of cisternae, which receive products from the endoplasmic reticulum. For 10 points, name this organelle that packages and distributes proteins, named for its Italian discoverer.

Pancreas

Cancer affecting this organ is often called painless jaundice. This organ's epsilon cells secrete ghrelin, while its delta cells secrete somatostatin. A disease of this organ that leads to its gradual destruction can cause (*) diabetes mellitus. This gland releases enzymes through the Duct of Wirsung that exits at the duodenum, and it contains endocrine cells called the Islets of Langerhans, which release hormones including glucagon. For 10 points, name this organ that regulates blood sugar levels by releasing insulin.

Convergence

Cauchy and Hadamard name a theorem that gives a number associated with this property as the limit as n goes to infinity of the supremum of the nth root of c sub n. For alternating series, this property holds if the absolute value of the terms is monotonically decreasing. Root tests can be used to find the (*) radius of this property. The ratio test can be used to determine this property, by comparing the limit of the ratio of the terms of a sequence. The series one over n squared has this property, but one over n does not. For 10 points, name this property of a series that can sum to a finite value.

Doppler effect

Collisions lessen the effect of this phenomenon on spectral lines in the Dicke Effect. Laser vibrometers utilize this phenomenon to measure surfaces without contact, while echocardiograms can determine the speed and direction of blood flow using this effect. Using canal rays, (*) Ives and Stilwell detected the "transverse" type of this effect. It causes redshift and blueshift in astronomical phenomena, and it explains the change in pitch of a passing ambulance's siren. For 10 points, name this effect in which the frequency of a wave changes for an observer as the source moves.

velocity (prompt on speed; prompt on relativistic beta)

Combining two of these quantities requires adding the quantities and dividing by one plus the product of the normalized form of these quantities, which is known as Einstein's addition formula. Relativistic beta is given by a normalized form of this quantity, and inertial (*) reference frames are characterized by a possibly non-zero constant value for it. One-half the mass times this quantity squared gives the kinetic energy, and this quantity is the time derivative of an object's position. For 10 points, give this vector quantity that gives both the speed and direction of an object.

linear

Complexes with this geometry have a d-orbital splitting diagram with "xy" and "x2-y2" nonbonding, "xz" and "yz" slightly elevated, and "z2" very elevated. Allenes have this geometry due to their cumulated double bonds, and the triiodide ion and xenon difluoride have this molecular geometry since they have a trigonal bipyramidal electron-pair geometry but with three (*) lone pairs about the central atom. The azide anion and hydrogen cyanide possess this geometry, and it's the molecular geometry about any triple bond as well as in carbon dioxide. For 10 points, name this molecular geometry in which the bond angle is 180 degrees.

transition metals

Compounds of these elements are where the Jahn-Teller effect is most commonly encountered. These elements are in the middle of sandwich compounds. Crystal field theory explains the intense colors of coordination complexes with these elements as the central atom. These elements or compounds of them are used as catalysts in the contact process, (*) Haber process, and in catalytic converters. These are the only elements with partially-filled d shells. The oxidation states of these elements are often differentiated with the suffixes "-ous" and "-ic." For 10 points, name these elements in the middle of the periodic table that include nickel and iron.

drag

D'Alembert's paradox concerns a set of conditions in which this force is zero. One type of this force arising from the boundary layer around an object is known as skin friction. The magnitude of this force is given by six pi times the product of velocity, radius, and viscosity for small spherical particles. At high (*) Reynolds numbers, this force depends on velocity squared, and at low Reynolds number, this force is proportional to velocity and can be calculated via Stokes' law. Terminal velocity is reached when this force equals the force of gravity. For 10 points, name this force which opposes the motion of an object in a fluid.

strong nuclear force

Delta baryons turn into nucleons and pions due to this phenomenon. The residual form of this phenomenon is described by the Yukawa interaction, and a theory of this phenomenon involves a non-Abelian gauge theory based on the SU(3) symmetry group. The eight independent (*) carriers of this force are explained by Quantum Chromodynamics. This force involves a color charge and is responsible for the interactions between quarks through the exchange of gluons. This force is merged with electromagnetic interactions and the weak force in a Grand Unified Theory. For 10 points, name this fundamental force that holds neutrons and protons together in a nucleus.

cracking the Enigma code (accept synonyms for cracking like solve or break; accept Ultra before mention; prompt on codebreaking or cryptography)

Description acceptable. In his namesake "tip," John Herivel made a notable contribution to this effort by accounting for the laziness of certain enemy workers. An earlier attempt to perform this action used a "characteristics" method invented by Marian Rejewski, but his work was undone with the addition of two more (*) rotors. This effort was codenamed Ultra, and it used machines like the Bombe in its central location in Bletchley Park. Alan Turing contributed to the success of this effort, which allowed the movement of U-boats to be predicted ahead of time. For 10 points, describe this effort to solve an "unbreakable" German war code.

actin

During apoptosis, this molecule is cleaved downstream of caspase 1 to form two polypeptide fragments of lengths 15 and 31 kilodaltons. In the tissue of a nephron, tight junctions anchor via ZO1 to this protein. This protein attains its tertiary structure with the aid of (*) prefoldin in eukaryotic cells, and it binds to CapZ to facilitate stable formation into filaments. That is the F form of this protein, which can also take the G or globular form. Along with tubulin, this is a major component of the eukaryotic cytoskeleton and is the most abundant intracellular protein in humans. For 10 points, name this protein which slides along myosin filaments during muscle contraction.

chlorophyll

During foliar senescence ["sin-essence"], this substance is broken down in the PAO pathway, resulting in a group of colorless tetrapyrroles ["tet-ra-py-roles"]. Two of these molecules collect energy through resonance energy transfer from auxiliary molecules in antenna complexes. Common arrangements of these molecules are named(*) P680 and P700. This molecule, which consists of a central magnesium atom surrounded by a porphyrin ring, is found in the thylakoid membrane along with pigments such as carotenoids ["car-o-ten-oids"]. For 10 points, name this green pigment responsible for harnessing light energy for photosynthesis.

atoms

Dvyanuka ("div-ya-NOO-ka") and tryanuka ("tri-ya-NOO-ka") were proposed by one philosopher as combinations of these entities. That philosopher, who called these entities "anu," was Kanada. Crookes tubes can be used to find parts of these entities that were previously called "corpuscles." Following the development of (*) quantum theory, the main model of this entity involved shells with discrete energy levels. Using cathode rays in a famous experiment, J. J. Thomson compared these entities to plum puddings. For 10 points, name these units of matter usually consisting of neutrons, protons, and electrons.

fluorescence (accept word forms)

Early observations of this phenomenon were caused by the flavonoid matlaline, and Edman degradation generates molecules exhibiting it. Concentrations of conjugated cyclic compounds like anthracene can be measured using this phenomenon. The intensity of this phenomenon can be decreased through quenching, and it is the basis of a (*) namesake compact lamp. This phenomenon's short lifetime distinguishes it from phosphorescence, though it also involves the absorption of photons. For 10 points, name this type of luminescence in which a molecule absorbs light and quickly re-emits it at a lower wavelength.

Phobos

Efrain Palermo discovered a monolith on this object that is located next to Limtoc crater. An unsuccessful mission to this object included the Living Interplanetary Flight Experiment, and the ESA is planning a sample-return mission to this object called Phootprint. This object's transit across the Sun was captured by the (*) Opportunity rover. This object's orbit lies below the synchronous orbit radius, and it is thought to be a rubble pile. This object's largest crater is Stickney Crater, and it completes its orbit in 7 hours and 39 minutes. For 10 points, name this innermost moon of Mars, which is usually contrasted with Deimos.

semiconductors

Electrons in these materials can acquire an effective mass much larger than their actual mass. A member of the III-V ["three-five"] class of these materials is gallium arsenide. The physicist Walter Schottky discovered that a junction between a metal and one of these materials can be used as a rectifier, and they have a small but finite (*) band gap of only a few eV. They can be classified as "n-type" or "p-type" based on the presence of electrons or holes, and introducing small impurities to them can be used to "dope" them. For 10 points, name these materials with an electrical conductivity between that of metals and insulators.

benzene (or benzol; or phene; or phenyl hydride; or 1,3,5-cyclohexatriene; prompt on "C6H6" before it is read)

Esters in which one of the oxygens is bonded to this molecule can react with Lewis acids in the Fries rearrangement. A chromium atom is bonded to two molecules of this compound in one of the first recorded "sandwich" complexes. Replacing a carbon atom in this molecule with nitrogen produces (*) pyridine, and adding a methyl group to this molecule yields toluene. A vision of a snake eating its tail inspired August Kekulé to solve the structure of this molecule, which contains alternating single and double bonds. This molecule is drawn as a hexagon with a circle, and it has formula C6H6. For 10 points, name this cyclic aromatic molecule.

colloids

Facilitated transport via these systems has been suspected for the long range movement of plutonium on the Nevada Nuclear Test Site. When heavy metals or radionuclides form pure phase versions of these systems, they are known as "eigen [these systems]". Particle agglomeration, as described by the Schulze-Hardy rule, leads to the destabilization of these systems, which can subsequently be stabilized through (*) peptization. These systems often appear blue due to the scattering of light in the Tyndall effect. Types of these systems include emulsions and aerosols, and common examples include milk and fog. For 10 points, name these mixtures in which one substance of microscopic particles is suspended in another substance.

Hooke's Law

For homogenous and isotropic materials, this relation is defined in 3 dimensions with Lamé's first and second parameters. Cauchy's ("co-sheez") generalization of this principle utilizes a 36-entry compliance matrix with Poisson's ratio, Young's modulus, and the shear modulus. For continuous media, this law relates the second order (*) strain and stress tensors. This law is valid for stresses below the yield strength. Objects that obey this law follow simple harmonic motion and the constant in this law relates to the stiffness of a material. For 10 points, name this principle of physics, denoted "F = -kx" that states the restoring force is proportional to displacement for a spring.

Sorting algorithms

For the 1890 census, a battery-driven apparatus for this operation was created by Hollerith using spring-actuated pins, pools of mercury, and a 26-chambered box. That machine's logic supplied the basis for the radix type of this operation. Merritt's inverted taxonomy of these operations are classified by the quality of their splits and joins. Versions of these operations classified by(*) Knuth as exchange-based have a worst-case runtime of Big O of n squared and include Bubble. For 10 points, name these algorithms, like merge, and quick, that places the items of a list in order.

capacitance (accept capacitor; prompt on uppercase C)

For the characteristic impedance of a lossless transmission line, this value is multiplied by "j omega" in the denominator of the square root. For a circuit, the impedance is equal to the reciprocal of the complex unit times angular frequency times this value. This value is proportional to the reciprocal of the log of the ratio of the (*) shell diameters for a coaxial cable. This value is proportional to plate area and inversely proportional to distance in its namesake parallel-plate device, and its product with voltage is the charge. For 10 points, name this quantity that describes the ability of a namesake circuit element to store charge.

statistical independence (accept word forms)

ICA is a technique for separating a signal into additive components that are non-Gaussian and have this property. If X and Y have the property that the product of their expectations is equal to the expectation of their product, then they also have this property. It's not homogeneity, but the null hypotheses for a chi-squared test and for a linear regression slope test are that this property holds. Two (*) random variables possesses this property if and only if their joint probability equals the product of their individual probabilities. For 10 points, name this property of events in which the outcome of one does not affect the outcome of the others.

that includes crimson)

If the carbonyl compound is aromatic, then the precipitate will be this color in a positive Brady's test. If a reducing sugar is present a precipitate of this color is formed by Benedict's and Fehling's tests, and it is the color of selenium crystals and liquid sulfur di-chloride. The allotrope of (*) phosphorous with this color is made of amorphous interlocking tetrahedra, and the lower range of an indicator made from lichen dyes is this color. Performing the flame test on cadmium, lithium, and strontium gives this color, and it's present in minerals containing iron-three ions like ferric oxide. For 10 points, name this color given off by rust and the dust on Mars.

k

If you take the natural log of a quantity denoted by this letter, then take the derivative with the respect to temperature, the result is the change in enthalpy over "R-T-squared," by the Van 't Hoff equation. A quantity denoted by this letter is proportional to the exponential of negative activation energy over "R-T." A quantity denoted by this letter has units of inverse (*) seconds for first-order reactions and can be calculated with the Arrhenius equation. A quantity denoted by this letter is given by product concentrations over reactant concentrations. For 10 points, give this letter that denotes both the rate constant and the equilibrium constant.

null

In Perl, this kind of string can be denoted "q, left parenthesis, right parenthesis." For a matrix A and a vector v, the solutions to the equation "A v equals zero" constitutes the kernel, which is also called the [this] space. In C, strings are terminated with this character. Pointers in C with this value cannot be dereferenced, as they point (*) nowhere. In ASCII, it has value 0. This kind of string is denoted by two quotation marks. In statistics, a hypothesis that can be rejected or not rejected, but never proven, is known by this name. For 10 points, what value in Java is equivalent to "None" in Python?

interphase

In Xenopus embryos, sea urchin embryos, and Drosophila embryos, one phase in this process in functionally non-existent. The process is most affected when gene regulatory proteins of the E2F family have become unrestrained, causing cancerous replication. This process is initiated by the complex of cyclin D and CDK4/6. At the end of this phase, the cyclin (*) B-CDK1 complex activation causes breakdown of nuclear envelope and initiation of the next phase. This phase sees the replication of organelles and the genetic code preceding mitosis. For ten points, name this phase that a cell spends most of its life in that proceeds in three subphases, G1, S, and G2.

two

In a triangle, the distance from the Nagel point to the incenter is this factor of the distance from the centroid to the incenter. The most optimal packing density of n-spheres for this value of n is approximately 0.740, under the face-centered cubic pack. In point-set topology, the separation axiom of this index states that any (*) pair of distinct points in a space X must have disjoint neighborhoods, which is the condition of a Hausdorff space. This is the minimum number of vectors needed to form a basis in the Cartesian plane. The sum of binomial coefficients in the n-th row of Pascal's triangle is equal to this number raised to the n-th power. For 10 points, identify this small positive integer, the only even prime number.

magnetic field

In a vacuum, the curl of this quantity is "1 over c-squared, partial-E partial-t." A differential bit of it is proportional to "I, d-l cross r, all over r cubed." A constant that determines it has numerical value "4-pi times 10 to the negative 7." The line integral of this quantity equals "mu-nought times I-enclosed." Its divergence, or its integral around a closed surface, is (*) zero, by Gauss's law, which states the impossibility of this kind of monopole. One of these things exerts a force proportional to the sine of the angle between it and a current-carrying wire. One of these generated by a current is modelled by the Biot-Savart ["BEE-oh sa-VAR"] and Ampère's laws. For 10 points, name this counterpart to the electric field.

DNA

In cancer research, DMBA is often attached to this molecule. Two of this molecule's components form "spore" and cyclobutane dimers when exposed to UV light. Ethidium bromide intercalates itself into this molecule. This molecule can be repaired by glycosylases and endonucleases. This molecule's CpG sites can be (*) methylated to partially inactivate it. At the ends of this molecule, a "three prime" end is aligned with a "five prime" end, making its strands antiparallel. One component of this molecule is swapped with uracil during transcription. For 10 points, name this molecule made of the nucleotides thymine, guanine, adenine, and cytosine, which encodes genes.

accept * if someone can somehow...verbally express that)

In certain languages, this symbol can be used to spread an array into a function's parameters and is called the splat operator. A version of this symbol named for Kleene ["KLAY-nee"] can be used in regular expressions to denote one or more of the preceding expression, and pointer variables in C can be (*) dereferenced with this symbol. This symbol frequently serves as a wildcard symbol, and in many languages, a forward slash followed by this symbol indicates a block comment. On QWERTY-keyboards, this symbol comes above the eight. For 10 points, name this symbol that typically also represents multiplication.

space

In computers, a page table is a map between the [this word] of virtual addresses and the [this word] of physical addresses. Two events are this-like if there exists some reference frame in which they are observed to occur at the same time, but not in the same (*) place. In probability, the set of all possibilities is referred to as the sample [this]. The structure of this type named after Minkowski is comprised of four dimensions. Triangles have three right angles in a non-Euclidean structure of this type. For 10 points, name this concept often paired with "time" in mathematical models of the universe.

wavelength (accept lambda before read and Compton wavelength at any point in the question; do not accept or prompt on just "length" at any point, even at end of question)

In field theory, the 'range' of a force is approximately equal to the reduced form of this quantity for its corresponding gauge boson. The energy levels of the particle-in-a-box are derived by assuming that a half-integer multiple of this property of the particle is equal to box length. The fundamental of an open pipe is given when this value is twice the (*) length of the pipe, and two pi divided by this value gives lowercase k, or the wavenumber. The phase speed is given by this property times the frequency, and visible light occurs when this property has values from about 400 to 750 nanometers. For 10 points, give this distance between consecutive troughs or peaks for a wave.

Halogens

In gel electrophoresis, an ethidium salt of one of these elements is used as an intercalating agent. An element from this group is found in a compound with potassium in Lugol's solution. In one compound, an element from this group substitutes the hydrogens in hydrocarbons. That compound is used to treat the surfaces of (*) cookware and is called teflon. Another element from this group is used to treat drinking water and disinfect swimming pools and is also found in table salt. For 10 points, name this group of elements that includes fluorine and chlorine.

stress

In general relativity, this quantity, energy, and momentum are the components of a four by four matrix tensor, which generalizes a three by three matrix tensor named for Cauchy. Although this quantity is not unitless, a nonzero value of it produces the Poisson effect. This quantity is on the Y axis of a curve that contains an elastic region and a plastic region. The (*) "shear" type of this quantity acts parallel to the cross-sectional surface. For an elastic material, Young's modulus is equal to this quantity divided by the strain. For 10 points, name this quantity measured in Pascals that describes the internal force acting on a deformed object.

dark matter

In her most famous book, Harvard physicist Lisa Randall hypothesized that this entity could have inadvertently wiped out the dinosaurs. The current standard model of cosmology is named for this entity, one type of which is said to be "self-interacting". This entity was first proposed using the virial theorem along with observations from the (*) Coma cluster, while later more evidence of its existence came from galaxy rotation curves. The energy analogue of this concept was created to explain how the universe's expansion is accelerating. For ten points, name this unobservable form of matter thought to make up roughly 80 percent of all matter in the universe.

diffraction (prompt on "interference")

In one case, this process produces an intensity function that varies as sinc-squared of position. In general, the output of this phenomenon is the Fourier transform of the transmission function in the limit where the parallel rays approximation can be used. This phenomenon has a (*) Fraunhofer type, and it limits image resolution to at most 1.22 times the wavelength. This phenomenon produces an intensity profile when light is shined through two slits, as in an experiment by Thomas Young, and a namesake "grating" using this phenomenon. For 10 points, name this process in which light rays 'bend' around obstacles, usually contrasted with reflection or refraction.

Induction

In one form of this phenomenon, air is forced via a gas compressor, and engines that run on that are contrasted with naturally aspirated engines. Symmetry associated with this phenomenon led Albert Einstein to develop the theory of special relativity. Unwanted entities in these phenomena are known as eddies, and this phenomenon scales linearly with the (*) number of coils. Faraday's Law describes this phenomenon as the change in magnetic flux, and Lenz's Law gives the direction of the resulting electric current. For 10 points, name this phenomenon in which a changing magnetic field creates an electric current.

crystals

In one system for classifying these materials, negative integers are written with a bar on top, and the three integers h, k, and l are used to represent a vector in reciprocal space. The Burgers vector describes "edge" and "screw" dislocations in these structures. The formation of these materials requires the presence of a "seed" to begin(*) nucleation. These structures, which are classified by Miller indices, can contain defects and vacancies among their lattice planes. For 10 points, name this ordered material structure, exhibited by diamond.

kinetic energy

In quantum position space, the operator corresponding to this quantity equals negative h-bar squared over two times the mass, all times the Laplacian. For a relativistic particle, this quantity is equal to: the Lorentz factor minus 1, times mass times the speed of light squared. This quantity is equal to the average of the Hamiltonian and the Lagrangian. It can be defined as one-half (*) momentum squared over mass. The rotational kind of it is given by one-half moment of inertia, times angular velocity squared, while its translational kind is one-half mass times velocity squared. For 10 points, potential energy is often converted to what type of energy possessed by moving objects?

energy

In quantum statistical mechanics, the thermal expectation value of this property is obtained by taking the negative partial derivative with respect to beta of log of the exponential trace of the Hamiltonian. In classical mechanics, the conservation of this property is guaranteed by (*) time translational symmetry through Noether's theorem. Quantum fields cannot attain 0 for their zero-point forms of this property due to the Uncertainty Principle. In particle physics, the vacuum form of this property causes the Lamb Shift in the spectral lines of hydrogen. For ten points, name this property whose rest form in special relativity is equivalent to mass times the speed of light squared.

inflammation

In response to this process, concentrations of acute-phase proteins like CRP increase. This response is mediated by leukotrienes. Diseases principally caused by this process include atherosclerosis and Crohn's disease. Huge numbers of neutrophils gather at the site of this process. At the beginning of this process, the granules in basophils and mast cells release (*) histamine. Diseases involving this process end in "itis," and allergies cause this to happen for no good reason. This condition is the principal target of NSAID painkillers like ibuprofen and aspirin. For 10 points, name this response to damage, infection, or irritation, which results in heat, swelling, and redness.

transcription

In some organisms, compounds like Rifampicin and Hydroxyquinoline inhibit this process, and factories for this process can be located by using fluorescence in situ hybridization. One promoter of this process in prokaryotes is the Pribnow box, and in eukaryotes a Goldberg-Hogness box or (*) TATA box is a promoter of this process. Methylation decreases this process that occurs more frequently in Euchromatin than Heterochromatin. A 5' cap and poly A tail are added following this process in which Uracil is used instead of the more stable Thymine. For ten points, name this first step of gene expression in which an antisense DNA template is read to synthesize mRNA, often preceding translation.

reflection

In telecommunications, the coefficient of this phenomenon is displayed graphically using a Smith chart. Spectralon is useful in photospectrometry because it has near-perfect levels of the Lambertian diffuse type of this phenomenon. In metals, the coefficient of this phenomenon is related to their conductivity using the(*) Hagen-Rubens relation. Perfectly polarized light does not experience this phenomenon when transmitted at Brewster's angle. Above the critical angle, the "total internal" variety of this phenomenon occurs. For 10 points, name this process in which light bounces off of surfaces like mirrors.

halogens

In the Deacon process, transition metal oxides are used as a catalyst to isolate the gaseous form of one of these elements. One of these elements has a roughly 50-50 split between its 79 and 81 isotopes' occurrence in nature. A compound with uranium and (*) 6 atoms of one of these elements is used in enriching uranium and the lightest member of this group was the first discovered to bond with xenon. This group is the only one to have elements that are all three states of matter at room temperature. One of these elements has the highest value of electronegativity. For 10 points, name this group of elements that are one electron short of a full valence shell and include bromine, fluorine, and chlorine.

Density

In the Navier-Stokes equations, if this quantity is constant, then the divergence of u equals zero. Dynamic viscosity can be written as the product of kinematic viscosity and this quantity. Incompressible fluid flows are ones with a (*) constant value for this quantity, and the ratio between an entity's value for this quantity and water's value for this quantity is known as specific gravity. Items sink or float depending on their value for this quantity. For 10 points, name this quantity, which for a material is the amount of mass per volume and can be measured in kilograms per meter cubed.

rate constant (accept k before it's given; accept just rate after "constant" is first read)

In the diffusive limit, as is the case with carbonic anhydrase, this quantity is bounded above by a value of approximately 10 to the 10. This quantity is directly proportional to the transmission coefficient according to the Eyring equation from transition state theory. When plotting the log of this quantity against reciprocal temperature, the (*) slope of the line is the activation energy over the gas constant, and it's given by the Arrhenius equation. The units of this constant varies with the order of the reaction, and this constant is symbolized lowercase k. For 10 points, name this "constant" that more or less symbolizes how quickly a reaction will proceed.

