Sociology Chapter 10
activism
Feminist _____________ was limited to a small group of women and their male supporters in an environment that saw sex differences as natural.
within
Even _____________ occupational categories, however, men commonly earn more than their female counterparts.
empower
It is possible to _________________ women across the globe.
rewards
Given that a major source of power, wealth, and status is the ability to earn money or acquire other material goods of value, any limitations on women's ability to pursue these _____________ affects their social position.
hallmarks
Greater opportunity and equality for women are among the ________________ of modern societies.
hallmarks
Greater opportunity and equality for women are among the hallmarks of modern societies.
trade
In a global environment that so often marginalizes women and girls, the ___________ in their bodies and lives is vast, widespread, and often ignored by authorities.
hidden curriculum
In addition to providing instruction in basic subjects, schools are an important site of a "_______________ ___________________," or the unspoken socialization to norms, values, and roles—including gender roles.
discouraged
In decades and centuries past, women were actively _______________ from pursuing higher education.
Martin and Fabes
"social dosage effect," --- play among young girls who stay with all-girl groups tends to reflect norms of encouragement and support, while young boys in same-gender groups develop a tendency toward more aggressive and competitive play.
100
In the natural order of things, 104 to 106 boys are born for every __________ girls.
women
In video games, _____________ are likely to be presented in hypersexualized ways that included being partially nude or wearing revealing attire.
Statistics on growth of females in male-dominated occupations:
1) 1960 = White women who were either staying home or employed = 8% in male-dominated occupations. 2) 2010 = 29% worked in these occupations ---physicians, lawyers, managers, and scientists. 3) The proportion of men in female-dominated occupations has remained low. ---teaching and nursing.
Several decades ago, many high school- or college-educated working women were likely to work in one of three occupational categories:
1) secretarial work 2) nursing 3) teaching (below the college level)
Statistics on completion of bachelor's degree:
Men = 29.9% Women = 30.2% ---The gap in younger age groups, however, is more substantial—and growing. ---young adults ages 24-34, over ----Women = 37% ----Men = 30%
non-routine
Men are more likely to engage in ____________________ domestic tasks, such as making home repairs, preparing a barbeque, or taking the children on outings.
threats
Modernization has also brought new and perhaps unexpected __________ to the female sex, particularly where it meets the currents of traditional cultural norms such as son preference.
40
Nearly _____% of women are employed in "traditionally female" occupations, and about 44% of men work in "traditionally male" occupations.
standpoint theory:
A perspective that says the knowledge we create is conditioned by where we stand, or our subjective social position.
Williams
According to the ____________ Institute, the size of the LGBT population in the United States as a whole is 3.5% lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults, and at about 0.3% for the transgender population.
patriarchy
Any set of social relationships in which men dominate women.
personal
As in any rape, the victim in war is likely to see the assault and its consequences as a serious _____________ trouble, which it clearly is.
socialist
As its name implies, socialist feminism is rooted in the ___________ tradition.
risk
Being born a woman is a _________.
differs
What is considered "masculine" and "feminine" ___________ across cultures, and gender displays can vary dramatically.
hunting and gathering and early horticultural societies:
Women produced nearly as much food as men and were more equal in power and prestige, though wealth differences were minimal in such subsistence economies.
Betty Friedan's publication: The Feminine Mystique (1963):
---Rigid stereotypes of femininity distorted women's real-life experiences and contributed to their unhappiness, helped initiate the second wave of the women's movement, with social theorizing and activism that was much broader in scope.
Families that did seek education for their daughters ran into structural barriers, such as:
1) Until the passage of Title IX in 1972, some U.S. colleges and universities, particularly at the graduate and professional school level, limited or prohibited female enrollment.
Perspectives that were rooted in now-dated understandings of human physiology:
1) Women were reported to have smaller brain capacity than men based on their relative skull sizes. ---Because of ostensible differences in brain size, men were assumed to be biologically more rational, with an advantage in pursuits that required reasoning and logic, such as business and governance. ---Women were seen as inherently more emotional and better at pursuits requiring emotional skills, such as nurturing. 2) Sexuoeconomic relation 3) Sex-role differences ---whether biological or social in origin ---were positively functional for social harmony, order, and stability.
3 commonalities among the regions where sex ratios have become acutely skewed:
1) advances in health care brought by rapid development have made prenatal screening widely available. 2) fertility rates have often shown steep declines. ---Numbers 1 & 2 are correlated with modernization, though their relationship to skewing sex ratios is unexpected. ---Low fertility translates into a lowered natural probability of having a son. 3) abortion is pervasive. 4) technological means to select for sex ---Sex selection typically starts with the urban, well educated stratum of society.
Why women across the globe are at greater risk than their male counterparts:
1) are denied education and cannot read. 2) are at greater risk of being denied medical care 3) greater risk of being trafficked into the sex trade 4) are refused the right to own or inherit property. 5) are less likely than their male counterparts to go to school 6) less likely to earn wages equivalent to their work 7) less likely to eat or get medical care when family resources are scarce.