Glycolysis

In the first step of this process, phosphorylation converts phos·pho·fructo·kinase into two isomerases, di·hydroxy·acetone phosphate and glycer·aldehyde phosphate, more commonly known as G3P, which is created in the first five reactions of this process. In the second reaction within this process, four (*) ATP molecules and two water molecules are produced. Also known as the Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway, for 10 points, name this anaerobic process that breaks down glucose into pyruvate, the first step of cellular respiration.

Potential Energy

In the particle-in-a-box model, this quantity is infinity outside of the box, and zero inside the box. Particles penetrate a barrier of this quantity in quantum tunnelling. This quantity denoted by a capital V is subtracted from a counterpart in the expression for the Lagrangian. Kirchhoff's(*) loop rule can be interpreted as a statement of the conservation of this quantity, as voltage equals this quantity per unit charge. This quantity is symbolized as U and is the amount of energy stored in an object. For 10 points, name this type of energy that is often contrasted with kinetic energy.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

In this organelle, calnexin and calreticulin ["cal-re-tic-u-lin"] help with the process of N-linked glycosylation ["gly-co-sy-lay-tion"]. This organelle is the site of enzymes such as protein disulfide isomerase, which help proteins fold properly. Ryanodine ["ry-an-oh-dyne"] receptors mediate the release of calcium ions from this organelle, an essential step in muscle contraction. Vesicles coated with COPII ["Cop-Two"] move from this organelle to the(*) Golgi apparatus. This organelle can be classified based on whether or not its surface is associated with ribosomes. For 10 points, name this organelle whose "smooth" and "rough" types can be contiguous with the nuclear envelope.

glycolysis

In this process, the enzyme triose-phosphate isomerase converts dihydroxyacetone phosphate into glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate. GPI catalyzes one step in this pathway, and intermediates of this pathway include PGAL and PEP. Its rate-determining step is catalyzed by (*) phosphofructokinase, and its first step is catalyzed by hexokinase. Two ATP molecules are produced through this pathway, whose products are converted into acetyl-CoA and used in the Krebs cycle. For 10 points, name this metabolic pathway, the first step of cellular respiration.

auxins

Integral membrane proteins in the PIN family transport the anionic form of these compounds across membranes in what is known as polar transport. When used as rooting powder, these molecules cause roots to develop quickly in a plant cutting. This group of molecules stimulates (*) stem elongation by activating elastins to loosen cell walls in a process called the acid growth hypothesis. 2, 4-D ("two four D"), a synthetic form of this molecule, is used as a herbicide and was employed in Agent Orange. The principle type of these hormones is indole-3-acetic acid, which regulates apical dominance. For 10 points, name this class of plant hormones whose unequal distribution is responsible for phototropism.

protons

It has been theorized that these particles can decay into a neutral pion and a positron, though this has never been observed. These particles have a half life of at least 10-to-the-32 years. These particles are created along with electrons in beta-minus decay. They decay into a neutrino, a positron, and a (*) neutron in beta-plus decay. The ratio of the mass of this particle to that of its negatively charged counterpart is over 1800. These particles are made of two up quarks and one down quark. Ernest Rutherford discovered alpha particles, thereby discovering these particles. For 10 points name these positively-charged particles, found in the nucleus with neutrons.

cystic fibrosis

It is not Hirschsprung's disease, but an early symptom of this condition is an infant's inability to pass meconium. P. aeruginosa commonly infects older patients with this condition, and, due to abnormal intraluminal secretions, males with this disease can lack a (*) vas deferens. This autosomal recessive disorder is most often caused by the delta-F-508 mutation in a namesake chloride channel. Chest percussion and antibiotics are used to clear this disease's respiratory symptoms. For 10 points, name this genetic disease that causes the buildup of thick mucus in the lungs.

diatomic oxygen

It's not NaCl, but this compound is the primary product released by burning chlorate candles. Manganese precipitates out of a solution containing potassium iodide, determining the amount of this compound dissolved in water, in the Winkler Test. This compound is normally found in its triplet state, which makes it paramagnetic. A (*) glowing splint is most often used to test for this gas. This is the most stable form of the first chalcogen, which has other allotropes like ozone. For 10 points, name this gas that burns with hydrogen to form water, and which we breathe for use in respiration.

centrifugation (accept word forms, like centrifuge)

It's not a form of chromatography, but this technique has preparative and analytical types. The quantities resulting from this technique are non-additive and defined in units of time, but they're more frequently expressed in (*) svedbergs. This technique eventually results in a pellet and a supernatant, and a common example of its use is isolating plasma from the other components of blood. The ultra form of this technique subjects samples to forces of up to one million g's and high RPM. For 10 points, name this laboratory technique that separates mixtures by spinning them very, very quickly.

p

It's not n, but Wilson's theorem uses this letter in its representation. One half of a quantity denoted by this letter is multiplied by the inradius to to find the area of a triangle. Fermat's Little Theorem states that any integer a, taken to a power (*) denoted by this letter, will equal a mod this letter. Mersenne names a set of numbers defined as being 1 less than 2 to a power denoted by this letter. A quantity denoted by this letter can be found for a rectangle by doubling the sum of the length and width. For 10 points, name this letter, which is the first letter in the word meaning a number that is divisible by only 1 and itself.

human heart

It's not the Aorta, but Tetralogy of Fallot is a combination of four congenital defects in this organ. This structure in fetuses contains the foramen ovale, and trabeculae carneae are muscular projections in this organ. Bachmann's bundle and Purkinje fibers help this organ become (*) depolarized, and this structure's bicuspid valve has two cusps while its semilunar valve has three. The venae cavae run through this organ, where arrhythmias occur, and it is divided into atria and ventricles. EKG's monitor the electrical activity of, for ten points, what cardiovascular organ that pumps blood throughout the body?

voltage

Johnson-Nyquist noise is typically expressed in terms of the uncertainty in this quantity. One type of this quantity is proportional to current times magnetic field, and arises when a charge carrier is subject to an electromagnetic force. This quantity equals inductance times the time-derivative of current, by (*) Faraday's Law. Kirchoff's second law states that the sum of of this quantity around a loop equals zero. For a point charge, this quantity scales with one-over distance, and, in general, the gradient of this quantity gives the electric field. This quantity equals current times resistance. For 10 points, name this quantity also known as EMF or electric potential.

gravity

Joseph Weber proposed to detect one consequence of this phenomenon using a set of ringing aluminum cylinders. The "A+" upgrade will double the sensitivity of another instrument that observes the effects of this phenomenon. The equivalence principle states that the force due to this entity is indistinguishable from the force experienced in a (*) non-inertial frame. The Pound-Rebka experiment verified the redshift due to this phenomenon. During black hole mergers, it creates "waves" that have been detected by LIGO. For 10 points each, name this weakest of the four fundamental forces, which results from curved spacetime according to Einstein's general relativity.

T cells (or T lymphocytes)

Lck activation in these cells leads to ITAM phosphorylation and ZAP70 binding. Inhibitory checkpoint proteins found on these cells' surfaces include CTLA-4 and PD-1. Steven Rosenberg's lab engineered these cells to express CARs. These cells are called "double negative" if they lack both (*) CD4 and CD8, the latter of which is expressed by its cytotoxic type. Depletion of these cells' "helper" type leads to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, and these cells undergo positive and negative selection in the thymus. For 10 points, name these lymphocytes usually contrasted with B cells.

alternating current

Litz wire is used to minimize the efficiency losses that this phenomenon suffers due to the skin effect. Power transfer due to this phenomenon can be maximized by using a three-phase system. This phenomenon is the input to, but not the output from, a diode bridge. Its strength is reported in terms of the root-mean-square amplitude, which is less than the (*) peak amplitude by a factor of the square root of 2. This phenomenon is converted into its counterpart by a rectifier, and its voltage can be stepped up or down at a transformer. For 10 points, name this type of electrical current that follows a sinusoidal pattern, unlike direct current.

binomial coefficients (prompt on descriptive answers like "n choose k" or "members of Pascal's triangle" or "number of combinations")

Lucas's theorem reduces one of these numbers to a product of them modulo p. Products of these numbers can be summed using Vandermonde's convolution, and a sum of them can be simplified with the hockey-stick identity. If the row index is fixed, they sum to (*) "2 to the n," and they're given by the formula [read underlined part slowly] "n factorial over k factorial times (n minus k) factorial." The namesake theorem of these numbers describes their generation by expanding "one plus x" to the n, and they make up Pascal's Triangle. For 10 points, name these "coefficients" that describe the number of ways to choose k things from n possibilities, or n choose k.

gravity

Mascons are areas on the Moon where anomalies in this phenomenon occur, and spin foam is used as a model to observe the quantum type of this force. This phenomenon is described by the Ricci tensor plus metric times the cosmological constant, and its namesake (*) lensing causes light from massive objects in space to bend as it travels to the observer. LIGO detected this force's waves, and if only this force is acting on an object on Earth, it will accelerate at 9.8 meters per second squared. For ten points, name this force that causes objects to attract to one another and the planets to orbit around the Sun.

weather fronts

Mesoscale convective systems typically form near these phenomena, and shelf clouds indicate the presence of them. The Bergeron classification describes objects that surround these phenomena. Tornadoes with a LEW pattern can form along one type of them, called (*) squall lines. A sharp change in dew point temperature occurs along one type of these phenomena, called a dry line. Their "occluded" type forms when one of them overtakes another. Their "cold" and "warm" varieties are depicted using blue triangles and red semicircles, respectively. For 10 points, name these boundaries separating two air masses.

Muscle

Metabolic waste produced from fermentation in this body structure is transported to the liver in the Cori cycle. This tissue is fundamentally composed of I bands, A bands, and a medial H zone. T-tubules traverse the cells of this structure, (*) assisting in the transduction of the of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Troponin and tropomyosin facilitate the regulation of the main activity of this organ. This structure is composed of the proteins myosin and actin. For 10 points, name this main organ of contraction, categorized into cardiac, skeletal, and smooth varieties.

kidneys

Mutations in three PKD genes lead to a disease characterized by the growth of many cysts in this organ. The left gonadal vein drains into a vein named for this organ, which produces the hormone erythropoietin. A childhood cancer of this organ is called Wilms tumor, and (*) Bowman's capsule is found in this organ. A structure in this organ has descending and ascending limbs that are respectively permeable and impermeable to water; that structure in this organ is the Loop of Henle. The ureters originate from this organ to empty into the bladder, and it's studied by nephrologists. For 10 points, name this bean-shaped organ that produces urine.

Fungi

Mutations to a member of this kingdom from X-rays helped to prove the "one gene-one enzyme" hypothesis of Beadle and Tatum. When working with an organism from this kingdom, Hartwell and Nurse won a Nobel Prize for their discovery of CDC genes and checkpoints in the cell cycle. All orchids depend on members of this kingdom at some point in their life cycle, as they form a(*) mycorrhizae ["my-core-i-zay"]. Model organisms from this kingdom include N. crassa and S. cerevisiae ["cer-a-vis-ee-ay"]. Their cell walls contain chitin [kye-tin]. For 10 points, name this kingdom that includes yeasts, molds and mushrooms.

solar corona (prompt on solar atmosphere; prompt on just sun or Sol; prompt on outer layer of sun, but do not accept any other specific terms or anything not indicating the outermost layer)

NASA's Parker Probe, which is set to launch in July 2018, will study this region. Wave heating and magnetic reconnection are proposed solutions to this region's namesake heating problem, and polar plumes follow open magnetic field lines in this region's namesake "holes." Examination of the spectrum of this region led to the discovery of (*) helium. This region's temperature reaches in excess of one million Kelvin, even though the lower layer chromosphere only reaches six thousand Kelvin. Solar flares accompany this layer's namesake "mass ejections." For 10 points, name this outermost layer of the Sun.

phloem

Necrosis of this tissue caused by parasites known as phytoplasmas leads to several different "yellows-type" diseases. Material in this tissue can be described as diffusing from sources to sinks through plasmodesmata ["plas-mo-dez-mah-tah"]; that model is Ernst Munch's ["Ernst Moonk's"] Pressure Flow Hypothesis. Girdling by beavers kills trees by removal of this part of the(*) bark, which consists of companion cells connected to nuclei-lacking sieve tube elements. Unlike in its counterpart, movement in this tissue is bi-directional. For 10 points, name this kind of vascular tissue that transports sugar and nutrients, contrasted with xylem ["ZY-lem"].

quartz

Nicolas Steno found that the faces of this mineral always join at a 60º angle. This member of the silicate family, whose other major members include plagioclase, biotite, and mica, is the last to cool on either branch of Bowen's reaction series. Vermarine is the name for the green type of this mineral, whose other well known examples include (*) amethyst, citrine, smoky, and rose. Granite is composed mainly of feldspar and this mineral, which has a hexagonal crystal structure. For ten points, name this second most abundant mineral in the Earth's continental crust, a crystalline mineral with formula SiO2.

specific heat capacity

On an adiabat, "pressure times volume, raised to the ratio of two forms of this quantity" is constant. A solid is treated as a collection of 3D harmonic oscillators with the same frequency in a 1907 model of this quantity. The ratio of "this quantity at constant pressure" to "this quantity at constant volume" is called the adiabatic index. Einstein showed why this value for most crystalline substances is 3 times the (*) gas constant in the Dulong-Petit Law. Due to hydrogen bonding, water has an extremely high value for this quantity, at one calorie per gram per degree celsius. For 10 points, name this quantity, which is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of a substance.

meth

One chemical with this prefix is the precursor of L-deprenyl; that chemical is the active ingredient of OTC nasal decongestants. An enantiomer of that compound with this prefix has trade name Desoxyn and, when used recreationally, can cause rapid tooth loss. A narcotic with this four-letter prefix is used to treat (*) opioid addiction and ends in "-adone." Wood alcohol, the simplest alcohol has this prefix, and a greenhouse gas with this prefix, also called carbon tetrahydride, is highly combustible. For 10 points, give this four-letter prefix of the simplest alkane, CH4.

polymers

One class of this type of this substance is known for its very low Young's Modulus and easily returns to its original shape after being warped. Another class of these substances was invented by Wallace Carothers and can be created by heating a namesake salt, and Paul Flory and Maurice Huggins derived an equation to model thermodynamics of solutions with these types of molecules. These materials can be created synthetically or biologically by (*) repeating units of specific molecules. Chain-growth is one of the ways these compounds form, and examples of them include styrofoam and nylon, as well as other plastics. For ten points, identify these compounds formed by linking monomers.

allotropes of carbon

One example of these structures can be classified as "single-walled" or "multi-walled." "HPHT" is a synthetic variety of one of them; that term refers to the intense conditions needed to create one. Another example of these structures forms a geodesic dome shape, that molecule is (*) buckminsterfullerene, or "buckyballs." An electrically-conductive hexagonal lattice called graphene is a type of them, and another example used in pencils is called graphite. For 10 points, name these different configurations of an element with atomic number 14 and symbol C.

microscopy

One form of this technique uses a laser to measure the deflection of a cantilever with a sharp, downward-pointing tip. Another type of this technique is used after applying crystal violet, iodine, and fuchsine or safranin to detect peptidoglycan. This technique, which comes in types like "atomic force," can be performed on living cell using its (*) "phase contrast" variety. The "dark field" version of this technique improves contrast by not having the sample directly illuminated from below. Before undergoing this process, samples must often be stained and mounted under a cover slip on a slide. For 10 points, name this lab technique that uses "optical" and "electron" devices to image very small things.

spectroscopy

One form of this technique uses the transfer of spin-polarization via cross-relaxation, the nuclear Overhauser effect. Another variety of this technique that relies on inelastic scattering employs notch or edge filters. That version involves a Stokes or anti-Stokes shift and is named for (*) Raman. The result of this technique can be plotted on a wavenumber vs. transmittance graph, which peaks between 3700 and 3200 inverse centimeters in the presence of terminal alkynes or amides. For 10 points, name this method of analyzing compounds that comes in NMR and infrared forms.

feldspars

One mineral in this group exhibits grid twinning, usually a combination of pericline and albite twinning. When chemically weathered, these minerals that are frequently present in plutons can form kaolinite. The continuous branch of Bowen's Reaction Series contains examples of a type of these minerals. Examples of them include (*) labradorite and anorthite, and alkali varieties of this mineral group typically have a lower specific gravity than their plagioclase and orthoclase varieties. For 10 points, name this most abundant group of minerals in the Earth's crust that has a Mohs hardness value of six.

fonts (or typefaces; prompt on alphabets or letters or symbols)

One of these artworks originally named after the Haas foundry was created by Max Miedinger. Maximilien Vox designed a system of classifying this genre of art, which relies on dimensions such as the x-height. A debate arose in 19th-century Germany over the relative merits of two types of this art, called (*) Antiqua and Fraktur. A pangram is typically used to display these designs. The spacing of elements in these designs is referred to as kerning, and they can be classified based on whether strokes terminate in small lines called serifs. For 10 points, name these designs, examples of which include Helvetica and Times New Roman.

Alcohols Packet 7 -

One of these compounds is combined with a carboxylic acid to make esters in Fischer esterification. Converting alkynes to ketones involves an intermediate that is the vinyl type of this compound. In sulfuric acid, these compounds can turn into ketones and aldehydes via (*) Jones oxidation. These compounds can participate in hydrogen bonding because of the presence of the hydroxyl group at the end. For 10 points, name these compounds, whose ethyl variety is commonly used as an intoxicant.

halogen​s

One of these elements is ionically bonded to a large heterocycle in an intercalating agent that is often used in gel electrophoresis. Another of these elements is found in a roughly 75-25 mix of its isotopes 35 and 37. A compound of one of these elements turns starches dark blue, and is named for Lugol. Within each period, these elements have the second-lowest atomic (*)​ radii and the second-highest ionization energy. This group contains elements that are solids, liquids, and gases at room temperature. These elements have the highest electronegativity, since they are only "missing" one valence electron. For 10 points, name these elements that include bromine and chlorine.

pulsars (prompt on neutron stars before it's read; accept millisecond pulsar before "Crab Nebula" is read)

One of these objects now nicknamed "Lich" was notably discovered with three first-of-their-kind planets near it in 1989. These objects travel with higher velocities than their progenitors by a namesake "kick," and those recycled through accretion can be termed "millisecond." (*) "Glitches" may occur in these objects due to "starquakes," and the first binary one was discovered by Hulse and Taylor. These objects were called "Little Green Men" by their discoverers Jocelyn Bell and Anthony Hewish, and they cause a blinking "lighthouse" effect. For 10 points, name these rapidly rotating neutron stars that periodically emit radiation.

fungi

One of these organisms was the first eukaryote to have its entire genome sequenced. Some of these organisms reproduce with an ascus, or "sac," including Neurospora crassa. One of these organisms was studied by Beadle and Tatum to support the "one-gene, one enzyme" hypothesis. Subtypes of these organisms include boletes and agarics. They can form a symbiotic relationship with plant (*) roots called mycorrhizae. Many of them possess "gills" for dispersing spores. Model ones of these organisms include Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Their cell walls contain chitin, and their hyphae make up their mycelia. For 10 points, name these organisms that include yeast and mushrooms.

vaccines

One of these preparations was developed following a study by Bodian and Horstmann. That one of these preparations was later outcompeted by one made by Albert Sabin after contamination at Cutter Laboratories caused five deaths. These preparations are often combined with adjuvants, and they can be either (*) "inactivated" or "attenuated." Several of them are combined as DPT or DTaP, as well as the MMR one. While working with sick chickens, Louis Pasteur discovered these preparations, and then applied them to anthrax and rabies. Jonas Salk figured out how to prevent polio using—for 10 points—what inoculations that immunize patients against diseases?

double bonds

One of these structures is removed by Raney nickel in a hydrogenation reaction. One of these structures is formed in dehydrohalogenation by performing an elimination on an alkyl halide. Cis-trans isomerism occurs across these structures. Conjugation occurs when these structures are alternated with a weaker one. Imines, azides, and (*) carbonyl compounds like aldehydes have at least one of these structures. The resonance structures of benzene differ in the placement of these structures. In these structures, the overlap of two p-orbitals forms one pi bond. By definition, alkenes have at least one of these structures, and carbon dioxide only has this kind of bond. For 10 points, name this kind of bond often represented as two lines.

Neptune

One of this object's rings contains arcs with names such as Liberty, Equality, and Courage. That ring, the Adams ring, is influenced by the gravity of a moon of this planet, Galatea. The existence of this planet was predicted mathematically before its discovery at a Berlin Observatory in September of 1846. The largest of this body's fourteen natural satellites is (*) Triton, which was believed to have been pulled away from the Kuiper Belt by this object due to its retrograde orbit. This planet contains a massive storm known as The Great Dark Spot. For ten points, name this object which is the closest planet to Pluto and the furthest from the Sun.

Millikan Oil Drop Experiment

One researcher in this experiment later named cosmic rays and determined that they were indeed originating from outer space. Gerald Horton claimed that this experiment was fraudulent because of unused data points in the published paper. The values determined in this experiment were off by about one percent because of an error in the (*) viscosity of air. This experiment used two electrically charged plates to suspend the namesake material in order to equate the force of gravity with electric force and measure terminal velocity. For 10 points, name this 1909 experiment which determined the elementary charge of an electron.

ionosphere (accept Appleton-Barnett layer before mention of "Appleton"; prompt on "outer atmosphere")

One section of this region was discovered using BBC's Bournemouth transmitter, and it has namesake "sudden disturbances" caused by solar flares. Kennelly and Heaviside predicted a section of this region whose existence was confirmed by Edward (*) Appleton, and this region contains D, E, and F layers. This layer forms the inner edge of the magnetosphere, and it is used to reflect radio waves to remote areas on Earth. This layer contains the upper mesosphere and overlaps with the thermosphere, and its most notable property results from solar radiation. For 10 points, give this layer of the atmosphere so named since it contains charged particles.

aldehyde

One test to detect the presence of these compounds makes use of solutions of copper(II) ("copper two") sulfate and potassium sodium tartrate called Fehling's solution. Partial oxidation of ethanol in the liver by alcohol dehydrogenase forms one product from this functional group. Under aqueous conditions, this functional group can be oxidized to form (*) carboxylic acids and the central carbon atom for this functional group is sp² hybridized. Another reagent that determines the presence of these compounds is Tollen's reagent, which produces a silver mirror. For 10 points, name this organic functional group with a carbonyl bonded to a hydrogen and an R group.

electrolysis

One type of this process can be hindered by the anode ["ann-ode"] effect, and its reactants are dissolved in molten cryolite ["cry-o-lite"]. Sir Humphry Davy was the first to isolate sodium and potassium by performing this process on lye and potash ["pot-ash"], respectively. This technique, which is used in the Hall-Héroult process, is described by two laws by(*) Faraday, one of which states that the mass of the material separated is proportional to the charge passed through the circuit. When this process is applied to water, hydrogen and oxygen gas are produced. For 10 points, name this technique that uses an electric current to drive a chemical reaction forward.

buffer solutions (accept buffering agents)

One type of this substance is used for Mycoplasma detection and is named for McIlvaine. Histidine residues act as these substances when present in hemoglobin. The compound tris is used in the TAE and TBE types of these, which also contain EDTA. Monopotassium phosphate is used as an (*) "agent" of these solutions because it reduces nitrogen loss in soil. The effectiveness of these substances can be determined from the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation, which relates pKa to a similar quantity. In blood, carbonic acid and bicarbonate ions form a system that acts as one of these. For 10 points, name these solutions that resist changes in pH.

Turing machine

One variant of this construct named for Zeno differs from this construct in that the time taken for operations decreases exponentially, meaning that the total time converges to some finite value. This is important because it has been shown that it is impossible to know whether or not one of these constructs will (*) terminate. A "universal" one of these constructs has the ability to simulate any other one of these constructs, and a "multitape" one has multiple heads and multiple pieces of tape. For 10 points, name this abstract device, named for an English computer scientist, which can simulate any computer algorithm.

Mitochondria

Only one eukaryote, monocercomonoides, is known to completely lack this organelle. Ragged red fibers on a Gomori stain show a disease of this organelle, and porins exist in the outer membrane of this maternally inherited organelle that contains its own unique DNA. (*) Hypotheses speculate these organelles may have developed through endosymbiosis. This organelle self-replicates during mitosis and meiosis and has folds called cristae that increase surface area for chemical reactions to take place. For 10 points, name this organelle where ATP is generated during cellular respiration, leading to this organelle's nickname, the "powerhouse of the cell."

diffusion

Onsanger's equations explain the "multicomponent" type of this process, and the Teorell formula modeled this process using Einstein mobility. The motion of the interface between two metals resulting from this quantity is called the Kirkendall effect. Its flux is equal to the negative concentration gradient in (*) Fick's law. Its "facilitated" form, a type of passive transport, occur in protein channels. Osmosis is a form of this phenomenon where water is transported. For 10 points, name this movement of a substance from an area of high to low concentration.

negative (accept specific negatives like negative staining or Gram-negative)

Osmium tetroxide is used in a type of staining described by this adjective that stains the background and leaves the original specimen untouched. The "triple" form of this descriptor describes a type of breast cancer, and viral RNA of this type must be transcribed to mRNA before translation. This adjective describes the (*) feedback loop in which a process's output reduces the process rate, and bacteria with thin cell walls will produce this result in the Gram stain. The absence of the hormone hcG produces only one strip in a test result described by this adjective. For 10 points, give this adjective that describes the result if a test says you're not pregnant.

Thyroid Gland

Overactivity of this organ is treated with the administration of PTU, which blocks this organ's namesake peroxidase. An autoimmune disorder that leads to the activation of cytotoxic T-cells against this organ is named for (*) Hashimoto. The underactivity of this organ causes cretinism. Target tissues of this gland convert its hormone to a more active form through the removal of an atom of iodine, the deficiency of which may cause goiter. For 10 points, name this gland in the neck which secretes thyroxine and calcitonin.

chromatography (accept word forms; accept specific types like high-performance liquid chromatography, thin-layer chromatography, or gas chromatography)

Peak-broadening in this technique can be minimized by optimizing flow rate to account for both eddy-diffusional and mass-transfer kinetics. One variant of this technique uses a polyarc reactor paired with a flame ionization detector. A solution of hexane and ethyl acetate is often used as an (*) eluent in this technique for which a retention factor is typically measured. One class of this technique uses silica gel as an adsorbent as the mobile phase runs through the stationary phase. There are thin-layer, column, and paper types of, for 10 points, what analytical technique used to separate chemical mixtures?

yellow

Pure disulfur dichloride is a liquid of this color. A precipitate of this color is produced when ali-phatic ketones are reacted with 2,4-di-nitro-phenyl-hydra-zine in Brady's test, and it is a characteristic color of aromatic nitro compounds. Lead (II) iodide is an insoluble salt of this color, and (*) sodium chromate produces a solution of this color when dissolved in water. The section of the NFPA safety diamond with this color indicates chemical sensitivity. Fraunhofer discovered the D-line in the spectrum of a star that glows with this color, and the flame test for sodium has this color. For 10 points, name this color that's characteristic of elements like gold and sulfur.

amines (do not accept or prompt on "amides")

Reacting these compounds with excess methyl iodide generates an intermediate also known as a "quat" that carries a positive charge; alkenes are produced when that compound is heated in the presence of silver oxide in the Hofmann elimination. The side chain of lysine contains the functional group that characterizes these compounds. They can be formed by the reduction of (*) nitro compounds. They have "pKb" values around 5 and are thus weak bases, and they react with carboxylic acids to form amides. For 10 points, name these organic compounds characterized by an NH2 group.

ozone

Reacting this compound with alkenes or alkynes will break the carbon-carbon bond through a "one-three dipolar cycloaddition" mechanism first described by Rudolf Criegee. That reaction explains why this compound causes cracking in rubber. It's not sulfur dioxide, but the concentration of this compound can be measured in (*) ​Dobson units. The formation of a chlorine atom via UV light leads to the depletion of this molecule; due to that reaction, CFCs are banned under the Montréal protocol. For 10 points, give this triatomic form of oxygen that forms a protective layer in the atmosphere.

colloids

Red-colored examples of these systems that have lasted for over 150 years contain nanoparticles that were accidentally created from preparing gold for microscope slides. The zeta potential is a key indicator of the stability of these systems, as it describes whether these substances will undergo flocculation. Light passing through these substances can appear(*) blue as this system exhibits Willis-Tyndall scattering. This type of system is the intermediate between solutions and suspensions. For 10 points, name this type of mixture where one substance is dispersed evenly throughout another.

coagulation

Regulation of this process involves Protein C and Prostacyclin, and some disorders of this process include Von Willebrand's disease and Christmas disease. Drugs such as heparin and warfarin, which inhibits reduction of vitamin (*) K, can be used to prevent this process. This process can be harmful due to the obstruction that results when it forms a thrombosis. It is positive feedback loop, and when a genetic deficiency causing the absence of factor VIII of this process occurs, hemophilia is the result. For ten points, name this process that stops bleeding.

Cosine

Repeated iterations of this function on a number converges to .749, which is called the Dottie number. The integral of this function multiplied by e to the x is one half e to the x times the quantity of this function added to its indefinite integral. The Taylor series expansion of this function has "2 n factorial" in the denominator. The general proof of this function's namesake(*) law begins by dropping an altitude and then applying the Pythagorean Theorem. The dot product of two vectors depends on this function of the angle. For 10 points, name this function which, in a right triangle, equals the adjacent length over hypotenuse.

hydrogen gas (accept H2

Ryōji Noyori won the 2001 Nobel Prize for developing an "asymmetric" reaction where this compound is added to a ketone. Palladium can store over 900 times its volume of this gas in an interstitial mixture, and Raney nickel catalyzes a reaction where this gas is added to alkenes. This gas is evolved when zinc is dropped into (*) hydrochloric acid, and three molecules of this compound are used per molecule of nitrogen in the Haber process. When this diatomic gas is combusted, it produces only water. For 10 points, name this elemental gas that was replaced by helium in the use of balloons.

Human Immunodeficiency Virus

SI strains of this virus use the fusion receptor to enter host cells. A 32 base pair deletion in a certain gene immunizes individuals from this disease. That gene codes the receptor CCR5, which is used as an entry point for m-tropic strains of this disease. (*) Reverse transcriptase is used by this retrovirus to insert its genes into the host cell. The disease caused by this virus was once known as "4H disease," referring to the prevalence of the disease among certain groups, including Haitians hemophiliacs and homosexuals. Famously affecting Magic Johnson, for 10 points, name this virus that develops into acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, otherwise known as AIDS.

mass spectrometry (accept MS)

SILAC involves differentially labeling two populations of cells, then analyzing them with this technique. Using this method on compounds containing bromine produces results with two peaks of equal intensity 2 units apart on the x-axis. Phenyl groups are easily identifiable because they produce a value of (*) 77 in this technique, and it usually reports a base peak of 100 on its m/z ["m over z"] scale. This technique measures the time-of-flight of fragmented ions, and then reports bar peaks based on ratios of its namesake value to charge. For 10 points, name this analytic technique in chemistry that, as its name implies, measures the weight of the fragments of a chemical compound.

small intestine

SMA syndrome is a disorder in which this structure is compressed by the superior mesenteric artery. The ampulla of Vater is located in one section of this organ, and Brunner's glands, which protect this organ's lining, lie above its (*) sphincter of Oddi. Peyer's patches are masses of lymphatic tissue found in one region of this organ, and the pyloric sphincter leads into this organ. This organ, covered in villi to absorb nutrients, contains the ileum, jejunum, and duodenum. For 10 points, name this organ that connects the stomach to the colon.

five

SN2 reactions have a transition state where the central carbon has this valency. This is the number of translational plus rotational degrees of freedom for a linear diatomic molecule. Compounds with the square-pyramidal geometry have this many (*) ligands bound to the central atom. In its full combustion, one molecule of propane reacts with this many molecules of oxygen, and it's half the number of electrons in a filled d-subshell. This is the atomic number of boron, and the nitrogen group has this many valence electrons. For 10 points, give this number of carbon atoms in the molecule pentane.

magnetic field

SQUIDs are devices that can measure the strength of this entity, and the Zeeman effect describes how spectral lines are split due to this entity. Because the force caused by it is perpendicular to the motion of a charged particle, this entity can do no work on them, and that force caused by this is known as the Lorentz force. The (*) Biot-Savart law describes one of these entities that is created by an electric current, and Gauss' law states that the flux of this entity through a surface is zero. For ten points, name this vector field denoted by the capital letter B, the counterpart of the electric field.

gene editing (accept word forms as long as they mention genes and editing them; accept genome in place of gene; prompt on genetic engineering and word forms; anti-prompt

Sangamo Therapeutics accomplished this technique by modifying a protein found in Flavobacterium, and Cellectis accomplished this technique by engineering "transcription activator-like effectors," or TALEs. David Liu's lab used fusions of APOBEC1 and a dead endonuclease while modifying this technique to correct (*) point mutations. Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna revolutionized this technique by developing the CRISPR/Cas9 platform, and it can be visualized as using "molecular scissors." For 10 points, describe this technique that inserts, deletes, or replaces genetic material in living organisms.

amino acids (if for some reason they give it, do not accept or prompt on "acid" or "amines"; prompt on polypeptides or proteins before "Murchison"; do not accept or prompt on "DNA" or "nucleotides")

Sidney Fox showed that these molecules spontaneously polymerized when exposed to lava. A notably racemic mixture of these molecules was found on the Murchison meteorite, and they are created in the Strecker synthesis. Filling a (*) flask with a chemical mixture and applying electric sparks managed to generate these molecules in the Miller-Urey experiment, and one of these molecules is attached to the 3-prime end of tRNA molecules. Three nucleotides form a codon for one of these molecules, and the 20 major ones are classified by their "-R" group. For 10 points, name these molecules that are polymerized in organisms to form proteins.

Krebs cycle

Sir Hans Kornberg first used the term "anaplerotic" ["ann-ah-pluh-rot-ic"] to describe reactions that replenish key intermediates in this pathway. The glyoxylate ["gly-ox-oh-late"] cycle shares five of the eight major enzymes used in this process. In this process, a dehydration reaction followed by a hydration reaction converts one molecule into an isomer using (*) aconitase ["ah-con-ih-taze"]. This pathway requires one molecule of pyruvate to be transported into the mitochondria and converted into acetyl-CoA, which combines with oxaloacetate ["ox-ah-low-ah-cet-ate"] to form citrate. For 10 points, name this metabolic cycle that generates most of the NADH used in the electron transport chain.

antibodies

Some components of these proteins include a mostly uniform "constant" or "C" region. A general process for detecting proteins includes an incubation step between the application of primary and secondary types of these proteins. These proteins diversify through VDJ recombination. The concentration of these things is measured in ELISA, and Western blot uses artificial examples of these proteins to (*) detect other proteins. Monoclonal examples of these proteins bind to identical epitopes. These proteins consist of two heavy chains and two light chains in a "Y" shape. For 10 points, name these proteins that trigger an immune response by binding to antigens.

Porifera (accept sponges before mention)

Some types of these organisms produce compounds with antibacterial properties called sceptrin and ageliferin. Cyanobacteria cause the rust-colored bands in Aplysina red band syndrome, a contagious disease that affects members of this phylum. Body systems of this phylum include asconoid, syconoid, and leuconoid. One variety of this organism belonging to the class (*) Hexactinellida has silicon spicules and is known as the "glass" type. In these organisms, water is absorbed through the osculum. Flattened pinacocytes and nutrient-filtering choanocytes are cells bound to the jelly-like mesohyl of these organisms. For 10 points, name this phylum of sessile invertebrates also known as sponges.

skin (accept epidermis; accept dermis)

Surgeons operating on this type of tissue often follow its Langer's lines while making incisions in order to speed healing. Receptors known as Merkel cells are found in the stratum basale of this tissue, and individuals with vitiligo have an (*) unnaturally colored form of this tissue. Desquamation describes the shedding of keratinocytes from this tissue. Secretions occur from the sebaceous glands in this tissue, and exposing this tissue to ultraviolet radiation can cause melanoma. For 10 points, name this tissue that comprises the largest organ in the body and whose diseases are treated by dermatologists.

crystals

The "restriction theorem" named for these materials observed that their rotational symmetries are limited. Louis Pasteur studied mixtures of tartaric acid enantiomers in this form. "Twinning" occurs in two examples of these structures when they share the same lattice points, and vacancy and interstitial defects interrupt (*) patterns in these materials. X-ray diffraction determines the molecular structure of these materials, and some of these materials, like calcite, exhibit birefringence due to their anisotropy. Their most common structures are body-centered cubic and face-centered cubic. For 10 points, name these structured solids, whose "liquid" form are used in televisions.

photoelectric effect

The 1923 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded for work on the elementary electric charge and this phenomenon. The kinetic energy of particles undergoing this effect is given by Planck's constant times the frequency minus the work function. For a given surface, this effect does not occur below a certain frequency, called the (*) threshold frequency. In 1887, an apparatus consisting of a coil with a spark gap was used by Heinrich Hertz to observe this phenomenon. A 1905 paper by Albert Einstein used the idea of discrete quanta of light to explain this effect. For 10 points, name this effect in which electrons are ejected from a metal due to incident light.

alkynes (do not accept or prompt on "alkanes" or "alkenes")

The Bergman cyclization involves compounds with two of these functional groups. A poisoned catalyst containing lead and quinoline reduces these compounds, and is called Lindlar's catalyst. The simplest of these compounds can be made by hydrolyzing calcium carbide and is useful for its high (*) combustion temperature of 3600 Kelvin. The functional group characterizing these compounds has sp-hybridization and is formed from one sigma and two pi bonds. Acetylene is the simplest example of these compounds. For 10 points, name these organic compounds with a carbon-carbon triple bond, contrasted with alkanes and alkenes.

distillation

The Burton process of thermal cracking employs the "destructive" form of this technique. When this technique is applied to multicomponent mixtures, components are designated as "heavy key" or "light key," based on their volatility. The number of theoretical plates needed for this process can be calculated via the(*) Fenske equation. This technique, which employs a condenser to generate reflux, [emphasize] cannot separate a solution of 96% ethanol and 4% water, as it is an azeotrope. The fractional type of this process is used for refining crude oil. For 10 points, name this lab technique used to separate liquids based on boiling point.

limestone

The Chinese landforms of the Miao Room and Shilin are both composed of this type of rock. One theory supposes that the Mayans found the zenith days of the sun using the Holtun cenote, which is made of this rock, and the Great Pyramid of Giza was built primarily using this material. The Lower Florida Keys are composed of this type of rock, formed by the fossilization of an ancient (*) reef. This rock, when eroded, forms karst topography, which can be found at Mammoth Cave. Forming stalagmites and stalactites, for 10 points, name this white, easily erodible rock, notable for forming sinkholes and underground caves.

Niels (Henrik David) Bohr (accept answers like Bohr radius or Bohr model)

The Compton wavelength is equal to the fine-structure constant times a quantity named for this man with a value of about 0.53 angstroms. This man described the imitation of quantum physics to classical mechanics at large numbers as the correspondence principle, and he has a namesake (*) "radius." The Rydberg formula for spectral lines is successfully explained by a model named for this man using transitions in energy levels, and that model named for this man preceded the quantum model. For 10 points, name this Danish physicist who theorized a model of the atom with positively charged nuclei and concentric rings of orbiting electrons.

fertility rates

The Czech Republic in the 1990s is often given as an example of the tempo effect overstating declines in this value as it is measured annually due to a failure of this statistic to take changing age patterns into account. A 2009 study in Nature argued for a J-curve in charting values for this quantity when compared to HDI. The third stage of the demographic transition to an industrialized society includes a (*) decline in this value along with a similar value, the birth rate. The replacement rate refers to a value of 2.1 for this quantity. For 10 points, name this measure of the number of children that an average woman will have in her lifetime.

distillation

The Fenske equation calculates the least number of theoretical plates needed for one type of this process. A Perkin triangle may be used for air-sensitive materials in this process, in which Raschig rings are used to create columns. The McCabe-Thiele method analyzes this process by using the mole fractions of materials used in it. Its (*) fractional type is commonly used to extract elements from the air, and entrainers are often added in this process when performed on azeotropes. This process occurs when the vapor pressure of one substance equals the partial pressure in the apparatus of the surrounding gases. For ten points, identify this process that separates liquids based on their boiling points.

Cyclones

The Fujiwhara effect refers to the interaction of two of these objects. The Coriolis Effect determines the rotation direction of these objects on the macro scale. A variety of this object is measured in intensity on the Saffir-Simpson scale, ranging from (*) Category 1 to Category 5 based on wind speed. These weather patterns can occur on other planets, such as Neptune's Small Dark Spot, but Jupiter's Great Red Spot actually is an inverse of this phenomenon, with a high pressure center. For 10 points, name these meteorological phenomena with tropical varieties called hurricanes and typhoons.

mass

The Leonard-Merritt estimator uses the radial extent and velocity of stars in a cluster to approximate this parameter for the cluster. An empirical law sets the luminosity of a main-sequence star as proportional to this property to the 3.5 power, and when computing it for a galaxy from luminosity, it must be multiplied by 10 to account for dark (*) matter. Sagittarius A-star is a type of black hole known for having a large value for this property, and the Chandrasekhar limit sets an upper bound on it for white dwarfs before they become a supernova. For 10 points, give this physical property, for which the sun has a value of about 10 to the 30 kilograms.

travelling salesman problem (prompt on "TSP")

The Lin-Kernighan heuristic is one of the best strategies for solving this problem, and Christofides' algorithm solves this problem by constructing a minimum spanning tree. The "bottleneck" variety of this problem aims to minimize the weight of the weightiest edge in a cycle. This problem is equivalent to finding the (*) Hamiltonian cycle of lowest weight, and this NP-hard problem is a special case of the vehicle routing problem. For 10 points, name this problem which, given a list of cities and the distances between them, gives the shortest path that visits every city once and returns to the original city.

index of refraction

The Lorentz-Lorenz equation relates this quantity to polarizability and density. In 1967, Victor Veselago showed that it is possible for a material to have a negative value for this quantity without breaking the laws of physics. It is required to know this quantity to calculate the angle at which reflected light will be perfectly (*) polarized off a surface. The critical angle between two surfaces can be calculated by taking the sine inverse of the ratio of this quantity in each medium. This quantity is often used along with the angle of incidence in Snell's Law. For ten points, name this quantity of a material that is defined as the ratio of speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in a medium.

macrophages (prompt on just phages after "engulf" is read)

The M1 type of these cells metabolize arginine into nitric oxide, and the M2 type metabolizes arginine into ornithine. Tumor-associated examples of these cells develop from monocytes when cancer cells secrete CSF1 and VEGF. Specialized examples of these cells in the liver are called (*) Kupffer cells, and are involved in the breakdown of red blood cells. These cells use MHC Class II and lysosomal action to present antigens to helper T cells and activate the adaptive immune response. For 10 points, name these immune cells that engulf foreign matter, and whose name comes from the Greek for "large" and "eat."

precipitation (anti-prompt

The METAR codes RA and SN correspond to two types of this phenomenon, which can be induced by orographic lift. The second letter in the Köppen classification corresponds to this phenomenon. The intensity of this phenomenon can be measured using an udometer, which is alternatively known as a (*) pluviometer. Diamond dust and graupel are two manifestations of this phenomenon, which characterizes the monsoon season. This phenomenon occurs when a parcel of air is cooled to its dew point, and the lack of this phenomenon characterizes deserts. For 10 points, name this weather phenomenon that includes snow and rain.

Charge

The Majorana particle must contain a value of zero for this quantity. Weak interactions were shown to violate symmetry related to parity, time, and this quantity. Surface integrating the electric field gives this quantity according to (*) Gauss' law. In a capacitor, this quantity can be written as the product of capacitance and voltage. Coulomb's law can be used to find the force between objects as a function of distance and this quantity. For 10 points, name this quantity that is positive for protons, negative for electrons, and is the reason for force in an electromagnetic field.

zinc

The Marsh test uses six equivalents of this metal to detect the presence of arsenic. Small crystals of this metal known as "spangles" are usually produced when this element is deposited in the "hot dip" method. This metal often stabilizes two histidine and two cysteine residues. This metal binds the substrate in alcohol dehydrogenase. This metal was stacked with copper and (*) brine-soaked disks to make Alessandro Volta's "pile," an early battery. This group-12 metal, which forms a namesake "finger" motif, is alloyed with copper to make brass. To prevent rusting, metals are coated with this element in galvanization. For 10 points, name this metal with symbol Zn.

polynomial

The Mason-Stothers Theorem about these expressions is similar to the abc conjecture about integers, while Marden's Theorem relates the solutions to one of these to the solutions of derivatives. The nth cyclotomic one of these expressions is irreducible, and a general one of these with degree larger than 4 is unsolvable by the (*) Abel-Ruffini theorem. Vieta's formulas relate the solutions of one of these to its coefficients, and the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra states that one of these expressions has at least one root. For ten points, name these expressions such as x^2*y+1 [read x squared times y plus one] and x^2+3x+1[read x squared times three x plus one], which combine variables and coefficients by only using addition, subtraction, and multiplication.

magnesium

The Pidgeon process uses a silicothermic reaction to produce this substance, which is the primary treatment for the pregnancy disorder pre-eclampsia. This substance is used as a reductant to produce pure titanium in the Kroll Process, and a Schlenk equilibrium takes place in certain compounds containing it. Alkyl halides of this element are added to ketones to form carbon-carbon bonds in the (*) Grignard reaction. The oxide of this element is soluble in ammonia and acids despite being considered practically insoluble in water. An intense white light is emitted in the burning of this element, whose sulfate is known as Epsom salt. For ten points, name this alkaline earth metal with symbol Mg.

pressure

The Poiseuille equation describes a drop in this quantity. This quantity, plus: density times gravitational acceleration times height, plus: one half density times velocity squared is usually constant. Change in this quantity is distributed evenly in all directions, by (*) Pascal's law. An increase in velocity causes a decrease in this quantity, by Bernoulli's principle. The difference in this quantity between the top and bottom of an object yields the buoyant force on an object. This quantity increases with depth. For 10 points, name this physical quantity equal to force over area.

ammonia

The Solvay process bubbles this compound through concentrated brine in order to produce soda ash. In the Birch reduction, sodium and lithium are dissolved in the liquid form of this compound in order to reduce aromatic rings. This compound is used in the Ostwald (*) process to create nitric acid. This compound functions as a Lewis base and has a trigonal pyramidal shape, as predicted by VSEPR theory. The artificial fixation of nitrogen into this compound occurs through the Haber-Bosch process, which is used to produce both explosives and fertilizer. For 10 points, name this compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with formula NH3.

(Lab) Rats

The Sprague Dawley and Long-Evans types of these organisms were developed from the Wistar variety. Sleep deprivation can be induced in these organisms via the "flowerpot technique." A barn outside Rockville, MD that housed large groups of these organisms in the late 1950's was where John B. Calhoun first studied the effects of(*) overpopulation. The spatial memory of these organisms is tested in the Morris water maze. Watson's Little Albert experiments utilized, for 10 points, what rodents who are often subjected to cheese hunting in mazes and are larger than mice?

seven

The Strassen algorithm states that this is the least number of multiplications needed to multiply two 2 by 2 matrices, and along with three, this is the other number of dimensions in which the cross product is well defined. Because it is not the product of a power of 2 and some number of Fermat primes, this is the smallest number n greater than 2 for which a regular n-gon (*) can't be constructed, while the reciprocal of this number gives the smallest cyclic number. When rolling two six-sided dice, this is the most likely sum to come up. For ten points, name this number which is the number of sides in a heptagon and the number of days in a week.

titration

The Winkler test measures dissolved oxygen using this technique on a thiosulfate solution. Its "complexometric" form forms a colored complex of metal ions and its "zeta potential" type acts on colloids and emulsions. A starch indicator forms a blue complex with iodide in a (*) redox-based version of this procedure. A point of inflection occurs at the equivalence point on a curve named for this technique, and phenolphthalein is used as an indicator when this technique is performed on acids and bases. For 10 points, name this lab technique used to find the concentration of an unknown solution.

circle

The Witch of Agnesi curve is defined by the intersection two lines which are determined by two points on one of these shapes, and Monge's Theorem states that the intersections of lines formed by taking certain points on one of these shapes are collinear. The Feuerbach point is defined as the intersection of two of these figures, one of those is the (*) nine-point one of these shapes. The power of a point theorem deals with the intersections of lines with these shapes, and the unit one is commonly used to define trigonometric values. For 10 points, name this shape that is the set of all points equidistant from a given point, whose circumference divided by its diameter is pi.

sunspots

The Zürich number measures the relative quantity of these phenomena. These objects are composed of an umbra and penumbra and Alexander Wilson observed that these phenomena behave as if they are surface depressions. Spörer's law (*) predicts the variation in the latitude of these phenomena, which can be visualized with a butterfly diagram. These phenomena occur in cycles of approximately 11 years and the point of highest activity is known as solar maximum. The Maunder minimum was a period of 80 years when these objects became exceedingly rare. For 10 points, name these dark, cooler regions on the surface of the Sun.

ATP

The alternating catalytic theory states that this molecule is created as a result of the rotation of the gamma subunit. This molecule is created from a namesake synthase that has a F1 and a FO (oh) part. Oligomycin is used to inhibit the production of this molecule, and this molecule consists of a (*) sugar, a purine, and phosphate. Approximately thirty-two of these molecules are produced during the Krebs Cycle. For 10 points, name this energy currency of the cell that can be transformed into ADP through the loss of a phosphate.

T

The amino acid with this one-letter abbreviation is the heavier of the two amino acids containing a hydroxyl group. Ultraviolet light leads to the formation of dimers of a nitrogenous base denoted by this letter. A subgroup of cells denoted by this letter expresses the glycoprotein CD8, and another kind of cell denoted with this letter stores a specific (*) antigen to protect against future infections. This is the alphabetically-later letter that denotes a pyrimidine. A class of cells denoted by this letter has "memory" and "helper" subtypes. The DNA base denoted by this letter pairs with adenine. For 10 points, name this letter that denotes a class of white blood cells contrasted with B cells.

potential energy

The average value of this quantity is related to twice the average value of a related quantity by the Virial theorem. This quantity is subtracted in the definition of the Lagrangian. Force is equal to the negative (*) gradient of this quantity. It equals one-half k displacement squared for a simple harmonic oscillator. The "gravitational" form of this quantity is often symbolized "U" and on earth is defined as mass times little g times the height of an object. For 10 points, name this type of stored energy often contrasted with kinetic.

tyrosine (or 4-hydroxyphenylalanine; prompt on Y)

The biosynthesis of this molecule in plants involves the dehydrogenation and transamination of prephenate, and this molecule can accept a sulfate group from PAPS. This amino acid cyclizes with a nearby serine and glycine to form the chromophore of green fluorescent protein. An AAAH catalyzes the conversion of this amino acid into (*) L-DOPA. Gefitinib and imatinib inhibit enzymes that phosphorylate this amino acid, and it is the precursor of melanin. Along with tryptophan and phenylalanine, this amino acid absorbs ultraviolet light at 280 nanometers. For 10 points, name this aromatic amino acid whose side chain features a phenol group.

Arthropoda

The blood of one member of this phylum contains LAL, which is used to test if injectable therapeutics are safe for human use. Many species in this phylum have compound eyes that can be made of thousands of ommatidia ["oh-mah-tid-ee-ah"]. Members of this phylum have a cuticle that is the primary component of their(*) chitin-based exoskeleton. Thomas Hunt Morgan kept members of one species in this phylum in small jars, initiating its importance as a model organism in developmental biology. For 10 points, name this largest animal phylum that includes crabs, scorpions and fruit flies.

perfect squares

The cannonball problem asks when the number of cannonballs used to form a pyramid is one of these numbers. Lagrange proved that every positive integer can be written as the sum of four of these numbers, and Fermat proved that a prime can be expressed as the sum of (*) two of these numbers if and only if it has a remainder of 1 when divided by 4. If the square root of a positive integer is rational, then the number must be one of these, and the sum of the first n odd numbers is always equal to one of these numbers. For ten points, name these integers such as 1,4,9, and 16, which are equal to a number multiplied by itself.

Buffer

The capacity of these entities can be written as the derivative of one quantity with respect to the co-logarithm of another quantity. Geologists use the redox variety of these to contain the fugacity of oxygen in minerals, and an ICE table can be used to calculate the (*) equilibrium constant for these entities. One equation related to these entities adds the logarithm of the concentration of a conjugate base over the concentration of an acid and is known as the Henderson-Hasselbach equation. For 10 points, name these systems that use conjugate acids and bases in order to resist pH changes.

poliomyelitis (or infantile paralysis)

The causative agent of this disease enters cells by binding to the cell surface receptor CD155 and exists as three different serotypes. The Francis Field Trial tested the effectiveness of a vaccine against this disease, though most modern vaccines use the one created by Albert (*) Sabin. Type 2 of this disease was eradicated in 1999, and it is the most prominent disease currently undergoing a global eradication initiative. The first effective vaccine for this disease was developed by Jonas Salk. For 10 points, name this viral disease that leads to paralysis in 0.5% of cases and famously affected Franklin D. Roosevelt.

calcium

The concentration of this element in the cytoplasm is increased in a pathway in which PIP2 is hydrolyzed to make the secondary messengers DAG and IP3, the PLC pathway. Parathyroid hormone causes increased reabsorption of this element by the kidney, and the release of this element from the sarcoplasmic reticulum when it is stimulated results in (*) muscle contraction. Neurons release neurotransmitters when voltage-dependent channels for this element allow it to enter, and Osteoporosis can occur due to a deficiency of this element. For ten points, identify this element that Vitamin D helps absorb, whose symbol is Ca.

momentum

The conjugate form of this quantity is equal to the partial derivative of the Lagrangian with respect to q dot. In quantum mechanics, the canonical commutation relation between position and this variable is i h-bar. In three-dimensional quantum mechanics, this quantity's operator is negative i (*) h-bar times the gradient operator. The total energy of a free particle is this quantity squared divided by 2 times the mass. For massless particles, special relativity defines this quantity as the energy divided by the speed of light. For ten points, name this quantity, whose time derivative is force and in mechanics is equal to mass times velocity.

Hubble constant (accept Hubble's Law, or basically anything mentioning Edwin Hubble)

The density parameter is inversely proportional to the square of this parameter, and its square is on the left of the first Friedmann equation. For the scale factor a, this value is a-dot over a, and the value of this quantity is about one over the (*) age of the universe. Its empirical value is about 70 kilometers per second per megaparsec. This constant appears in a law of the same name relating the recessional velocity, or redshift, of galaxies to their distance, and that law containing this constant supports the expansion of the universe. For 10 points, give this constant named after an American scientist who also names a NASA space telescope.

caves

The destruction of these places often forms a landscape filled with "cone" or "tower" hills. These places often include "flowers" or "needles" of gypsum. These places often contain delicate, hollow "soda straws." They're not hot springs, but in these places, travertine forms structures called (*) speleothems. These areas form in karst topography when readily available water meets limestone bedrock. Dripping water in these places often makes icicle-like deposits. For 10 points, name these hollow underground landforms that often contain stalactites and stalagmites.

standard deviation

The difference of the means for two different groups divided by this quantity yields Cohen's d, which measures the effect size. A popular stock analysis technique relies on a visualization of this measure known as Bollinger Bands. Finding the square of this quantity can involve Bessel's correction to reduce sample size bias. Multiples of this value produce bands, which include(*) 68, 95, and 99.7 percent of a normally distributed dataset. It appears in the denominator in the equation for the z-score. Symbolized lowercase sigma, for 10 points, name this quantity, the square root of the variance, which measures how spread out a dataset is.

internal energy (accept just energy before "uppercase U" is read, and accept just internal after "energy" is first read; prompt on "uppercase U" before read)

The differential of this quantity is equal to T times dS minus p times dV, implying it is minimized at constant entropy and volume. Using the free expansion of gas into vacuum, Joule's experiment kept this quantity and gravity constant. The temperature derivative of this quantity is the constant-volume heat capacity, and this (*) state function is equal to the enthalpy minus the product of P and V. By the first law of thermodynamics, the change in this quantity is the heat supplied plus the work done, and it is symbolized by uppercase U. For 10 points, name this measure of the total energy inside a system given by the sum of the potential and kinetic energy.

charge

The discovery of weak currents in which this property is not transferred confirmed the GSW theory of the electroweak interaction. When combined with two other transformations, "conjugation" of this property is believed to be a fundamental symmetry of physics. The strong interactions of quarks are mediated by the (*) "color" type of this property. Quarks carry either plus-two-thirds or minus-one-third of the "elementary" value for this property, which was determined in Millikan's oil drop experiment. For 10 points, name this property whose elementary unit is carried by a proton and is about "1.6 times 10-to-the minus-19 coulombs."

apoptosis

The early stages of this process involve activation of scramblases to expose phosphatidylserine ["phos-pha-ti-dyl-ser-ine"] on the outside of cells. Many genes controlling this process, such as ced-4, were first studied in C. elegans. It involves activation of around ten different kinds of cysteine proteases ["pro-tee-ay-ziz"]. This process produces cell(*) fragments that can be engulfed by surrounding cells. It involves the release of cytochrome C from the mitochondria, which activates a cascade of initiator and executioner caspases. For 10 points, name this process of programmed cell death.

RNA

The first isolated aptamers were made of these molecules. These are the molecules that most frequently form stem loops or "hairpins." Amounts of this molecule may be detected and quantified by a Northern blot. One type of this molecule has catalytic capabilities and forms the non-protein part of a snRNP (" snurp ") . Another type of this molecule is synthesized in the nucleolus and forms the non-protein part of (*) ribosomes. This molecule carries amino acids to the ribosomes to make proteins. Introns are spliced out of these molecules, which contain uracil. For 10 points, name this class of nucleic acids, the "messenger" variety of which is transcribed from DNA.

gymnosperms

The first species within this clade to have its genome sequenced was Picea abies, and the stimulant ephedrine can be obtained from one genus within this clade. Organisms within this group typically possess tracheids instead of vessel elements, and characteristically lack (*) endosperm in their seeds. The only extant species in one subclass of this group is the Ginkgo biloba, and the reproductive structures of these plants are found in strobili, or cones. These plants are exemplified by cycads and conifers, and they produce unenclosed or "naked" seeds. For 10 points, name this group of plants contrasted with angiosperms.

chromatography

The first true use of this technique is often attributed to Russian-Italian botanist Mikhail Tsvet ("tsee-VYET"), who used it to separate the components of petroleum. One form of this technique is used to analyze and purify mixtures of proteins. That form, the (*) fast protein liquid type of this process, is contrasted with the high performance liquid type, which uses pumps to pass pressurized liquid solvent through an adsorbent material. Lathe and Ruthven invented the size-exclusion form of this process. The paper form of this technique involves a mobile phase that moves up the stationary phase due to capillary action. For 10 points, name this laboratory technique used to separate mixtures.

hearing (accept word forms; accept auditory sense and other obvious synonyms)

The main region of the brain dealing with this ability is located in Brodmann areas 41 and 42. The volley theory is an extension to one theory of this ability that itself superseded Hermann Helmholtz's place theory of it. The superior temporal gyrus in the temporal lobe processes this ability, and the (*) cocktail party effect describes selectively applying your attention and this ability. The basilar membrane and tiny hairs inside of it process both balance and this sense, and a cochlear implant can be used if this sense is damaged. The primary organ for this sense contains an inner canal. For 10 points, name this sense that processes external sound.

temperature (prompt on uppercase T)

The number of photons in a photon gas is proportional to the third power of this quantity, and it's the partial derivative of internal energy with respect to entropy at constant volume. Lasers triggering a population inversion can curiously produce a negative value for this quantity, and the efficiency of a (*) Carnot engine is one minus the ratio of this quantity in the cold and hot reservoirs. According to the Third Law of Thermodynamics, entropy is zero when this quantity is zero, which occurs at about negative 273 on a certain scale. For 10 points, name this quantity measured on scales like Kelvin or Celsius.

momentum

The operator of this quantity is equal to negative i times h-bar times the gradient, and de Broglie's equation states that this quantity for a particle is equal to h divided by its wavelength. Another theorem states that the product of the standard deviation of this quantity and the standard deviation of position is greater than or equal to (*) h-bar over two, and that statement is Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle. The derivative of this quantity with respect to time is force, and the change in this quantity over a period of time is known as impulse. Measured in Newton-seconds, For ten points, name this quantity which is equal to the product of the mass and velocity of an object.

K

The original NATO microwave band denoted by this letter has been split into three sections by the adoption of the IEEE standard. The amino acid abbreviated by this letter forms a Schiff base with retinaldehyde ["re-tin-al-de-hyde"]. The stellar system of Epsilon Eridani, an active star of the spectral type, is denoted by this letter. This letter is the traditional abbreviation for the(*) Cretaceous Period. It is the symbol for the SI unit of thermodynamic temperature. For 10 points, name this letter, the atomic symbol for potassium.

Haber-Bosch process

The osmium catalyst originally required for this process has largely been supplanted by an iron based compound, though ruthenium based catalysts are still used. This process accounts for one percent of the world's energy consumption and five percent of its natural gas consumption. This process is the main source of modern (*) fertilizers. This process takes place at four hundred degrees Celsius and two hundred fifty atmospheres of pressure. For 10 points, name this doubly-eponymous process in which nitrogen is fixed to form ammonia.

population size

The regulation of gene expression in response to fluctuations in this quantity is known as quorum sensing. A positive association between fitness and this quantity is known as the Allee effect. The simplest method for estimating this quantity is the Lincoln-Petersen method, which involves a single marking and a single (*) recapture episode. The Verhulst model states that the growth of this quantity is exponential until it slows down as it approaches the carrying capacity. For 10 points, name this quantity, the number of organisms in a given area.

geometric (accept answers with geometric describing other words like geometric series; accept word forms like geometry; accept hypergeometric)

The probability distribution given by this name, given a success probability of p, has variance of one minus p over p-squared and mean one-over-p. A distribution that models probability of success without replacement is described by this word prefixed with the word (*) "hyper," and the distribution given this name models the number of trials before the first success. The mean described by this term is the nth root of the product of n numbers, and this word also describes sequences where the ratio of consecutive terms is equal. For 10 points, give this adjective that describes sequences such as 1, 2, 4, 8, in contrast with arithmetic sequences.

Ohm's law

The proportionality constant in a generalization of this statement is equal to the product of electron density, charge squared, and mean free time divided by mass, and that generalization happens in the Drude model. One form of this statement sets the current density equal to the product of conductivity and the electric field, and it can be used to derive a description of Joule heating where the (*) power dissipated is proportional to the current squared. A term in this law is replaced with impedance in AC circuits, and materials following this law exhibit a linear I-V curve. For 10 points, name this law that states that voltage is equal to current times resistance.

gravity

The proposed experiment STEP is meant to test a theory about this phenomenon. The particles theorized to explain this phenomenon are spin-2 bosons that travel at the speed of light. The first type of a wave based on this phenomenon was observed in (*) 2016 and was caused by the collision of two black holes. Escape velocity equals the square root of the quantity 2 times the constant for this phenomenon times the mass of the body divided by the radius. Earth's value for acceleration due to this force is 9.8 meters-per-second-squared. For 10 points, name this fundamental force that is described classically by an inverse square law.

Electrical resistance

The quantum type of this quantity is named for Klaus von Klitzing, and it is applied in the quantum Hall effect. This quantity varies with temperature because of the Kondo effect, and at low temperature many materials see a drop in it according to the Anderson Model. This quantity's inverse is measured in Siemens. After the turn on voltage, (*) this quantity is zero in an ideal diode. The component named for this quantity denotes its value through the use of colored bands. This quantity is added to reactance to yield impedance. For 10 points, name this opposition to the flow of current, equal to voltage divided by current according to Ohm's law.

e (accept Napier's constant or Euler's number; do not accept Euler's constant, as that's actually something else)

The reciprocal of this value is the limiting probability in the hat-check problem, and this value is taken to the power of "minus x squared" in the standard error function. A function that uses this number has Taylor series entries of the form (*) "x to the n over n factorial," and according to Euler's identity, this number raised to "i times pi" plus one equals zero. This number is equal to the nth power of the quantity "One plus one over n" as n goes to infinity, and this number to the power x is the exponential function. For 10 points, give this number roughly equal to 2.718 that forms the base of the natural logarithm.

four

The regular polyhedron that has this many faces is given the Schlafli symbol "3, 3," and the Klein group has this order. In evolutionary biology, this number of "Fs" denotes the basic drives needed for human (*) survival. The total power radiated from a surface is proportional to this power of absolute temperature according to the Stefan-Boltzmann Law, and an atom loses this many neutrons and protons total when undergoing alpha decay. There are this many fundamental forces. For 10 points, give this number of hydrogen atoms in methane and the atomic number of beryllium.

vectors

The replacement theorem shows that every basis of a space named for this word has the same size. Some of these structures are linearly dependent if one of them can be written as a combination of the others. Calculus on [this]-valued functions uses the operators "div" and "curl." A type of graphics named for this word can be (*) scaled indefinitely, unlike raster graphics. In epidemiology, this is the term for pathogen-carrying organism, such as a mosquito. They can be multiplied by scalars, and the parallelogram law governs their addition. For 10 points, name these structures which are often depicted on the Cartesian plane as an arrow with magnitude and direction.

fruit fly

The sex of this organism is determined by the ratio of X chromosomes to autosomes, and cells of this organism independently decide to be either male or female. Some of the genes found in this organism include the bicoid and hunchback genes that regulate its development, as well as the Ken and Barbie genes. The cell mediated immune response in this organism is mediated by the IMD and (*) toll pathways. This organism was used to prove the concept of genetic linkage by a Columbia student named Alfred Sturtevant, who worked in a room named for this organism. For ten points, name this model organism used by Thomas Hunt Morgan with the scientific name Drosophila Melanogaster.

Chordata

The sonic hedgehog gene is possessed by animals in this phylum, and that gene is secreted in the zone of polarizing activity. One branch of this phylum is split into agantha, which are organisms lacking a jaw. Hagfishes are an example of this phylum's gnathosoma subphylum. In this phylum, (*) pharyngeal slits serve as a location for the exchange of air and water. Organisms in this phylum have a post anal tail and a notochord. One subphylum of this phylum is Mammalia. For 10 points, name this phylum containing all vertebrates, including humans.

alcohols

These functional groups are produced by ring opening of epoxides. Lithium aluminum hydride can completely reduce a carbonyl group to this functional group. A mixture of one of these substances with 4% water forms a positive azeotrope. One of these substances, the most commonly used(*) bio-fuel, can be produced by fermentation of corn or yeast in bread. The isopropyl ["eye-so-pro-pull"] type of these substances is used in hand sanitizer. For 10 points, name this functional group characterized by a hydroxyl ["hy-drox-ill"] compound, the simplest one of which is methanol.

loops

The speed of these structures can be increased by using Duff's device or other techniques for "unrolling." That speedup is achieved by reducing the frequency of control instructions for these structures. Control is often passed to the next example of one of these structures by using the keyword "continue," and these structures are often ended using the keyword (*) "break." The beginning of one of these structures initializes a variable, sets a condition for termination, and describes incrementation of the variable. These control structures are most commonly initiated using the keywords "while" or "for." For 10 points, name these blocks of code that repeatedly execute their contents.

Sample size

The standard error of a sampling mean distribution is equal to the standard deviation of the sample divided by the square root of [this quantity]. Increasing this quantity will decrease the margin of error of a confidence interval without lowering the confidence level. The (*) Central Limit Theorem states that as this value increases, the sampling distribution approaches a normal distribution. The mean of a set is equal to the sum of the data points divided by this value. For 10 points, name this value, represented by n, which is the number of data points in a set.

electric dipoles

These entities account for the "L equals one" contribution to the electric potential, which is described by first-order spherical harmonics. A time-varying one of these entities produces the radiation emitted from "rabbit ears" and other simple antennas. These entities, which experience a torque when placed in an electric field, produce an electric potential that falls off with the (*) square of distance and a field that falls off with the cube of distance. The strength of one of these entities, which is measured in debyes and calculated as "q times d," is known as its "moment." For 10 points, name these entities that consist of separated positive and negative charges.

ions

The van't Hoff factor is often lower than expected due to the "pairing" or "association" of these species. Water is often softened by exchanging these species using a namesake resin. Adding this kind of species decreases in the solubility of a solid in an application of Le Châtelier's principle named for a (*) "common" one of them. Alkali metals require the least energy to be turned into one of these species. Dissociation splits salts into these species, which are the main constituents of plasmas. For 10 points, name these atoms or molecules with nonzero net charge.

vertex

These entities are operated on by the Gouraud method and similar algorithms. That class of shading algorithms named for these entities are the most widely used 3D shaders. The equation "negative b over two-a" is used to find one of these entities. For a quadratic equation, completing the square converts the equation to the (*) form named after one of these entities. For a polyhedron, "two, plus edges, minus faces" equals the number of these entities. The dual of a polyhedron has faces centered at these points on the original polyhedron. For 10 points, name these points where two edges or line segments meet.

Lake

These entities can be described as lentic, and one on Titan is known as Kraken Mare. Paternosters are a series of these things, which can be split into holomictic and meromictic varieties. Limnology is the study of these entities, and when glaciers form these entities they are known as (*) tarns. Retreating glaciers can form the kettle varieties of these entities. Oxbow types of these entities form when meanders in rivers get cut off from the main source. For 10 points, name these bodies of water that are larger than ponds and include examples like Michigan and Superior.

red blood​ cells

These cells can fail to mature as a result of atrophic gastritis. These cells proliferate in polycythemia, and they are created from reticulocytes. Formation of these cells is inhibited by low amounts of vitamins B9 and B12. These cells are affected by the E-6-V mutation of glutamic acid to valine. Breakdown of them creates (*) biliverdin and bilirubin. ​These cells catalyze the production of a carbonic-acid buffer. These cells unusually lack nuclei. They are produced via erythropoiesis in the bone marrow and are afflicted in sickle-cell anemia. For 10 points, name these hemoglobin containing cells that transport oxygen through the circulatory system.

steroid hormones

These compounds always include three fused six-carbon rings fused to a five-carbon ring. Ibuprofen and aspirin are part of a group of anti-inflammatory drugs that are not these compounds. ACTH stimulates the release of both epinephrine and one of these compounds in response to (*) stress. These lipid-soluble compounds include the androgens, and are contrasted with amino acid-derived peptide hormones. These compounds, which are named for their precursor, cholesterol, include all the sex hormones, as well as "cortico-" and "anabolic" types. For 10 points, name these hormones often used to build muscle.

Ores

These materials can be separated from the gangue and rocks by using a Wilfley table. The yield from the tailings of these materials can also be concentrated in a Jameson cell using froth flotation. Exposure to the processing of one of these materials can lead to Shaver's disease. Sulfur dioxide is removed via "roasting" from one of these materials,(*) galena. The Curies discovered radium and polonium in one of these materials that contains uranium, pitchblende. For 10 points, name these rocks such as bauxite for aluminum, from which minerals and elements can be extracted profitably.

aldehydes

These molecules are disproportionated in a basic environment in the Cannizzaro reaction. The Grignard reaction adds magnesium halides to these compounds, and the Takai reaction converts them into alkenes. Fehling's solution and (*) Tollen's reagent help differentiate these compounds from ketones. Examples of these compounds give cinnamon and vanilla their flavor, and the simplest example of them preserves dead bodies. For 10 points, name these organic compounds consisting of a carbonyl group bonded to a hydrogen and an R group.

enzyme​s

These molecules are modeled by the equation "​​V equals ​V-max-​S over ​K-m plus ​S," which uses a steady-state approximation. Their function can be enhanced via cooperativity, and they are usually regulated by feedback inhibition. The function of these molecules is described by the MichaelisÂ-Menten model. These molecules, which often require (*) ​cofactors, can be inhibited competitively or noncompetitively, or regulated allosterically. Via an induced fit, the active site of one of these molecules binds to its substrate, lowering the activation energy of a reaction. For 10 points, name these proteins that catalyze metabolic reactions.

White dwarf stars

These objects undergo Debye ["dih-bye"] cooling after crystallization. One of these objects lies in the center of the Helix Nebula. The structure of these objects is sustained by the pressure of degenerate electrons and these objects cannot obtain energy from thermonuclear reactions. After they become red giants, these objects with mass less than the(*) Chandrasekhar ["Chan-dra-sek-har"] limit shed their envelopes into planetary nebulae. They are shown in the lower left corner of the HR-diagram, and can pack the mass of the Sun into the volume of the Earth. For 10 points, name these fossil stars, the most common stellar evolutionary end-point.

neutron star

These objects were first theorized in 1934 by Walter Baade and Fritz Zwicky, but they were not actively studied until Jocelyn Bell discovered their existence in 1967 with a radio telescope. The core of these objects is thought to be made up of strange matter, and these bodies are held together by a degeneracy pressure higher than that of electron degeneracy. (*) Pulsars are a type of these objects that radiate electromagnetic radiation in two opposite directions. For ten points, name these remnants of a massive star that underwent a supernova, named after a neutral subatomic particle.

ribosomes

These organelles are moved around by SRPs. The structure of these organelles was determined using X-ray crystallography by Venki Ramakrishnan. They have an "exit tunnel" and A, P, and E sites. Cloverleaf-shaped molecules attach to this organelle in a process that works from the five-(*) prime end to the three-prime end. In eukaryotes, the 70S type of this organelle is found inside mitochondria and chloroplasts and is formed in the nucleolus, while the 80S type is attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum. For 10 points, mRNA carries the genetic information to what organelle, the site of translation and protein synthesis?

quark

These particles interact by an effective potential that is about constant at short distances but linear at large distances, explaining why particle collisions result in their pair production. Regularities in the SU(3) classification scheme led to their proposal, and these charged particles cannot exist in (*) isolation due to color confinement. A combination of this particle and its antiparticle make up a meson, and three of them form a baryon. Gluons mediate the strong interaction between two of these particles. For 10 points, name this particle that comes in "flavors" such as up, top, charm, and strange.

neutrinos

These particles were postulated by Wolfgang Pauli in 1930 to explain the conservation of energy, momentum, and spin during beta decay. The proton-proton chain produces two of these particles, which take 8 minutes to travel from the (*) Sun's core to Earth. One method of detecting these particles relies on radiation produced when they travel through tanks of water and these particles are known to oscillate between different flavors during flight. A deficiency in the solar form of these particles was determined by both the Homestake and Super Kamiokande detectors. For 10 points, name this group of neutral leptons that come in electron, muon, and tau varieties.

seeds

These structures contain large numbers of glyoxysomes to produce carbohydrates in the absence of photosynthesis. Phytochromes were discovered in these structures. They're not leaves or buds, but these structures are kept "dormant" by high abscisic acid levels, which drop after a surge in gibberellins. The setting in which these structures form differentiates (*) gymnosperms from angiosperms. These structures contain endosperm and a cotyledon or two. They're formed when an ovule meets some pollen. For 10 points, name these embryos that pierce their hard outer coat to germinate and become plants.

bones

These structures restructure according to Wolff's law, resulting in different thicknesses due to variations in pressure. Sesamoiditis is an inflammation around one type of these structures, exemplified by the pisiform and the hyoid. Growth of these structures occurs at the epiphyseal (*) plate. Formation of long types of these structures requires a hyaline cartilage precursor which undergoes endochondral ossification. Vitamin D can be used to treat diseases in which the density of these structures is reduced, such as osteoporosis. For 10 points, name these structures like the tibia and femur.

alkanes

They're not aromatic, but halogenating these molecules with the aid of ultraviolet light proceeds through a free radical mechanism. The orientation of substituents in these molecules can be visualized, two carbons at a time, using Newman projections. The number of hydrogen atoms in the linear and branched forms of these molecules is two plus twice the number of (*) carbon atoms in the molecule, meaning their degree of unsaturation is zero. Cyclohexane and ethane are examples of, for ten points, what hydrocarbons which possess only carbon-carbon single bonds, unlike alkenes and alkynes?

melting point (accept freezing point; accept "temperature" in place of "point")

Thiele tubes are instruments used to measure this property of compounds using capillary tubes. The purity of organic compounds like aspirin can be checked by measuring the decrease and broadening of this property. For a binary mixture, this property is minimized at the eutectic composition. For water, (*) 1.86 times the molality gives the "depression" in this colligative property, and the change in enthalpy as a material undergoes a namesake process at this value is called the heat of fusion. There's an equilibrium between solid and liquid at this value. For 10 points, give this value equal at standard conditions to zero degrees Celsius for water.

Neptune

This astronomical object does not satisfy the predictions of the Titius-Bode law, and this entity's satellites include Despina and Larissa. One ring of this body includes five distinct arcs, four of which are named for the motto of France, while its other rings include the (*) Arago and Lassell. Objects in 1:2 resonance with this body have an orbital period of about 330 years and are classified as "twotinos," while objects with 1:1 resonance are its namesake "trojans." Storms on this planet include the Scooter and the Great Dark Spot. For 10 points, name this planet orbited by Triton, the eighth from the Sun.

distillation

This chemical process was first recorded in the third century by Greek alchemist Zosimos of Panopolis. The Fenske equation calculates the theoretical number of plates required for this process. Ideal models of this process are governed by (*) Raoult's Law and Dalton's Law, and include batch and continuous forms. Taddeo Alderotti developed the fractional form of this process. This process can concentrate a desired chemical through selective condensation or evaporation. For 10 points, name this chemical process that can be used to produce whiskey, vodka, moonshine, or gin.

blue

This color names the "stragglers" that exist beyond the turnoff point. Stars of this color are dominated by Helium II emission lines. Open clusters are typically of this color and the Balmer line third from the left is of this color. (*) Supergiants of this color have the greatest absolute magnitude of any stars. The star Rigel is of this color, as well as the stars on Orion's Belt. On a diagram partially named after Henry Norris Russell, the points that are farthest to the left are this color. This color stars have the highest temperature and mass of all stars. A shift toward this color is the opposite of redshift. For 10 points, name this color, predominant on the surface of Neptune and Earth.

golden ratio

This constant is the length of a diagonal of a regular pentagon with side length 1, and a similarly named constant is equal to 1 plus the square root of 2. That constant is the limiting ratio of consecutive Pell numbers, while this constant is equal to the limiting ratio of consecutive (*) Fibonacci numbers. This constant can be expressed as an infinite square root with only 1's, and its continued fraction also consists of only 1's. This is the only positive number which is equal to the sum of 1 and its reciprocal, and the square of this number is equal to this number plus one. For ten points, name this constant which is frequently used in architecture and art, equal to 1 plus the square root of 5 over 2, or 1.618.

induction

This effect can be used to produce drag or heating by creating eddy currents. A quantity related to this phenomenon equals voltage over the time-derivative of current. A law about this phenomenon can be written "curl E equals negative partial B partial t." This phenomenon opposes the original change in flux by Lenz's Law. One equation about it states that the negative time-derivative of magnetic flux is the (*) EMF. A circuit part that relies on this phenomenon resists changing electric current. This phenomenon makes transformers, generators, and motors possible. For 10 points, name this electromagnetic effect modelled by Faraday's law, in which a changing magnetic field creates an electric current.

silicon

This element combines with carbon to form carborundum, which is used as an abrasive. NMR spectroscopy using its 29 isotope can be used to analyze zeolites. This element is used to produce mass amounts of magnesium metal via the Pidgeon Process. It can undergo catenation, similar to alkanes, as it is located below(*) carbon on the periodic table. This non-germanium element is commonly used as a semiconductor, and it combines with oxygen to form quartz. For 10 points, name this metalloid used to make computer chips with symbol Si.

aluminum

This element is alloyed with nickel in a hydrogenating catalyst named for Raney. This element's potassium sulfate is used as a fire retardant and as a flocculant in water purification. This element's trichloride is a strong Lewis acid, since this element is trivalent like its group-mate (*) boron. When smelting this metal, its oxide is dissolved in molten cryolite, after the Bayer process extracts its metal's oxide from bauxite. This metal is found in the plus-three oxidation state in corundum. For 10 points, name this lightweight metal produced in the Hall-Héroult process, with symbol Al.

nickel (accept Ni)

This element reacts with carbon monoxide to generate a liquid tetrahedral 4-coordinate complex; that process is exploited to purify this element in the Mond process. Hydrogenation reactions can be catalyzed by an alloy of this metal and aluminum named for (*) Raney. Like zinc, this metal usually occurs only in the plus-2 oxidation state, and like iron, cobalt, and gadolinium, this transition metal is ferromagnetic at room temperature. This metal is usually found with copper in its major ore, and a mixture of it and iron is a major component of the Earth's core. For 10 points, name this metal that actually only makes up one-fourth of its namesake coin.

Nernst equation

This equation does not hold at extremely dilute concentrations of ions due to the decrease in the exchange current density. One term in this equation is multiplied by the natural logarithm of the ratio of the activities of the products to the reactants. One derivation of this equation sets the thermodynamic change in (*) Gibbs free energy equal to maximum non-expansion work. A physiological application of this equation is used to calculate the potential across a permeable membrane with respect to an ion. The right side of this equation contains a term multiplied by one over the Faraday constant and at equilibrium. For 10 points, name this electrochemical equation used to calculate the reduction potential of a cell under nonstandard conditions.

Michelson-Morley Experiment

This experiment was contradicted by an earlier experiment that took place in water and was conducted by Fizeau. Kennedy and Thorndike improved on this experiment to show that its results were independent of velocity. An (*) interferometer was used in this experiment to compare the interference pattern between two beams of light. In this experiment, a beam splitter split light into running in two different directions, and the speed of the two beams was shown to be the same. For 10 points, name this experiment that took place at Case Western Reserve University and disproved the existence of the luminiferous aether.

logarithm function

This function of n-factorial is approximated by Stirling's formula. The number of primes less than x is approximated by x over this function of x. The Euler-Mascheroni constant equals the difference between the nth harmonic number and this function of n, as n approaches infinity. Up to a constant, this function is the integral of 1-(*) over- x. This function of "x -to-the- p" equals p times this function of x. This function allows one to calculate products as sums, using tables of values of it. One can use division to change the base of this function. For 10 points, name this function which is the inverse of exponentiation.

Conservation of Energy

This idea can be proven using time symmetry along with Noether's theorem. The relative speed of a body is proportional to two over the distance between the bodies because of an application of this idea, called the Vis Viva equation. The escape velocity can be found by applying this idea to (*) gravity, and this idea is applied in fluid dynamics as Bernoulli's Law. One law that is derived from this idea states that U equals Q minus W, and that law is the first law of thermodynamics. For 10 points, name this idea in physics that the total amount of energy in a closed system is constant.

silicon

This is the heaviest element in the clay mineral kaolinite. Along with oxygen, calcium, and aluminum, it's the major component of Portland cement. Chert is rich in this element, which it probably gets from the spicules of sponges. This element, which is a solid at STP, is found in every entry on Bowen's reaction series. Rhyolite and other (*) felsic rocks have much more of this element than basalt and other mafic rocks. This second-most abundant element in the Earth's crust forms a tetrahedron with four oxygens in beryl and mica. For 10 points, name this semimetal, a core element of minerals like feldspar and quartz.

standard deviation

This is the smaller of two quantities affected by Bessel's correction. The square of this quantity gives a variable's second central moment. A value outside of k-times-this-quantity happens with probability one-over-k-squared, in Chebyshev's inequality. This value is in the denominator of t and z-scores. Using 2-times-this-value as a rule of thumb gave rise to the (*) threshold "p equals 0.05." Multiples of this value produce bands that include 68, 95, and 99.7 percent of a normal dataset. The square of this value is given by the expected value of the square of a random variable minus its mean. The square root of the variance gives—for 10 points—what measure of how spread out a dataset is?

three (accept word forms)

This is the smallest n for which the nth pedal triangle is similar to the original triangle. Using standard triangle point names, this is the ratio of the lengths of OH ["O-H"] to OG ["O-G"]. The problem of Apollonius involves finding circles tangent to this many other circles, and Heron's formula gives the (*) area of polygons with this many sides. The angle bisector theorem concerns figures with this many sides. In the smallest Pythagorean triple, this is the shortest leg length, along with lengths of four and five. For 10 points, what is the smallest number of sides a polygon can have?

HTML or HyperText Markup Language

This language was invented by Tim Berners-Lee, and initially released in 1993. This language supports the Unicode and ASCII (ask-ee) character sets through the use of UTF-8 and 16 encoding and was extended in 2000 with a variation that implements XML markup standards. The W3C is responsible for updating and maintaining this language, which uses (*) CSS to change the appearance of constructs created with it and SQL (sequel) to allow for database access. This language recently released a fifth revision intended to supersede some functionalities of Adobe's Flash Player. For 10 points, name this markup language used to design websites?

Henry's Law

This law can be applied to ionic solutions through the Sechenov equation. This law is applied in geochemistry in order to determine the potential volatility of magma. This law acts as an analogue to Raoult's Law in low concentration solutions. This law explains the formation of bubbles of oxygen and nitrogen in the joints and bloodstream of (*) deep sea divers, leading to a condition known as "the bends." For 10 points, name this law, shown in action whenever a soda is opened, which states that the amount of gas that can dissolve in a liquid is proportional to the partial pressure.

K

This letter denotes the constant describing why one substance can conduct electricity even in its pure form. This letter is the result of one equation in which only fluids are accounted for and in which the coefficient of the reactants is taken as an (*) exponent. This letter followed by the letter w is equal to one times ten to the negative fourteenth at room temperature. This letter is the result of two processes derived from the ideal gas law, which are equal when one is multiplied by the quantity RT to the power of delta-n. For 10 points, name this letter, used to signify the equilibrium constant and elemental potassium.

B

This letter is used to denote terms for absorption and stimulated emission in the Einstein coefficients. Leon Lederman discovered the quark denoted by this letter, which is the second-heaviest known quark. A quantity denoted by this letter is the curl of the vector potential and is sometimes called the "flux density" to distinguish it from a related quantity symbolized (*) H. This letter denotes a quantity that always has a divergence of zero, and which is crossed with velocity in the Lorentz force law. Since M is already used for magnetization, magnetic fields are denoted by—for 10 points—what letter?

delta

This letter prefixes baryons made up of three up or down quarks, and in mathematics it symbolizes the modular discriminant, symmetric difference, and the Laplace operator. A function described by this letter models the density of a point charge and is named for Paul (*) Dirac. A quadruple bond contains one sigma bond, two pi bonds, and one bond described by this letter. Heat must be added to a reaction if this letter is present in the chemical equation, and this letter denotes a change in a quantity. For 10 points, name this fourth letter of the Greek alphabet whose uppercase form resembles a triangle.

Ernest Rutherford

This man coined the terms "alpha" and "beta" to describe specific types of radiation, and used the former to produce Oxygen-17 and a proton, proving the latter's existence. This man's namesake effect takes advantage of the Coulomb potential of two objects, leading to it often being called Coulomb (*) scattering. This scientist, who names the 104th element, with symbol Rf, challenged the plum-pudding model in his most famous experiment, which he carried out with his students Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden. For ten points, name this man who discovered the existence of the nucleus with his "gold foil" experiment.

Sir Humphry Davy

This man first noted the potential use for laughing gas as an anesthetic. This scientist passed enough current through a thin strip of platinum to make it glow, thus being the first to create incandescent light from electricity, and he suggested using sacrificial anodes to protect the copper bottoms of ships in the (*) Royal Navy. This man used electrolysis to isolate strontium, calcium, potassium, and sodium, and he acted as a mentor to Michael Faraday. This scientist invented a namesake safety lamp for coal mines. For 10 points, name this English chemist who discovered the elementality of iodine and chlorine.

Edwin Hubble

This man names a constant that is defined as one over 67.8 kilometers per second per megaparsec, or 14.4 billion years. That constant differs from the age of the universe because of the nonlinear expansion of the universe, and it was derived from the (*) red shift of retreating galaxies, used to determine the expansion rate of the universe. This man names a telescope that was used to take NASA's Deep Field photo, which depicts more than three thousand galaxies. For 10 points, name this man whose eponymous telescope was launched aboard the space shuttle Discovery in 1990.

Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann

This man names a self aware "brain" which arises randomly from chaos. The BGK collision operator is used in this man's namesake equation, from which the H-theorem can be derived. The energy of the band gap of a superconductor is equal to 3.5 times a critical temperature times this man's namesake constant. Along with James (*) Clerk Maxwell, this man names a distribution which describes the speeds of particles in an ideal gas. This man names a law which states that the energy of a blackbody is proportional to the fourth power of temperature with Josef Stefan. For ten points, name this Austrian physicist whose namesake constant is equal to the ideal gas constant divided by Avogadro's constant.

Albert Einstein

This man proposed a model which helped to explain the Dulong-Petit law at high energies, and he said quantum entanglement was "spooky action at a distance". This man's paper "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies" was part of his groundbreaking (*) Annus Mirabilis papers, which he published while working at a patent office in Bern. This scientist proposed that an object's length would appear to shorten if it is travelling near the speed of light, and won the Nobel Prize for his work on the photoelectric effect. For ten points, name this 20th century physicist who famously stated that energy is equal to mass times the speed of light squared.

Sir Isaac Newton

This man used Divine intervention to explain anomalies that were later accounted for in Laplace's calculus of variations. As part of this man's studies of alchemy, he translated the Emerald tablet, and he thought the world would end after 2060. In his more serious scientific endeavors, he related an object's temperature and the ambient temperature to its rate of (*) cooling. He gave a mathematical basis to Kepler's laws of planetary motion in his Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, which also contains his universal law of gravitation. For 10 points, name this English scientist who developed three laws of motion and discovered calculus concurrently with Leibniz.

Mimicry

This phenomenon partially arose because of the evolution of aposematic coloration, and a namesake variety of Octopus employs chromatophores in order to undergo this phenomenon. One type of this phenomenon is a mutualistic relation between two predators and is known as its "Mullerian" variety. Brood (*) parasites employ this phenomenon in order to raise their young. Its Batesian variety is seen between harmless and harmful species, such as the monarch and viceroy butterflies. For 10 points, name this phenomenon in which the behavior of one species is emulated by another.

Galileo Galilei

This man was one of the first to identify the connection between pitch and frequency, which he discovered in an experiment involving a chisel. This man described Salviati's attempts to sway the neutral Sagredo and Simplicio in one work, and he claimed that mathematics should form the basis of physics in his The Assayer. In a pamphlet by this man, he described several celestial objects which supported the (*) Copernican view of the solar system, such as the four largest moons of Jupiter, which would be collectively named after this man; that pamphlet was The Starry Messenger. For ten points, name this Italian scientist who supposedly dropped two differently weighted balls from the Leaning Tower of Pisa.

Alan Turing

This man's dissertation on the Central Limit Theorem was very close to Lindeberg's proof, but did not contain the "swapping" argument. He described a device with a finite number of internal states, which reads a continuous feed of single-cell memory. In that same paper, this man offered a proof by contradiction that the(*) halting problem is undecidable. This man and his team designed a machine to compute the rotor order, core starting positions, and the plugboard connections of a different machine at Bletchley Park. His namesake "test" can be used to determine if a machine can pass for human. For 10 points, name this British computer scientist, who helped break the Enigma code during WWII.

Charles-Augustin de Coulomb

This man's namesake gauge sets the divergence of the vector potential equal to zero, and he noted the independence of the sliding velocity in his namesake law on friction. This man's most famous result can be derived by assuming a spherical surface around a point (*) charge and integrating using Gauss's Law. This man's namesake constant is one over 4 pi times the permittivity of free space and appears in his namesake law giving an inverse-squared relationship for the electrostatic force between two charges. For 10 points, give this French physicist who names the SI unit of charge.

Thomas Hunt Morgan

This man's thesis studied the embryology of sea spiders, and his work provided convincing evidence for the Boveri-Sutton theory. This scientist discovered a key mutation in the gene dumpy, and he explained Frans Alfons Janssens' observations with the idea of (*) "crossing over." This scientist's observation of a white-eyed phenotype led to the discovery of sex linkage. This man names the unit of genetic linkage, and he demonstrated chromosomes are the carriers of genetic material through his work in the "Fly Room." For 10 points, name this biologist who used Drosophila melanogaster as a model organism to study genetics.

three

This many amino acids are used for catalysis at the active site of enzymes like chymotrypsin. The antioxidant glutathione is made of this many amino acids. DNA has this number of natural conformations. A protein with this many strands contains lots of hydroxyproline, which means Vitamin C is needed to make it. The end of (*) mRNA denoted "this number-prime" is given a poly-A tail. Collagen is made of this many strands. RNA and DNA share this number of nucleobases, since thymine is swapped out for uracil. ATP has this many phosphate groups. For 10 points, give the number of nucleotides in a codon, which is one more than the number of helices in DNA.

two (accept negative two after "negative" is first read; accept second or 2nd after "almost all listings" is read)

This many equivalents of a Grignard reagent are needed to fully reduce an ester. The main reaction in the Daniell cell transfers this many electrons, and in almost all listings of the quantum numbers, this is the position of the azimuthal number, which is also symbolized l. The (*) bond order is the difference in bonding and antibonding electrons divided by this number. This is the number of oxygen atoms in the nitrite ion, and it's the negative charge in ions like sulfate and carbonate. This is the number of electrons needed to fulfill elements in the oxygen group. For 10 points, give this atomic number of helium.

chitin

This material is the main component of Chantui, a major ingredient in several Chinese herbal formulas, and this material is strengthened in invertebrates when combined with sclerotin. This modified polysaccharide derivative of glucose contains nitrogen, and its monomers form beta 1-4 linkages. The acetyl amine group of this material's monomers increases hydrogen bonding between polymers, leading to greater (*) strength. This polymer is composed of N-acetylglucosamine monomers, and it can be found in the radulae of mollusks and the beaks of cephalopods. For ten points, name this compound that makes up the cell walls of fungi and the exoskeletons of crustaceans and insects.

Leonhard Euler

This mathematician introduced a function that, for a prime p to the power k gives "p to the k-minus-one times the quantity p minus one." He introduced notation like "sigma" for sums, "sin," "cos," "tan," and "f of x." He introduced a function that returns the number of integers less than or equal to n that are coprime to it, his (*) totient function, "phi." He identified the fact that "e to the i-pi equals negative one." He founded graph theory by solving the Seven Bridges of Königsburg problem. For 10 points, name this eighteenth-century Swiss mathematician who names the number e.

Alan Turing

This mathematician is the second namesake of a theorem that uses the undecidability of a finitely axiomatized definition of arithmetic to describe the various classes of computing functions. This man showed the undecidability of the halting problem, and he names a "Thesis" with Alonzo (*) Church. This man described a model of computation using an infinite strip of tape with input symbols called his namesake "machine," and a program that can pass as human is said to pass his namesake "Test." For 10 points, name this British computer scientist and mathematician known for helping to break the German enigma code.

vitamin C

This molecule acts as an electron donor in the synthesis of carnitine, and rose hips and the Kakadu plum are rich sources of this vitamin. The hydroxylation of prolein and lysine in collagen requires this vitamin as a cofactor. (*) Linus Pauling encouraged taking megadoses of this water-soluble vitamin, also known as ascorbic acid, to treat the common cold. A condition characterized by bleeding gums and brown spots on the skin is caused by a deficiency of this vitamin; that condition is scurvy. For 10 points, name this vitamin that is found in broccoli and citrus fruits.

Bernoulli

This name is given to a sequence of rational numbers whose first few terms are one, one-half, one-sixth, zero, negative one-thirtieth, zero, and one-forty-second. An equation named after Euler and a physicist with this surname can be used to calculate the deflection of a beam given its weight per unit length. A distribution with this name is a (*) binomial distribution with only one trial, and sets a random variable to one with probability p, and to 0 otherwise. A Swiss scientist with this surname names a statement explaining why pressure drops as fluid flow accelerates. For 10 points, give this name of a "principle" often invoked to explain lift.

Gulf Stream

This natural phenomenon is affected by the "Charleston Bump." Bache discovered that this phenomenon experiences a separation at the "cold wall" after passing the Blake plateau. This feature forms the western boundary of the Sargasso Sea, and was originally mapped by(*) Benjamin Franklin. This feature explains why ocean travel from North America to Europe is faster than the reverse trip. Along with the Canary current, this feature drives the North Atlantic gyre ["jye-urr"]. For 10 points, name this warm-water boundary current stretching from the eastern U.S. through the north Atlantic.

Arabidopsis thaliana (accept A. thaliana before "thaliana" is read)

This organism's EFR protein recognizes prokaryotic elongation factors and enhances bacterial disease resistance. Agrobacterium tumefaciens is used to to transform this organism whose genome of 125 mega base pairs is contained in five chromosomes. Mutations in the SRK and SCR genes enable this organism to (*) self-pollinate, unlike its relatives in the Brassicaceae family. This organism's double flower phenotype was observed in 1873, and eventually led to the ABC model of flower development in angiosperms. For 10 points, name this model organism, a plant that also has species name "thaliana."

Higgs Boson

This particle has a similar mass to cesium but is much shorter lived. This particle carries a force of the same name, and the discovery of this particle led to the experimental verification of the Standard Model (*) of particle physics and was the basis for the 2013 Nobel Prize in Physics. The Large Hadron Collider was constructed in order to confirm the existence of this particle. This particle has a spin of zero, making it a fundamental scalar rather than a gauge, like the W and Z. For 10 points, name this "God" particle that carries mass fundamental to particles, experimentally confirmed to exist by CERN in 2012.

protons

This particle's "radius puzzle" deals with its size, and its "spin crisis" dealt with its unexplained spin. Segre and Chamberlain won the 1959 Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering its antiparticle. This particle may decay into a pion and a positron, and its hypothetical half-life is 10 to the (*) 36th years. A chain reaction named for two of these particles occurs in small stars, and they were discovered by Ernest Rutherford. The number of them in an atom, denoted Z, is called the atomic number. Composed of two up quarks and one down quark, for 10 points, name these positively charged baryons found in nuclei.

Linus Pauling

This person was the first recipient of the Irving Langmuir award in 1931, the year it was established. This scientist used Heitler-London theory and pair bonding to develop the concepts of resonance and hybridization in valence bond theory. This person is the only one to have won two unshared (*) Nobel Prizes, one in Peace and the other in Chemistry. A namesake scale created by this scientist takes on values from 0.7 to 3.98 and is used to describe the tendency of an atom to attract electron densities towards itself. For 10 points, name this American chemist who, in his later years, advocated for nuclear disarmament and megadoses of vitamin C.

Photoelectric effect

This phenomenon causes space crafts to develop a positive charge when exposed to sunlight. Philipp Lenard first observed this phenomenon while working with cathode tubes, initially considering the term "corpuscles" to describe the particles involved. Eventually, he settled on deeming those particles the quanta (*) electrons. The proof of this phenomenon, not of relativity, was the reason for Einstein receiving the Nobel Prize in 1921. For 10 points, name this effect in which electrons are ejected from an object after being excited by incident photons.

hydrogen bonds

This phenomenon is often wrongly believed to be the reason why DMSO can be needed during PCR, when in reality pi stacking is the cause. By connecting carbonyl groups to amino groups four residues away, it creates alpha helices. This interaction is responsible for causing hydrofluoric acid to (*) boil at a higher temperature than hydrochloric acid. Only two of these interactions occur between thymine and adenine, while three occur between guanine and cytosine, and these interactions are responsible for making ice float on water. For ten points, name this interaction that is responsible for the high specific heat of water, as well as its cohesive and adhesive nature.

Max

This physicist developed an energy distribution that, in the high-frequency range, matches the Wien approximation. One of his concepts was extended by Einstein to explain the photoelectric effect. He resolved the "ultraviolet catastrophe" by showing that the negative fifth power of the wavelength is proportional to (*) blackbody radiation. He also showed that energy is proportional to frequency, with the constant of proportionality equal to six point six times ten to the negative thirty-fourth, so energy can only come in integer multiples of a small unit. For 10 points, name this German theorist who invented quantum mechanics and names the constant "h."

Werner Heisenberg

This physicist's work with Born and Jordan was able to explain election rules. State-vectors are treated as stationary while operators vary in time in his namesake picture of quantum mechanics. This physicist's most famous result can be derived from the (*) canonical commutation relation. That result of his states that the product of the standard deviations in position and momentum is greater than h-bar over two, which implies we can't simultaneously know a particle's position and speed. For 10 points, give this physicist who developed a namesake "uncertainty" principle.

incenter

This point is the only point that is the isogonal conjugate of itself, and the orthocenter of an acute triangle is this point for its orthic triangle. The barycentric coordinates of this point are (a,b,c), and this point is on the Euler line for a triangle if and only if the triangle is (*) isosceles. This point only exists for a quadrilateral if the sum of the lengths of its opposite sides are equal according to the Pitot theorem, while the distance from this point to the sides of a triangle times the triangle's semiperimeter is equal to the triangle's area. For ten points, name this point in a triangle which is equidistant from all three sides of a triangle, the intersection of its internal angle bisectors.

conservation of momentum

This principle can be strengthened by a Cauchy continuity equation that can be used to derive the Navier-Stokes equations. Any system which is invariant under translation in space will follow this principle, according to Noether's theorem. This principle implies that a system's center of mass will move with (*) constant velocity. This principle holds componentwise for both elastic and inelastic collisions, unlike a similar statement involving kinetic energy. For 10 points, name the principle according to which the product of mass and velocity remains fixed in the absence of external forces.

Distillation

This process can make use of a Perkin triangle or a Kugelrohr apparatus in its vacuum form. Glass beads are often added during this process to increase its speed by providing nucleation points, especially in its fractional form. (*) In this process, Raoult's law is applied in order to separate out components of a solution. This process cannot be used to separate azeotropes. The fractional form of this process can also be improved through the use of a fractionating column. For 10 points, name this process that, in its fractional form, involves boiling a solution to separate out components with different boiling points.

sterilization (accept word forms)

This process is used to minimize the output of the Coleman-Sagan equation, and the D-value measures the degree of this process. Ethylene oxide and nitrogen dioxide are used in the low-temperature variant of this process. F0 ["f-sub-zero"] refers to the equivalent time it takes to achieve this using (*) steam at 121 degrees Celsius. It's not pasteurization, but pascalization and irradiation are used to perform this process on food, and it can be done using an autoclave. Medical equipment is subjected to this process instead of disinfection. For 10 points, give this general term for a cleaning process that eliminates all microbiological organisms.

glycolysis

This process occurs at a much higher rate in cancer cells, which is known as the Warburg effect. In the fifth step of this process, one of the molecules created by aldolase is converted to the other, glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. This process is often regulated at its rate-determining step, which is catalyzed by phosphofructokinase. The last five of the ten steps of this process occur twice for every input. (*) Gluconeogenesis is chemically the reverse of this process. The product of this reaction is converted to acetyl-CoA and then used in the Krebs Cycle. This reaction takes glucose and produces two molecules each of ATP, NADH and pyruvate. For 10 points, name this first step of cellular respiration.

osmosis

This process was studied by Wilhelm Pfeffer ["Feffer"] using his namesake "cell." External pressure is applied to drive the opposite of this process in a common method for the desalination of water. The product of the van't Hoff factor, molality, and RT gives a colligative property; that is this process's namesake(*) "pressure." A Paramecium's contractile vacuole expels water with this process, which involves movement from hypertonic to hypotonic solutions. For 10 points, name this process in which water diffuses across a semipermeable membrane.

growth

This process, which is stimulated by zeatin, is induced by aleurone cells secreting alpha-amylase. A type of cell involved in it secretes waxy suberin. In some roots, this process occurs in the pericycle. This process is induced by cytokinins and inhibited by abscisic acid. It is mostly vertical in (*) apical dominance. The "secondary" type of it follows an annual cycle, making dendrochronology possible. This process occurs in the cambium and meristem. It occurs in the direction of light in phototropism. For 10 points, name this process that is induced by gibberellins and auxins in plants, and by HGH in humans.

electric field

This quantity appears in the first row and column of the Faraday tensor. Potential energy due to the presence of this quantity is equal to one-half permittivity times the volume integral of the magnitude of this quantity squared. The Poynting vector is the cross product of the H field and this (*) quantity's vector. this quantity is constant between parallel plates in a capacitor. If charges are stable, then Coulomb's law can be used to find this quantity which is measured in Newtons per coulomb. For 10 points, name this field symbolized with an E.

Electronegativity

This quantity can be found for a compound by taking the geometric mean of its values for the individual atoms, and ionization energy and electron affinity can be averaged to calculate this quantity. This quantity is defined through the use of effective nuclear charge on the (*) Allred-Rochow scale, which is taken over the radius squared to yield this quantity's value on that scale. Measuring 4.0 for fluorine on the Pauling scale, for 10 points, name this quantity that measures the ability of an atom to attract electrons.

entropy

This quantity decreases when ionic solids dissolve in water, because the ions become hydrated, although this quantity normally increases when a substance dissolves. The steps of the Carnot cycle keep either temperature or this quantity constant. At constant temperature and pressure, it equals enthalpy minus Gibbs free energy, all over (*) temperature. This quantity is zero only for a perfect crystal at zero kelvin, and it is generally equal to natural log of the number of microstates, times Boltzmann's constant. It cannot decrease spontaneously, by the second law of thermodynamics. For 10 points, name this thermodynamic quantity denoted "S " that represents the amount of disorder in a system.

speed of light

This quantity equals one over the square root of mu naught times epsilon naught. In one formulation of Planck's Law, spectral radiance is proportional to the cube of frequency divided by the square of this property. In particle physics, mass is measured as (*) electron volts divided by the square of this quantity and Cherenkov radiation is emitted when a particle's velocity exceeds this constant for a medium. In September 2011, the OPERA project erroneously claimed that they had measured tau neutrinos moving faster than this constant. For 10 points, name this constant often symbolized as "c," the maximum speed at which all matter in the universe can travel.

pressure

This quantity has a namesake head that represents the internal energy due to a type of this quantity. The Clausius-Clapeyron equation states that the slope of a coexistence curve equals the derivative of this quantity over the derivative of temperature. Evangelista (*) Torricelli invented a device for measuring this quantity, and the first part of his last name is the origin of a unit for measuring this. For an ideal gas at constant temperature, Boyle's law states that the absolute form of this quantity is inversely proportional to volume. For 10 points, name this property of gases equal to force over unit area that measured in Pascals.

fitness

This quantity increases at a rate equal to the variance in it, according to Fisher's fundamental theorem. This quantity increases or decreases along with population size in the Allee effect. The difference between this quantity and its theoretical maximum is used to calculate the genetic load. Relatives share many of the same genes, so they may try to (*) increase the "inclusive" form of this quantity through "allomothering" and other forms of kin-dependent altruism. This quantity is unchanged by neutral mutations, and it's usually increased by natural selection. For 10 points, name this measure of an organism's ability to pass on its genes.

if anyone's wondering why Cherenkov radiation says this quantity is exceeded, and then we say it's impossible, it's because it's exceeded in a medium)

This quantity is cubed in the denominator of the formula for the Abraham-Lorentz force, and the time-averaged Poynting vector divided by this quantity gives radiation pressure. Beta is equal to velocity divided by this quantity. (*) Cherenkov radiation occurs when this quantity is exceeded in a medium, and vacuum permittivity times permeability gives this quantity squared. This quantity is constant in all reference frames, and a 2013 experiment apparently showed this value being exceeded, though special relativity basically says that that's impossible. For 10 points, name this "universal speed limit," a value symbolized by lowercase c.

Spin

This quantity's namesake electron g-factor slightly differed from two, which resulted in one-loops on a Feynman diagram in one effect. That effect was not predicted by the Dirac equation and is known as the Lamb Shift. Three Hermitian matrices used to calculate this quantity's interaction with a magnetic field are named for Pauli. Silver (*) atoms were deflected because of a magnetic field in the Stern-Gerlach experiment in order to prove the quantization of this property. For 10 points, name this property that separates fermions from bosons and is the intrinsic measure of angular momentum.

Sir Isaac Newton

This scientist classified cubic equations into 72 species, but missed six other types. A law named for this man states that the rate of temperature change of a body is proportional to the difference in temperatures between the body and its surroundings. This scientist names a type of (*) fluid where shear stress has a linear relationship with motion. This scientist's version of Kepler's 3rd law includes a factor of four pi squared over the universal gravitation constant. This scientist's second law states force equals mass times acceleration. For 10 points, name this scientist who discovered calculus with Leibniz and developed three laws of motion.

Richard (Phillips) Feynman

This scientist names a function that's the propagator for the Klein-Gordon equation, and he names a notation in which scalar operations written with a "slash" are equal to their namesake vector operators contracted with the vector of gamma matrices. He popularized the "differentiation-under-the-integral sign" trick, and with John Wheeler, this scientist developed the (*) path integral. This man won the Nobel Prize for his work on quantum electrodynamics, and he names a diagram displaying particle interactions. For 10 points, name this American physicist who wrote a book whose title asks him, "Surely You're Joking!"

Richard Phillips Feynman

This scientist scored highest in the 1939 Putnam competition. This physicist provided a quantum mechanical explanation for Landau's theory of superfluidity and worked with Murray Gell-Mann to develop a model of weak decay. With Tomonaga and Schwinger, this man received the (*) 1965 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on quantum electrodynamics. This physicist was an ardent enthusiast of bongo drums and is known for a famous lecture series compiled from his teaching at the California Institute of Technology. For 10 points, name this physicist and author of There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom whose namesake diagrams depict the behavior of subatomic particles.

Heisenberg's uncertainty principle (accept either or both underlined part, but accept just Heisenberg after "uncertainty" is read and prompt if they just try giving uncertainty principle again)

This statement explains why there is a limit on the line-width of spectral lines, and a generalization of it is given by the Robertson-Schrodinger relation. This statement follows since the commutator of certain conjugate variables is nonzero, and it can be given as an (*) inequality involving h-bar over two. A thought experiment showing this statement describes the trade-offs in measuring a particle with a microscope, and one usage of it states that both position and momentum cannot be known with exact precision. For 10 points, give this "uncertainty" principle named for a German physicist.

Y chromosome (prompt on just chromosome)

This structure consists of two PARs and a NRY, and was discovered by Nettie Stevens while she was studying mealworm beetles. A form of retinitis pigmentosa is linked to this structure that has an unusually low entropy rate and does not require dosage compensation. Duplication of this structure results in above-average (*) height in a condition often contrasted with Klinefelter syndrome, and was used in the 60s to appeal prison convictions. This structure encodes the SRY gene that initiates testes development in mammalian embryos. For 10 points, name this sex chromosome whose presence leads to male offspring, in contrast to the X chromosome.

lung

This structure contains a costomediastinal recess, and the superficial plexus extends over the surface of this organ. Although not the kidney, antibodies attack the basement membrane of this organ in Goodpasture syndrome. Cancers of this organ are classified as (*) "small cell" or "non-small cell", and the mediastinum separates the pleural membranes of this organ. The only vein containing oxygenated blood connects the heart to this organ, which is affected by COPD and bronchitis. It contains sacs called alveoli, for 10 points, name this organ that exchanges carbon dioxide and oxygen during respiration.

sulfuric acid

This substance is usually formed via DCDA. This compound is the solvent for chromium trioxide in the Jones reagent. A byproduct of pyrite decomposition mixes with water to make this compound. This substance turns sugar black by dehydrating it to form carbon. It is usually made using a (*) vanadium oxide catalyst. This compound is the most harmful pollutant in runoff from mines. It was formerly produced by the lead chamber method, but is now made in the contact process. This diprotic compound is the acid in lead-acid batteries. For 10 points, name this strong acid with formula H2SO4.

MRI

This technique has been linked to nephrogenic systemic fibrosis in kidney patients. It was developed by Paul Lauterbur and Peter Mansfield. This technique often uses compounds with distinctive spin-lattice relaxation (T1) times, like gadolinium-based contrast agents. Using "BOLD," blood oxygen levels—and therefore activity—in the brain can be measured, in the (*) "functional" type of this technique. While undergoing it, patients have had lodged metal shrapnel come flying out of them. This technique, which requires a cryogen like liquid helium to create superconductors, is contrasted with PET and CT. For 10 points, name this medical imaging technique that uses strong magnetic fields.

chromatography

This technique sometimes uses a porous monolithic rod or an "open tubular" tube, and it often uses silica gel or alumina as a packing material. Large molecules like proteins and polymers are often analyzed with the size-exclusion type of it. In forensics, this technique is performed on gases and followed with mass spec in (*) GC-MS. High pressures are applied to the mobile phase in a type of this abbreviated HPLC. In one family of this technique, the retention factor measures the ratio between the distance moved by the spot and the solvent. For 10 points, column, thin layer, and paper are all types of what technique for separating mixtures?

general relativity

This theory was tested in an experiment in which radioactive iron was placed on a loudspeaker, done by Pound and Rebka. It provided the first explanation for the precession of Mercury's perihelion. A standard textbook on this subject was written by Charles Misner, John Archibald Wheeler, and Kip S. Thorne. One equation in this theory relates the curvature and the stress-energy (*) tensor. One consequence of this theory is that GPS satellites continually need to readjust their clocks. This theory explains gravitational lensing. For 10 points, name this theory that uses the curvature of spacetime to explain gravity, often contrasted with a "special" theory also developed by Einstein.

my spleen!)

This tissue is the location of the sinusoidal macrophages in the reticulo-endo-thelial system. To complete the last stage in their development, immature B-cells migrate to this organ's follicular region and undergo T1 and T2 steps. The (*) marginal zone divides the two main tissues making up this organ, and it contains more than half of the body's monocytes. Sequestration of this organ is a common side effect of sickle-cell anemia in younger children, and it's made up of red and white pulp. For 10 points, name this organ in the lymphatic system located in the upper left of the abdomen and responsible for the removal of old red blood cells and platelets.

Earth's Magnetic Field

Though it is not on the Sun, currents associated with this entity are split up into Region 1 and Region 2 and connect to Pedersen and Hall currents. Kristian Birkeland found a namesake current which flows along a path determined by this entity. Convection of an iron-nickel alloy is the primary source for this entity. Particles in the Van Allen (*) belt are held in place because of this entity, which is described by the dynamo theory. This non-solar entity is responsible for the auroras, and its strength can vary from 0.25 to 0.65 gauss. For 10 points, name this entity which causes compasses to point north and is located on the third planet from the sun.

Bernoulli

Two brothers with this last name proposed and solved the St. Petersburg paradox, inventing the theory of logarithmic utility in the process. In 1683, a man of this last name was the first to discover (*) Euler's constant. Another man of this last name discovered a law in which one half of rho times u squared plus P equals a constant, by applying conservation of energy to fluids. That man of this surname discovered a principle in which increasing the speed of a fluid decreases either its potential energy or pressure. For 10 points, name this family, whose member Daniel names a principle often used to explain lift.

entropy

Trouton's rule states that this quantity equals 10.5 times the ideal gas constant for liquids at their boiling points. The Sackur-Tetrode equation calculates this quantity for a monatomic ideal gas, and for a reversible process, the change in this quantity is equal to the integral of the heat absorbed by the system divided by the temperature. In (*) statistical mechanics, the Boltzmann equation calculates this quantity as being proportional to the natural logarithm of the number of microstates of an ideal gas. The second law of thermodynamics states that in an isolated system, this quantity always increases over time. For 10 points, name this property that is said to measure the disorder in a system.

Entropy

Two isotopes of Helium oddly have a negative value of this quantity when undergoing fusion. At a constant volume, temperature can be defined as a partial derivative of this quantity with respect to the internal energy. One formulation of this quantity is the natural logarithm of the number of microstates times(*) Boltzmann's constant. As each step keeps either temperature or this quantity constant, charting a plot of them for a Carnot ["car-now"] cycle forms a rectangle. This quantity can only increase over time, according to the Second Law of Thermodynamics. For 10 points, name this quantity, symbolized S, that represents disorder.

enzymes

Types of these molecules are used to remove lignin from kraft pulp during the process of papermaking. Aspirin is an inhibitor of the COX-1 and COX-2 forms of these molecules and a law describing these entities was derived by Briggs and Haldane using a quasi-steady state approximation. That equation, which relates VMAX ("V. max") and (*) KM ("K. sub m") is represented graphically on a Lineweaver-Burke plot and describes Michaelis-Menten kinetics. These molecules act through an "induced-fit" model and can be inhibited by binding to its active site. For 10 points, name these molecules that increase the rate of biological reactions by lowering the activation energy.

Nematoda

Using the transcription factor daf-16, one organism from this phylum changes from a larvae to its dauer stage in unfavorable environmental conditions. Mebendazole can treat trichinosis and ascariasis, which are caused by members of this phylum. Organisms in this phylum contain a pseudocoelom, and it contains the classes (*) Chromadorea, Enoplea, and Secernentea. This phylum contains organisms with the simplest two-way tubular digestive system and contains the model organism C. elegans. For 10 points, name this phylum of roundworms that contains the pinworm and hookworm.

neutrinos

W bosons are formed from the collisions of electrons and the antiparticles of these things in Glashow resonance. The PMNS matrix describes the quantum states of these particles, and devices built to detect them, such as IceCube, must be very large and are often underwater. These particles were initially proposed by Wolfgang Pauli to satisfy the law of conservation of energy during beta decay. This particle's three flavors, (*) electron, mu, and tau, oscillate over time, and the Homestake experiment affirmed that the Sun emits these particles as a result of nuclear fusion. For ten points, name these extremely small, chargeless particles, whose name in Italian literally means "little neutral one".

diatomic oxygen (accept molecular oxygen and dioxygen and O2)

When Vaska's complex is exposed to this molecule, it forms an adduct and changes color from yellow to orange. The presence of only one electron in each of the highest-occupied pi-star orbitals in this molecule's molecular orbital diagram explains why its liquid form is (*) paramagnetic. This molecule is the third heaviest of the diatomic gaseous elements, and a glowing splint is usually used to test for its presence. Antoine Lavoisier named this compound and its respective element after discovering its importance in combustion. For 10 points, name this gas, the second most common element in air after nitrogen.

Blood groups

When categories in this classification system are mixed, agglutination can occur because of incompatible surface antigens and antibodies. Categories in this classification system are further defined by the presence or lack of Rh antigens, designated by a (*) plus or minus. According to this classification system invented by Karl Landsteiner, an Rh negative mother who carries an Rh positive child will develop anti-Rh antibodies and can thereafter only receive transfusions that have no Rh antigens. For 10 points, name this classification system that categorizes a person as A, B, AB, or O type.

harmonic oscillator

When the equation describing one of these systems has a double root, the object will cross a certain point once before slowing to a stop, and an RLC circuit acts like one of these systems. When the external force on a certain type of these systems has the right frequency, it will exhibit pure (*) resonance. Using the small angle approximation lets a pendulum be modeled as one of these systems, and setting Newton's 2nd Law equal to Hooke's Law gives the equation that models the "simple" type of these systems. For ten points, name these systems which can be "damped" and "simple," and exhibit periodic motion, an example of which is a spring.

acceleration

When this quantity is measured in a rotating reference frame, it contains a correction term equal to "omega cross omega cross r." This quantity, whose CGS unit is the gal, is squared and multiplied by charge-squared in the numerator of the Larmor formula for radiative power. This vector quantity points radially (*) inward with magnitude "v-squared over r" for uniform circular motion. This quantity, whose standard value due to gravity is denoted by a lowercase g, is multiplied by mass on the right-hand side of Newton's second law. For 10 points, name this quantity that results from forces acting on an object, the rate of change of velocity.

Tectonic plate

When two of these objects meet, it is possible that a Wadati-Benioff zone will form, as well as an accretionary wedge. Their elevations are controlled by isostasy and their relative buoyancy. Explanations for these objects' behavior are the tidal forces of the Sun and Moon and their greater mechanical strength than the (*) asthenosphere. Two of these bodies separate at a rift valley, a famous one of which is in the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. For 10 points, name these sections of the Earth's lithosphere that move around and contribute to the theory of continental drift.

semiconductors (anti-prompt

Whether crystal momenta in certain energy states are identical makes a certain property of these materials either direct or indirect. Quantum dots are nano-sized crystals of these materials. Regions in these materials in which mobile charge carriers have been diffused away are termed (*) depletion zones, and the degree of holes and electrons differentiates the p-type and n-type of these materials. Adding impurities to strengthen these materials is termed doping, and examples of them include germanium and silicon. For 10 points, name these materials with resistances between those of conductors and insulators.

ferromagnetism

Wilhelm Lenz invented a statistical mechanical model of this phenomenon whose two-dimensional form was solved by Lars Onsager. The double-exchange mechanism results in this property of Heusler alloys. The exchange interactions between (*) electrons is responsible for this phenomenon, which is exhibited by alloys of rare-earth elements. This property, which disappears completely above the Curie temperature, arises from the alignment of electrons in neighbouring atoms. For 10 points, name this type of permanent magnetism exhibited by nickel, cobalt, and iron.

integration

Young's Inequality relates the product of two numbers to the value obtained by performing this process on a function and its inverse, and the Laplace Transform of a function can be found by performing this process on e to the negative s t times that function of t. The "improper" form of this process occurs when one of the limits is (*) infinity. One method used to perform this process is derived from the product rule and is known as "by parts," while the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus deals with the definite and indefinite forms of this process. For ten points, name this process used to calculate the area under a curve, the opposite of differentiation.

superconductivity

Bednorz and Muller discovered this property in a lanthanum-based cuprate perovskite material, paving the way for the creation of materials like MgB2. A characteristic depth of materials exhibiting this property represents the distance at which the magnetic field equals the surface magnetic field over the fundamental charge; that depth is named for London. Bardeen (*), Cooper, and Schrieffer explained this property as a superfluid of Cooper pairs, and materials exhibiting this property may expel a magnetic field in the Meissner effect, which can be used to make small model maglev trains. For 10 points, name this phenomenon in which a material exhibits zero electrical resistance.

linear momentum

For a particle, the generalized form of this quantity is equal to the derivative of the particle's Lagrangian with respect to its generalized velocity. The center-of-mass frame is a special case of the center-of-[this quantity] frame, and thus, relative to the center of mass, the net amount of this quantity for a system is zero. Unlike (*) energy, this quantity is always conserved during explosions and collisions, as Newton's second law states that external force equals the time derivative of this quantity. For 10 points, give this physical quantity equal to mass times velocity, generally understood as the impetus gained by a moving body.

prime numbers

If both 'n' and '2n+1' belong to this class of numbers, then 'n' is considered a Sophie Germain type. If 'n' is one of these numbers, then any integer raised to the power of 'n' is congruent to itself mod 'n'. By crossing out successive arithmetic sequences of natural numbers, (*) Eratosthenes was able to find these numbers via his namesake sieve. According to the fundamental theorem of arithmetic, all natural numbers greater than one can be expressed as a unique product of these numbers, known as these numbers' namesake factorization. For 10 points, name these numbers, including 2, 3, 5, and 7, which are divisible only by one and themselves.

Bose-Einstein condensate (accept BEC)

In a derivation of this condition, a mass gap is realized in the spectrum to avoid the absurd condition in which the addition of particles does not alter the particle density. This condition results when the interparticle distance approaches the thermal de Broglie wavelength of the particles in the ensemble. The fermionic (*) analogue to this phenomenon results from the interactions between electronic and nuclear spins and was first realized by Deborah Jin. For ten points, name this state of matter first observed by Eric Cornell and Carl Wieman, a condition in which the particles of a system collapse to the ground state at low temperatures.

combustion

In one form of this reaction, pyrolysis occurs to do an insufficient amount of one reactant. The disproved phlogiston theory was used to describe this process. Cycloalkane stability is determined using the heat of this reaction, which occurs a the (*) flash point and catalytic converters break down exhaust from engines that use this reaction. This reaction's incomplete form may result in the production of carbon monoxide or hydrogen gas, and its rapid form is known as detonation or explosion. For 10 points, name this type of reaction between a hydrocarbon and oxygen that produces carbon dioxide and water.

second law of thermodynamics

One formulation of this law states that the closed line integral of the heat absorbed by the system over temperature is less than or equal to zero. Loschmidt's paradox arises from a statement of this law that breaks time-reversal symmetry known as (*) Boltzmann's H-theorem. This law states that heat cannot spontaneously flow from a colder object to a warmer object. A thought experiment that would violate this law involves the opening and closing of a gate to allow particles of different speeds through, that is Maxwell's Demon. For 10 points, name this law that states that the entropy of a closed system cannot decrease.

boson

One type of this particle would create long-range fluctuations with little energy cost, according to the Mermin-Wagner theorem. In theories with gauge symmetry, one type of this particle becomes massive and is longitudinally polarized by the (*) "Goldstone" variety of this particle. BCS theory describes superconductivity as caused by the condensation of Cooper pairs, which behave like these particles. The weak interaction is mediated by the W+, W-, and Z0 subtypes of these elementary particles, which have integer spin. For 10 points, name this particle whose "Higgs" variety is responsible for mass.

granite

The "anorogenic" type of this rock occurs in the Koettlitz Glacier Alkaline Province in Antarctica, while the M-type is created through fractional crystallization. Endoskarn alteration can cause this rock and pegmatite to form Greisen. This rock is classified as I-type or S-type, depending on its sodium content, by the (*) Chappell and White system. Batholiths like the Half-Dome are created from this rock, whose extrusive equivalent is rhyolite. This rock is phaneritic, or coarse-grained, and contains quartz and feldspar. For 10 points, name this light-colored igneous rock that makes up the continental crust and can be white, gray, or pink.

four

The Poincaré conjecture concerns an object that exists in this many dimensions. The sum of two terms with numbers raised to this power can be factored using Sophie Germain's identity. Fermat's two square Theorem states that all odd primes that are the sum of two squares must leave a remainder of one when divided by this number. Appel and Haken were aided by a (*) computer in proving a theorem named partially for this number. This is the highest degree for which there exists a general solution for solving polynomial equations, which was shown by Abel and Ruffini. This is also the number of faces on the simplest Platonic solid. For 10 points, name this smallest composite integer.

dark matter

The XENON Project is attempting to use the scattering of particles to discover this entity. This entity was observed by a scientist who noticed anomalies in the rotation curve of the Andromeda Galaxy. The cusp-core problem has led to the idea that this entity interacts with itself, and most instances of this phenomenon can be found in its namesake (*) "halo". This entity was hypothesized by Fritz Zwicky after observing the Coma Cluster. This substance can interact with gravity, but not with electromagnetic force, making it difficult to detect. For 10 points, name this unobservable form of matter thought to make up 23% of the mass in the universe.

water

The molecular characteristics of this substance are studied by Richard J. Saykally. The presence of this substance is necessary for olation to occur, and the rate of the Diels-Alder reaction is enhanced when it occurs in this substance. This substance is produced, along with graphite, in the (*) Bosch reaction. In a common clathrate, methane is surrounded by molecules of this substance, the "heavy" type of which is formed with deuterium. The triple point of this substance is used to define the Kelvin scale. For 10 points, name this life-sustaining molecule with formula H2O.

array

"Major ordering" can be used to efficiently store these objects, and implementations for queues and heaps frequently utilize this data structure. Dynamic versions of this structure are built-in features of Python. Both storing and accessing in these data structures are constant time operations, and many languages use (*) zero-based numbering for these data structures. In C, characters stored in this data structure are used to represent strings, and its two dimensional variant is similar to a matrix. For 10 points, name this data structure denoted using square brackets used to store multiple elements consecutively.

Miller-Urey experiment

A 2008 analysis of this experiment's results determined that it's "volcanic" version produced several more molecules of a certain class. The crashing of the Murchison meteorite raised questions concerning the validity of this experiment's results, which sought to validate the Oparin-Haldane hypothesis. Joan Oro used the results of this experiment to attempt a synthesis of (*) adenine. Researchers have varied the spark mechanism originally used in this experiment to explain how other compounds may have been created. For 10 points, name this experiment which investigated the origins of life on Earth and demonstrated that carbohydrates and amino acids could spontaneously form from inorganic compounds in Earth's early atmosphere.

glaciers

According to one theory, these structures depressed the emergence of land from the asthenosphere during their namesake period, and James Forbes explained how these structures move based on "regelation" and basal sliding. Isolated peaks in these structures are called seracs, which form from intersecting (*) crevasses. These objects gain mass via accumulation and lose mass via ablation. Till from these objects can create whale-shaped hills called drumlins, and deposited debris from these objects form landmasses known as moraines. The Great Lakes were carved out by the movement of, for 10 points, what large bodies of dense ice?

heat capacity

Accounting for variation due to temperature, this quantity can be approximated in the form "a + b times temperature + c over temperature squared", where a, b, and c are empirical parameters. For an ideal gas, the difference between two forms of this quantity is equal to the gas constant by Mayer's relation; the product of pressure and volume raised to the ratio of those two forms of this quantity is held constant in an (*) adiabatic process. This quantity is equal to the derivative of internal energy with respect to temperature at constant volume. Heat equals the product of the change in temperature and, for 10 points, what quantity that measures the heat needed to raise the temperature of a substance by one degree Celsius?

Escherichia coli

An experiment involving this organism used the liquid medium DM25. That long-term evolution experiment was conducted by Richard Lenski. Conjugation was first described by Tatum and Lederberg using this organism. T2 bacteriophages labelled with phosphorus and sulfur infected this organism in the (*) Hershey-Chase experiments, while another experiment using this organism and two nitrogen isotopes showed that DNA replication was semiconservative and was conducted by Meselson and Stahl. Glucose and galactose are cleaved using the lac operon, discovered by Jacob and Monod in this organism. For 10 points, name this gram-negative bacterium with serotype O157:H7 that can cause food poisoning.

Rutherford experiment (accept Gold Foil experiment or Geiger-Marsden experiment)

Following this experiment, it was predicted that s is proportional to Q sub n squared and inversely proportional to the sine of phi over two to the fourth power. A later version of this experiment uses a conical glass tube sealed with mica containing "radium emanation" and bismuth-214 to emit particles at a (*) zinc sulfide screen. A scintillator was used to count the flashes of light created by the backward scattering of alpha particles in this experiment, which disproved J. J. Thomson's plum-pudding model of the atom. For 10 points, name this experiment, which led to the discovery of a positively charged nucleus.

cyclic (accept rings or anything with cyclo-, prompt on "aromatic")

One compound with this property, thiophene, includes an atom of sulfur, as does sulbentine, which possesses this property in three locations. Ladderanes are composed of molecules with this property. The placing of a double bond at the bridgehead of a molecule with this property is described by (*) Bredt's rule. Ethers with this property include lithium ionophore V and 18-crown-6, and hydrocarbons with this property are called annulenes. The Simmons-Smith reaction yields propane with aromaticity and this property, which is possessed by molecules with half-chair and twist-boat conformations. For 10 points, name this property exhibited by benzene rings.

three

The derivative of this order of position is found in the numerator of the formula for the Abraham-Lorentz force. In the formula for the power radiated by an accelerating point charge, the denominator contains this power of the speed of light; that is the Larmor formula. The Nernst-Simon statement is a version of a law of this number that is usually stated with the unattainability principle; that law originally concerns the (*) entropy of a perfect crystal at absolute zero. This many non-time dimensions are present in Minkowski space, and the action-reaction law is Newton's law of this number. For ten points, name this number of laws in both Kepler and Newton's sets of laws.

translation

The enzymes Ef-Tu and Ef-G bind during steps in this process, and the antibiotic tetracycline works by inhibiting this process. The sequence AGGAGGU is important for initiating this process in prokaryotes; that sequence is known as the Shine-Dalgarno sequence. In bacteria, a formyl group is present in the first compound involved in this process, which is encoded by an (*) adenine-uracil-guanine sequence. This process involves a molecule shaped like a clover leaf, which binds to the A site of a certain organelle. In this process, the aforementioned tRNA molecules match their anticodons to codons and carry amino acids to the ribosome. For 10 points, name this process in which an mRNA sequence is read to synthesize proteins.

carboxylic acids

These compounds are reduced to aldehydes via the acid chloride in the Rosenmund reduction. In Barbier-Wieland degradation, an aliphatic chain having a simple methylene bridge at the alpha position can be shortened by one carbon in these compounds. These compounds often have strong odors, especially the (*) volatile derivatives. These compounds easily dissociate because they are held together by resonance. These compounds include a hydroxyl group attached to the same carbon as a double-bonded oxygen. For ten points name this most common type of organic acid, with forms including maleic acid, citric acid, and acetic acid.

Young's double-slit experiment

Wheeler's delayed choice experiment questions whether the inputs to this experiment can "sense" its outcome, and one modification of this experiment is the quantum eraser experiment. A variant of the apparatus used to conduct this experiment was made by Mach and Zehnder, and the namesake pattern resulting from this experiment main apparatus was linked to de Broglie's pilot (*) wave hypothesis. Heavily attenuated light and discrete electrons both produced the same results in this experiment, and thus this experiment showed that waves can behave like particles. For 10 points, name this experiment that used the namesake structure to observe the wave-particle duality of light.

Mars

Albedo features observed on this planet include the Aram Chaos and the Acidalia Colles. Concretions produced by weathering creates the "blueberry" formations on this planet, whose Chryse Planitia can be found in its Borealis Basin. An elevated area of volcanic activity near this planet's equator is the (*) Tharsis region. This planet's Valles Marineris has a collapsed crust, and Giovanni Schiaparelli made sketches of this planet that incorrectly depicted canals. Mariner 9 provided early images of this planet, which is home to Olympus Mons and is currently being explored by the Curiosity rover. For 10 points, name this "Red Planet", the fourth from the sun.

phosphorus

An atom of this element is bonded to a sulfur atom in VX, which allows it to inhibit nerve function. The 1906 Berne Convention banned the use of one form of this element, which had caused large numbers of incidents of jaw necrosis. When this element is submerged in molten lead, it can crystallize into a form which sublimates at high temperatures in an inert atmosphere, its (*) violet allotrope. This element was discovered in an attempt to turn urine into gold by Hennig Brand. This element's white form glows when exposed to oxygen, and in organisms, this element forms the backbone of DNA. For 10 points, name this element found in match heads, symbolized P.

hemoglobin

Cells that contain this molecule include the A9 dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra, alveolar cells, and mesangial cells in the kidney. This protein is found in all vertebrates, except for the fish family Channichthyidae. The amount of this protein is quantified using Drabkin's reagent. An abnormality in the production of this molecule is known as (*) thalassemia. This protein's obstructed function in acidic conditions is called the Bohr Effect. The active component of this protein contains four porphyrin rings that surround a central iron atom. For ten points, name this protein that carries oxygen in red blood cells.

Svante (August) Arrhenius

In a modification to a law named for this man, the ratio of Boltzmann's constant and Planck's constant replaces the "frequency" factor. The first chapter of this scientist's book Worlds in the Making examines the role of volcanic eruptions on the environment, thus leading to his prediction of global (*) warming based on the rising amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. This man's namesake equation raises e to the ratio of activation energy and the product of the ideal gas constant and temperature and is used to calculate the rate constant for a reaction. For 10 points, name this man, whose definition of acids and bases is based on whether a substance dissociates into hydroxide or hydronium ions.

titanium (accept Ti)

It's not phosphorus, but a compound of this element with chlorine has three violet "layered" forms with a tendency to flake. That same compound is essential to a reaction that couples ketone or aldehyde groups to an alkene, the McMurry reaction. Another compound with this element was formerly used as a Lewis acid in the (*) Mukaiyama aldol condensation. This element can be extracted from ilmenite using the Hunter process or the commercially used Kroll process. For 10 points, name this lightweight and durable metal, which is commonly used in aerospace technology.

oxidation state (accept oxidation number)

It's not spin-state, but this quantity is obtained from Mössbauer spectroscopy of iron-containing compounds. A Latimer diagram plots chemical species from left to right by decreasing values of this quantity. Gibbs free energy at different pH values is plotted against this quantity on a (*) Frost diagram. Disproportionation can change the value of this quantity, as it is a specific type of redox reaction. In a permanganate ion, this value for manganese is +7. For 10 points, name this quantity that describes the gain or loss of electrons during chemical bonding.

George Boole

John Maynard Keynes believed that this man had made a fundamental error in his definition of independence. A relation named for this mathematician states that the probability of at least one event in a collection is no greater than the sum of their individual probabilities, that inequality is also called the (*) union bound. This logician's namesake "satisfiability problem" is NP-complete. A system introduced by this man has expressions that can be simplified through the use of De Morgan's identities or Karnaugh Maps. For 10 points, name this English logician who created his namesake algebra using ones and zeros to represent "true" and "false."

aorta

Patients with Ehlers-Danlos syndrome may suffer an aneurysm of part of this structure. This structure is considered "overriding" in patients with tetralogy of Fallot, and Turner's syndrome often results in this structure's narrowing. Baroreceptors in this structure's (*) arch relay blood pressure information to the medulla oblongata; that arch splits off into the brachiocephalic, left common carotid, and left subclavian branches. This structure's descending section passes the diaphragm and terminates by splitting into the common iliac arteries. Oxygenated blood is received from the heart and distributed by--for 10 points--what largest artery in the human body?

neutrinos

These particles interact with electrons in matter in the MSW effect. The DONUT experiment discovered the last of these particles, while the Homestake experiment measured only one third of the predicted amount of these particles emitted by the sun, an anomaly later explained by the (*) flavor oscillation of these particles. In 2011, faulty data from the OPERA experiment showed these particles travelling faster than the speed of light, and due to their small masses, these particles were once thought to be massless. For 10 points, give these neutral fermions that interact only via the weak force and gravity, and that come in electron, mu, and tau varieties.

yellow (accept equivalents)

This color precipitate occurs in the triiodomethane reaction of ketones. The heating of nitric acid with tryptophan produces xanthoproteic acid, a substance of this color. The section of the NFPA safety diamond with this color indicates chemical reactivity. When there is a positive result, this is the color of Ellman's reagent and (*) Nessler's reagent. Below pH 6.8, the indicator phenol red is this color, which is also seen in the Fraunhofer line of helium and in the flame test of sodium. For 10 points, name this color of crystalline sulfur.

orthogonal

Two circles are said to have this property if one remains fixed while performing a circle inversion with the other as the reference circle. One process for creating a set with this property involves repeatedly projecting an element onto a subspace, then subtracting the projection from the element to obtain another element in the subspace; that is the (*) Gram-Schmidt process. A plane is completely defined by a point and a vector with this property with respect to the plane. Two vectors have this property if their dot product is zero, and two lines have this property if their slopes are negative reciprocals of each other. For 10 points, give this adjective that describes two lines intersecting at right angles.

volcanoes

Isopach maps are used to determine the thickness of deposits created by these entities, which can produce sideromelane, an uncommon form of tachylite that forms hyaloclastite deposits. Elliptically shaped coulées form on the flanks of these entities, whose products mix with groundwater to create maars. These entities can trigger (*) jökulhlaups, and, when located beneath a glacier, are called mobergs or tuyas. Tephra and lahars of pyroclasts are emitted from these entities, which can also produce pahoehoe and 'a'a. For 10 points, name these geologic structures which come in submarine, shield, and cinder-cone types from which lava erupts.

NMR spectroscopy

A constant important in this technique can be found using Hoye's method, which sums it over each component in a multiplet; that constant can be calculated using the Bothner-By and Karplus equations given the values of dihedral angles in a molecule. One form of this technique uses anisotropic interactions and relies on a "magic angle" of 54.7 degrees; that is its solid state form. (*) Tetramethylsilane is a common reference compound used in this technique, which largely relies on J-coupling. Other types of this technique include its carbon-13 and proton variants. For 10 points, name this technique that measures the resonance frequency and chemical shift of molecules in a magnetic field to identify organic compounds.

addiction

A test for the severity of this condition was created by A. Thomas McLellan. This condition is associated with the genetic overexpression of delta-FosB in the D1-type medium spiny neurons. This condition also results from the repeated activation of the nucleus accumbens by the ventral tegmental. An explanation for the tendency to this condition looks at associated (*) personality traits and modes of thinking. The only behavioral form of this condition recognized by the DSM-5 is gambling. For ten points name this disorder of the brain's reward system, a dependency on pleasure-inducing substances.

Gibbs free energy (prompt on "free energy" and "energy")

An algorithm for the minimization of this quantity is used with the Peng-Robinson Equation to model water-gas shift reactions. The residual of this quantity divided by RT is the natural logarithm of the fugacity coefficient. Taking the partial derivative of this quantity with respect to the mole fraction yields (*) chemical potential, and the change in this quantity is the negative product of RT and the natural logarithm of the equilibrium constant. This quantity is equal to enthalpy minus the product of entropy and temperature. For 10 points, name this quantity, used to predict the spontaneity of a reaction.

Parkinson's disease

An emerging treatment for this disease involves the stimulation of the globus pallidus interna and the subthalamic nucleus. It's not Lewy body dementia, but accumulation of alpha-synuclein has been observed in patients suffering from this disease. Drugs for this disease mimic a neurotransmitter produced in the pars compacta of the (*) substantia nigra, where cell death causes problems in the motor circuits. That drug is L-dopa, which works to correct a dopamine deficiency in the brain. For 10 points, name this neurodegenerative disorder, also known as shaking palsy, which results in loss of muscle control, dementia, and tremors.

cerebellum

Chiari malformations are structural defects in this structure. Infection can result in damage to this structure in prion diseases and Miller-Fisher syndrome. The primary cells of this structure receive weak signals from the parallel fibers of granule cells and strong signals from climbing fibers. When this structure is attacked by anti-Yo antibodies, (*) Purkinje cells are destroyed. The substantia nigra is located in this structure's basal ganglia. Damage to this brain structure is tested the same way as drunkenness, due to its function in language, attention, and motor control. For ten points name this part of the brain with a name meaning "little brain."

extinction of the dinosaurs

Description acceptable. A 2017 study of red-eyed tree frogs found that this event led to greater diversification in the Natatanura clade. Fieldwork conducted at Seymour Island in Antarctica supports one theory regarding this event that pinpoints gases from the Deccan Traps as a possible cause, while high concentrations of (*) iridium detected in soil samples led Luis Alvarez to formulate an alternative explanation for this event. Samples of shocked quartz collected from the Chicxulub crater undermined the volcano theory and suggested that an asteroid may have caused this event that ended the Mesozoic Era. For 10 points, name this event which occurred about 65 million years ago and killed off such reptiles as the T. Rex.

Ethers

In one reaction, heating one of these compounds creates a gamma delta-unsaturated carbonyl, and in another reaction, nucleophiles react with aryl halides to create these compounds. Those reactions are the Claisen Rearrangement and the Ullmann condensation, respectively. One cyclic version of this functional group is oxolane, which was formerly known as tetrahydrofuran. These groups can be synthesized by SN2 reactions between (*) alcohols and alkyl halides in the Williamson reaction. These compounds come in "crown" varieties. For ten points, name this functional group consisting of an oxygen bonded to two alkyl or aryl groups.

pancreas

During embryogenesis, this organ develops from its ventral and dorsal buds. In this organ, epsilon cells produce the "hunger hormone", ghrelin, while acinar cells compose this organ's exocrine gland. This organ's Duct of Santorini isn't present in most people, and its Duct of Wirsung empties its contents into the (*) duodenum. This organ's endocrine cells are contained in its Islets of Langerhans. Trypsinogen, amylase, and lipase are found in its namesake juice. Somatostatin is produced by its delta cells, while its beta cells produce glucagon. For ten points, name this digestive organ that secretes insulin.

cystic fibrosis

Francis Collins and Lap-Chee Tsui conducted a GWAS which linked a deletion of three nucleotides, CTT, to this disease. Newer drugs attempting to mitigate symptoms of this disease include one which targets the nonsense mutation G542X. Mutations in G551D and phenylalanine-508 (*) results in this disease, which leads to difficulty absorbing fat soluble vitamins, especially Vitamin K. This disease can lead to congenital absence of the vas deferens. A misfolded CFTR protein which does not conduct chloride ions across the cell membrane causes, for 10 points, what autosomal recessive disease where mucus builds up in the lungs?

precession

General relativity predicts a type of this effect named for de Sitter, also called the geodetic effect, while in one form of this process a torque is caused by a magnetic field. A system undergoing this effect has a changing first Euler angle, and this effect is often combined with (*) nutation, which causes irregularities in this effect. A time-varying moment of inertia causes the torque-free type of this effect, and this effect during the Earth's orbit causes the motion of the equinoxes along the ecliptic and the changing seasons. A classic example of a system undergoing this effect is a spinning top wobbling over time. For 10 points, name this effect in which the rotation axis of an object changes orientation.

ferromagnetism

In order for this phenomenon to occur, the Stoner Criterion must be satisfied. This phenomenon cannot be accounted for in classical physics according to the Bohr-van Leeuwen theorem. A generalization of a model describing this phenomenon was solved in two dimensions by Lars Onsager and is known as the (*) Ising model, and materials with this property exhibit hysteresis when the applied field is changed. This property disappears above the Curie point and occurs because of the alignment of spin states. For 10 points, name this attractive phenomenon exhibited by nickel, cobalt, and iron.

parallel

In projective geometry, two lines with this property intersect at the line at infinity. Playfair's axiom guarantees that at most one line through a given point satisfies this property with reference to a given line. Crossing two vectors with this property gives the (*) zero vector, and modifying this property is the basis of non-Euclidean geometry. Euclid's fifth postulate, which is named for this property, implies that, since rectangles have sides that exhibit this property, all their angles are right angles. For 10 points, name this property possessed by two lines in the same plane that do not intersect.

half

In quantum mechanics, the kinetic energy operator of a particle is "negative h-bar squared multiplied by del squared divided by mass", all multiplied by this constant. The relativistic Doppler shift is proportional to the quantity "one plus beta" over the quantity "one minus beta", all raised to this constant (*) power. The moment of inertia through the axis of rotation of a solid disk is equal to this constant multiplied by the mass and radius squared. In classical mechanics, the distance traveled by a particle dropped in free fall is this constant multiplied by gravitational acceleration and time squared. For 10 points, the kinetic energy of a moving particle is equal to what fraction multiplied by mass and velocity squared?

proteins

Levinthal's paradox attempts to reconcile how these species manage to reach a state with the least energy in a finite amount of time, despite their infinite number of conformations. The allowed dihedral angles for these species can be determined by plotting the phi and psi angles of their monomers on a (*) Ramachandran plot. Hydrogen bonding between amine and carbonyl groups four residues away forms one motif in these biomolecules. Alpha helices and beta sheets make up a large part of these species' secondary structures, which form after the initial polypeptide folds. For 10 points, name these biological molecules whose primary sequences are composed of amino acids.

microscopy

One form of this technique requires its subjects to be frozen in liquid ethane. Another form of this technique comes in tapping mode and contact mode varieties and utilizes an extremely sharp cantilever. The fluorescent form of this technique allows for z-stacking, allowing one to gain a greater depth of field. Sputter coating is used to coat samples for use in this technique in a thin layer of palladium and (*) gold, and microtomes are commonly used to cut samples into extremely thin slices before they undergo forms of this technique. In general, specimens are stained and coverslipped before undergoing this technique, whose optical form is limited by diffraction. For 10 points, name this technique used to magnify small things.

density

Objects with similar values of this quantity can display the muesli effect, or granular convection. Degrees Brix or degrees Plato are units used to measure this quantity which can be determined using a Baumé scale. Pi over the square root of 18 is the average value of this quantity in the solution to the (*) Kepler conjecture, which states that face-centered cubic crystals have the highest value of it. An isopycnic surface has a constant value for this quantity, whose ratio for a substance and for water is called specific gravity. For 10 points, name this quantity symbolized rho that is defined as mass divided by volume.

strong interaction

One equation describing a form of this phenomenon sets the potential proportional to the negative exponential of radius divided by radius; that equation for the Yukawa potential describes the residual form of this phenomenon. Confinement of a certain quantity prevents the free "emission" of this phenomenon, and instead leads to the production of jets of massive particles. This phenomenon is described by quantum (*) chromodynamics, since this interaction's carrier particle possesses a color charge; that carrier particle is the gluon. The force that binds quarks together into nucleons and protons and neutrons together into atomic nuclei is--for 10 points--what fundamental force with a strength approximately 137 times that of electromagnetism?

Down syndrome

One form of this disease is caused by a Robertsonian translocation. The main model organism used to study this disease is the Ts65Dn mouse, which is tested for defects in its Mrpl39 gene. Those who suffer from this condition often have characteristic (*) Brushfield spots along the iris. More than 50% of those afflicted with this condition suffer from Alzheimer's disease after age 60. Symptoms of this disease include sleep apnea, a lower than average IQ, and a shortened neck. For 10 points, name this syndrome, caused by the trisomy of chromosome 21.

Calvin-Benson-Bassham cycle

One form of this process sees Xu5P formed via a transketolase. A lysine involved in this process is referred to as E, EC, or ECM. This process uses energy from ATP and NADPH to remove a phosphate group from 3PGA, and reduces DPGA to produce the three carbon sugar (*) G3P. C4 plants use PEP carboxylase to form oxaloacetate before beginning this process. In the first step of this chemical pathway, carbon is fixed onto RuBP by RuBisCO. The end product of this pathway is converted to glucose. For 10 points, name this light-independent step of photosynthesis.

enthalpy

The total differential of this quantity is T dS plus V dP. One form of this quantity can be calculated by the Born-Mayer equation. In the Joule-Thomson effect, where an ideal gas is forced through a plug, this quantity remains constant. (*) Hess's law states that this quantity is a state function, which means that this quantity is independent of path for a given reaction. The standard apparatus for measuring this quantity is the adiabatic calorimeter. For 10 points, lattice energy is an example of what thermodynamic quantity equal to internal energy plus pressure times volume, denoted H.

chromatography (accept gas chromatography)

Probes in this lab technique have index codes of x-prime, y-prime, and z-prime, and are used to determine the Rohrschneider and McReynolds constants. An equation for organic compounds used in this lab technique linearly relates the log of t sub r and the number of carbon atoms in a molecule to determine the (*) Kováts retention index. The theoretical plate height of this process can be determined using the van Deemter equation. The "partition" form of this technique modifies the thin-layer type, which uses a silica gel stationary phase. For 10 points, name this lab technique that can be used to separate pigments.

chromatography

The Kovats retention index is used to compare the results of this process, and one equation governing this process multiplies a function of the Peclet number with the flow rate and is named for Alirio Rodrigues; that equation extends another one governing this process, which includes the quantity HETP. The retardation factor of the planar type of this process is the ratio of the distance travelled by the substance to the distance travelled by the (*) solvent front. One form of this technique uses an unreactive gas as the mobile phase, and the paper form of this technique commonly tests the separation of constituents of ink in water based on capillary action. For 10 points, name this process that separates materials based on the speed at which they travel through a medium.

trees

The "tango" type of these structures stores preferred paths in auxiliary copies of these structures, while the k-d type organizes points in k-dimensional space. Adelson-Velsky and Landis developed a type of these structures that rearranges itself whenever elements are added or deleted, making it self-balancing. Data from these structures can be retrieved using level-order (*) traversals, since these data structures are acyclic connected graphs. If the nodes of these data structure are kept in sorted order, then they are called the "binary search" type of these structures. For 10 points, name these data structures whose lowest-level elements are called "leaves".

calcium

The 48 isotope of this element is formed during type 1a supernovae in the r-process. A common motif among proteins which bind to this element consists of two linked alpha helices and is called the EF hand. This element is released when sperm and egg cells form a zygote in the (*) cortical reaction, and cations of this element are released when ATP binds to troponin in muscle contraction. The most common minerals composed of this element's carbonate form a rock that often forms Karst topography; that rock is limestone, which contains aragonite. The third lightest of the alkaline earth metals is--for 10 points--what element symbolized Ca?

Ohm's law

The Hagen-Poiseuille equation in fluid dynamics is often treated as the hydraulic analogue of this statement, and a magnetic analogue of this law states that magnetic reluctance equals magnetomotive force over magnetic flux; that statement is Hopkinson's law. Kirchhoff expressed this law in continuum form as current density equals the product of (*) conductivity and electric field. Diodes do not obey this law, since their I-V curves are nonlinear. The namesake of this law also lends his name to the SI unit of resistance. For 10 points, name this law which states that current is equal to voltage divided by resistance.

associativity (accept associative property)

The Jacobi identity is one condition that can be placed on entities that lack this property, and it is satisfied by the Lie bracket operation. The primary difference between a group and a quasigroup is that a quasigroup lacks this property, which all convergent infinite series posses. Unlike quaternions, (*) octonions lack this property for multiplication. Although it is not commutativity, operators that lack this property include subtraction and division. For 10 points, name this property which states that the order in which consecutive occurrences of certain binary operations are carried out will not affect the result of an expression.

endoplasmic reticulum

The KDEL retention sequence prevents proteins from leaving this structure, which also contains binding immunoglobulin protein. Desmotubules link these organelles through plasmodesmata, and the COPI ["cop 1"] protein targets vesicles moving into this organelle. One form of this organelle that releases calcium is found in (*) muscle cells and is known as its "sarcoplasmic" type. One part of this organelle functions in lipid production and metabolism, while the other part is covered with ribosomes and is involved in protein synthesis. For 10 points, name this organelle that comes in "rough" and "smooth" forms and surrounds the nucleus of a cell.

integration (accept word forms like integral, prompt on "antidifferentiation")

The Risch Algorithm is one method by which this operation can be carried out. One method of performing this operation takes advantage of the fact that it remains constant under rearrangement; that method is named for Lebesgue. Another method of performing this operation is called the method of (*) exhaustion and involves repeatedly inscribing polygons, the areas of which converge to some value, within a shape. Newton and Leibniz defined this operation, but it wasn't rigorous because they didn't use limits. For 10 points, name this operation for finding the area under a function that, according to the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, is the opposite of differentiation.

ozone (accept O3)

The accuracy of the coefficient of this chemical was questioned by Klenk, Komhyr and DeLuisi, who noticed significant inconsistencies in absorption data. A "cyclic" form of this molecule is likely to exist on the surface of magnesium oxide crystals in the air. A corona discharge tube can be used to generate this molecule, whose amount is measured in (*) Dobson units. The cleaving of alkenes and alkynes by this substance leads to rubber cracking. For 10 points, name this substance depleted by CFCs and present in its namesake "layer" in the stratosphere.

heap

The binomial type of this construct makes merging two of these very efficient. Algorithms that make use of this structure include Prim's algorithm and Dijkstra's algorithm, which uses the Fibonacci variety of this construct to efficiently find the shortest path between two nodes of a graph. This data structure is an implementation of a (*) priority queue, and in its namesake sorting algorithm, the elements of a list are successively inserted into one of these and then popped, yielding a worst-case runtime of O(n log n) [O of n log n]. For 10 points, name this tree-like data structure in which nodes are always greater or always less than their children.

ideal gases

The internal energy of a fixed mass of this type of substance is a function only of temperature according to Joule's law. The entropy of a specific subtype of these substances contains a term proportional to the log of the thermal wavelength to the negative third power. The fugacity coefficient and compressibility factor are equal for these substances, and multiplying the (*) Boltzmann constant by three-halves T gives the average kinetic energy for a molecule of this substance. The van der Waals equation uses the parameters "a" and "b" to account for the intermolecular attraction and particle volume that these substances lack. For 10 points, name this theoretical substance whose namesake law states that PV = nRT.

gymnosperms

The mid-mesozoic types of these organisms lived in a mutualistic relationship with Kallgrammatid Lacewings. A type of these organisms is used to produce an illegal dietary supplement, ephedrine. There are four non-extinct phyla of these organism, which include (*) Gnetophyta and Cycadophyta. Another of these phyla only contains only one living species: when the seeds of that species decay, they smell like rancid butter. That species is the biloba. These organisms were the first seed plants. The name of this clade comes from the Greek for "naked seed." For ten points, name these plants which produce needle-like leaves and cones and are contrasted with angiosperms.

cholera

The only FDA approved vaccine for this disease, lyophilized CVD 103-HgR, was approved in 2016. Multiple people have contracted this disease after eating shellfish from the Gulf of Mexico. The most common treatments for this disease across the world include rice based solutions and zinc supplements. This disease was the subject of the (*) Broad Street outbreak, the source of which was discovered by founder of epidemiology, John Snow. The toxins that causes this disease increase the concentration of chloride ions in the small intestine, which causes extreme release of fluids from cells. For ten points, name this disease nicknamed "the blue death," transmitted by contaminated water.

Avogadro's number (accept Avogadro's constant)

The product of this quantity, reaction cross-section, and the square root of 8kT over pi times mu gives the collision frequency. This quantity is a proportionality constant in the Stark-Einstein law. This value can be obtained through X-ray crystallography of (*) silicon lattices. The number is the quotient of Faraday's constant and elementary charge. Boltzmann's constant is defined as the ideal gas constant divided by this value, which is similar to Loschmidt's constant. For 10 points, name this constant defined as number of units per mole, approximately 6.022*10^23.

aquifers

The supply of certain materials into these structures is governed by an equation which states that the partial derivative of pressure times conductivity with respect to height is equal to flow rate. That law, named for Lorenzo Richards, concerns the movement of material into these structures through soil, and is a modified form of the (*) Darcy equation. The formation of these structures can be traced to their proximity to the vadose zone, and a type of these structures which causes the net movement of material above ground level is called artesian. These structures may be "recharged" in a process which drives material below the water table. For 10 points, name these layers of permeable rock that store water underground.

plasmas

The time evolution of the distribution function of this substance is described by the Vlasov equation, and Birkeland currents are driven by the bulk motion of this substance. One phenomenon in this substance consists of ions oscillating in response to tension on magnetic field lines; those low-frequency oscillations in this substance are called (*) Alfven waves. This substance is treated as a single fluid in magnetohydrodynamics, and this substance can be confined in the shape of a torus by a tokamak. The interior of the Sun is a fully ionized example of this substance, while lightning storms are only partially ionized. The most abundant form of ordinary matter in the universe is--for 10 points--what highly ionized substance deemed the "fourth state of matter"?

microtubules

These structures are described by Kirschner and Mitchison's search-and-capture model, which proposed that they dynamically probe the cell for specific sites. These structures are nucleated by MTOCs, and are stabilized by taxanes and tau-proteins. Based on exposed subunits, the two ends of this structure are designated (*) minus and plus, and types of these structures that facilitate meiosis are classified as astral, polar, or kinetochore. In flagella and cilia, these structures have a 9 plus 2 arrangement. For 10 points, name these structures that form the cytoskeleton with micro- and intermediate filaments, and are composed of polymerized alpha- and beta-tubulin.

water

This compound displaces one of the two chlorine ligands in the mechanism of cisplatin. This compound is oxidized into oxygen gas above its upper stability limit on a Pourbaix diagram. Trace amounts of this compound can be found in a Fischer titration. In common calculation, an extremely dilute acid does not have basic pH because of this compound's (*) autoprotolysis. Because of the leveling effect, no acid stronger than the hydronium ion exists in this compound. Despite its low atomic mass, this compound has higher than expected specific heat and boiling point due to its ability to form hydrogen bonds. Two lone pairs are found on the central oxygen atom in, for 10 points, what chemical commonly known as the "universal solvent"?

mercury

This element binds to four atoms of iodine to form Nessler's reagent, and was used to minimize friction in the Michelson-Morley experiment. Along with zinc, this metal is used as a reducing agent in the Clemmensen reduction. When bound to acetate, it can be used to transform an alkene into an alcohol. This metal, which is found in its (*) +2 state in the mineral cinnabar, forms alloys called amalgams. Despite its toxicity, it was used during the Renaissance as a treatment for syphilis, and it has also been used to preserve vaccines and fill glass thermometers. For 10 points, identify this element with symbol Hg.

cosine

This function can be approximated using Hardy's approximation on the domain 0 to pi over 2. The Fourier transform of even functions is written in terms of this function alone, and the hyperbolic analog to this function is given by e to the x plus e to the negative x over two, defining a catenary curve. The (*) dot product of two vectors is proportional to this function of the angle between them. A law named for this function is a generalized form of the Pythagorean Theorem, and one over this function yields the secant function. For 10 points, what trigonometric function is given by dividing the adjacent side of a right triangle by its hypotenuse, and is thus the cofunction of sine?

Java

This language optimizes runtime by compiling code using ASM or BCEL, two libraries for generating this language's bytecode. Multithreading in this language can be handled using classes that implement the ExecutorService interface. The default graphics library for this language is (*) Swing, and this language is often applied to web-based applications in the form of namesake applets. Because this language uses automatic garbage collection, it does not support pointer arithmetic. Bill Joy helped develop this language, which is optimized for machines running Solaris, but is able to run across multiple operating systems due to its namesake Virtual Machine. For 10 points, name this object-oriented programming language invented by Sun Microsystems.

lambda

This letter represents a constant whose namesake problem arises from a 122 order of magnitude difference between QFT calculations of the vacuum and astrophysical observations. This letter titles a prominent contemporary astrophysical model which treats both dark energy and dark matter; in that model, it is concatenated with (*) "CDM". This letter appears as the proportionality constant in an equation in which the velocity v of a wave is related to its frequency f. For ten points, name this letter whose uppercase is used to denote the cosmological constant and whose lower case is used to denote the wavelength of a wave.

Thomas Bayes

This man names a formula used to select the best machine learning model from a fixed set of models, taking into account factors such as the size of the training dataset and the number of learned parameters. He's not Markov, but this man names a type of network which uses multiple probabilities to represent conditional dependencies on a directed acyclic graph. Filters named for this man are used by (*) email systems to detect spam via a "naive" application of his namesake theorem. This man names an interpretation of probability that considers reasonable expectation, in contrast with frequentist probability. For 10 points, name this mathematician whose namesake theorem computes probability based on prior knowledge of relevant conditions.

Antoine Lavoisier

This man used Armand Seguin as a test subject in his studies of human respiration. With Laplace, he developed an early calorimeter that used melted ice to measure heat production. By burning mercury, this scientist found that air was composed of two gases and named one of them (*) azote, a substance this man later included among the thirty-three elements in his Elementary Treatise on Chemistry. This man used the discoveries of Priestley and Cavendish to disprove the phlogiston theory of combustion, and he pioneered stoichiometry by defining the law of conservation of mass. For 10 points, name this French scientist who is considered the father of modern chemistry.

ATP

This molecule inhibits phosphofructokinase in the Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway. Oligomycin can inhibit one part of the enzyme that produces this molecule; that enzyme is divided into F0 and F1 segments joined by an axle segment. In signal transduction pathways, adenylyl cyclase uses this molecule to synthesize the second messenger (*) cyclic AMP. The electron transport chain produces a proton gradient which is used to generate this molecule when hydrogen ions pass through its namesake synthase. For 10 points, name this molecule consisting of a purine, ribose, and three phosphates, commonly known as the "energy currency" of the cell.

positron

This particle's namesake "annihilation spectroscopy" is used to study defects in solids. The emission of this particle is used in potassium-argon dating. This particle was discovered from observations of its curved track on a lead plate by (*) Carl Anderson. Fluorodeoxyglucose is a source of this particle used to generate gamma rays in their namesake "emission tomography". These particles were predicted from negative energy solutions to the Dirac equation. A Dalitz pair is composed of one of these particles and an electron. For 10 points, name this positively charged fermion symbolized e+.

cellulose

This polymer was first synthesized in vitro by Kobayashi and Shoda. Schweizer's reagent is used to make derivatives of this compound by dissolving it. A substance made mostly of this protein is formed in the Kraft process. This polymer is built from a repeated structure of (*) Beta 1-4 glycosidic bonds, which is a reason for its high tensile strength. During cytokinesis, this polymer is secreted from the cell membrane after pectin is secreted, and the middle lamella is formed. This structure's function is fulfilled by murein, or peptidoglycan, in bacteria. For 10 points, name this difficult to digest polysaccharide made of glucose, which is primarily found in plant cell walls.

Edgeworth-Kuiper Belt (be lenient on pronunciation)

This region was discovered by David Jewett and Jane Luu using a blink comparator. Objects in this region that have a two-to-three orbital resonance with the nearest planet are known as "plutinos", while objects from this region that are not resonant are known as "cubewanos." Kenneth (*) Edgeworth hypothesized its existence with its more famous namesake. Makemake and Eris were discovered in this region in 2005. The only man-made object to enter this region of the solar system is the NASA spacecraft New Horizons. This region of the solar system is thought to be the origin of short-period comets. For 10 points, name this region of space, a circumstellar disk of icy bodies starting past Neptune's orbit.

ionosphere (prompt on "thermosphere")

This region's critical frequency is equal to the sine of the angle of attack times the maximum usable frequency. Schumann resonances occur in this region. AEROS and HAARP studied this region, whose polar cap absorption accompanies a release of high-energy protons. The winter anomaly occurs in part of the (*) Appleton-Barnett layer, the densest point of this region. Sporadic-E propagation in this region bounces radio waves off small clouds of gas and geomagnetic storms in Earth's magnetosphere cause the northern lights, which are visible in this region. For 10 points, name this layer of the thermosphere with many charged particles.

Werner Heisenberg

Though he did not coin the term, this physicist proposed the concept of isospin from the similarities between protons and neutrons. He's not Wheeler, but this physicist developed S-matrix theory to describe a system undergoing scattering. He published his matrix formulation of quantum mechanics in a series of papers with (*) Max Born and Pascual Jordan. A statement named for this man can be stated as h-bar over two is less than or equal to the product of the standard deviations of two conjugate variables, position and momentum. For 10 points, name this German physicist who developed the uncertainty principle.

electric field

Though it's not voltage, this quantity can be found using the method of image charges, and this quantity crossed with the H field gives the energy flux vector, also called the Poynting vector. In electrostatics, the energy per unit volume stored in this quantity equals one half times permittivity times the magnitude of this quantity squared, and this quantity equals the negative gradient of (*) potential. Faraday's law states that this vector quantity is produced by a change in magnetic flux, while Gauss' law gives the divergence of this quantity as rho divided by epsilon-naught. This quantity is zero inside a conductor. For 10 points, give this quantity, the force per unit charge at every point in space due to Coulombic forces, symbolized E.