Girls outperform boys on many academic measures:
1) earning high grades 2) enrolling in many of the Advanced Placement (AP) courses 3) achieving academic honors 4) finishing in the top 10% of their class 5) graduating
When we identify the 20 most common occupations for women and for men, only three appear on both lists:
1) first-line supervisors of retail sales workers 2) managers, all other 3) retail salespersons
Benefits of modernization for women:
1) gains in education and pay 2) a more prominent voice in society
Transgendered people may have the following sexual orientations:
1) heterosexual 2) lesbian 3) gay 4) bisexual
Types of feminism:
1) liberal feminism 2) socialist feminism 3) radical feminism 4) multicultural feminism
Figures on acceptance for same-sex marriage:
1) millennials (defined as young adults born in 1981 or later) = 71%) 2) generation X (born 1965 through 1980) = 56% 3) baby boomers (born 1946 through 1964 = 46%
matrix of domination
A system of social positions in which any individual may concurrently occupy a status (for example, gender, race, class, or sexual orientation) as a member of a dominated group and a status as a member of a dominating group.
organically
According to Engels, men and women were _______________ suited to the (unequal) gender roles in European society.
There is a conclusive link between greater education of mothers and lower child mortality. Why?
Because more educated mothers are more likely to understand and practice good hygiene and health practices.
Why do these gendered images reach a wider audience than they might have even a decade ago?
Because music videos today are often viewed online and on mobile devices in addition to the more traditional outlets of television channels such as MTV.
gender
Behavioral characteristics that differ between males and females based on culturally enforced and socially learned norms and roles.
marginalized
Countries where women are __________________ have higher rates of maternal mortality. ---Where women have little social, cultural, economic, or political voice, their lives have less significance than those of men, and scarce resources may be directed elsewhere.
friends
During late childhood and adolescence, children are especially concerned about what their ___________ think of them—far more than about what their parents think.
eliminated
Feminists seek to analyze why sexism exists and how it can be ________________.
made
Only by studying the social construction of masculinity can we understand that "men" are __________ and not born. --- important step toward achieving gender equality in both attitudes and practices.
gender specific
Sociologists thus argue that _____________-______________ behaviors are not reducible to biological differences; rather, biology, culture, and social learning all interact to shape human behaviors.
heteronormative
Sociologists use the term __________________ to designate the beliefs and practices that align with heterosexuality.
partiarchal
Some ____________________, conservative societies may not be ready to see women take the initiative to address sexual exploitation, bring attention to crimes against women, or grow economically independent of men, and the victimization of women who step out of traditionally subjugated roles is a risk.
ovaries
Some believed that the "____________—not the brain—were the most important organ in a woman's body".
less, more
Spending more time with fathers in childhood predicted daughters attaining _______ and sons acquiring __________ gender-typed occupations in young adulthood.
human capital
The skills, knowledge, and credentials a person possesses that make him or her valuable in a particular workplace.
cost
The social ________ of negotiating for higher pay has been found to be greater for women than it is for men.
sex category
The socially required identification display that confirms someone's membership in a given category.
continuously
Think of gender roles as being ________________ learned and relearned through social interaction.
technology
______________ is not, on its own, an infallible solution to social problems, including longstanding issues like discrimination or devaluation. ---But, it offers new and compelling tools for recognizing and addressing the gender wage gap.
epistemology
_______________ is the study of how we know what we know and how we discern what we believe to be valid knowledge.
multicultural
________________ feminists seek to build coalitions among women, creating international and global organizations, networks, and programs to achieve women's equality.
marriage
_________________ has a "traditionalizing" effect on couples, even those who describe themselves and their practices in egalitarian terms.
mobilization
_________________ of human and intellectual capital is a critical part of domestic development for a country.
domestic
_________________ tasks—child care, cooking, cleaning, and shopping for necessities of living—can entail long hours of work.
unmarried
__________________ women who live with men spend less time on housework than do married women—even when numbers of children and hours of paid work are taken into account.
hegemonic masculinity
___________________ _______________ is the culturally normative idea of male behavior, which often emphasizes strength, control, and aggression. ---Ex: football.
An interesting difference in the influence of a male and female parent is:
"For sons but not daughters, mothers' more traditional attitudes toward women's roles predicted attaining more gender-typed occupations."
masculinities
"Men's studies"—the study of _______________—should become as much a part of the college curriculum as "women's studies."
Statistics on probability of LBGT college graduates:
1) Gay men are more likely to finish college than their heterosexual male and female peers 2) Lesbian women are less likely to complete their higher education than either gay men or heterosexual men and women. 3) Homosexual men had a 44% probability of completing a college degree by age 30. 4) Heterosexual men had a 28% probability of doing the same. 5) heterosexual women had a 34% probability of completion by age 30. 6) homosexual women's probability was only 24%.
The size of the sex trade in some developing states is rooted in several factors, such as:
1) societal norms dictate that young couples wait until marriage to consummate a relationship. ---"Respectable" middle-class girls are expected to save their virginity for their husbands. --- Access to prostitutes offers a penalty-free way to gain sexual pleasure and experience before marriage. 2) the girls and young women in the brothels are usually poor, illiterate villagers with no power or voice and few advocates or protectors. ---Police are not only unlikely to help them but may participate in their exploitation as well.
2 activities essential to a society's continuation but usually lacking in social status:
1) women alone can give birth to 2) and nurse infants
Reasons why more women are enrolled today than men:
1) women tend to have higher grades 2) men tend to drop out in disproportionate numbers 3) female enrollment skews higher among older students, low-income students, and Black and Hispanic students
chores
A 15-year study that tracked thousands of men and women born after World War II, found that, in two-parent families with teenage boys and girls, girls were assigned five times as many household ____________ as their brothers.
negotiate
A 2007 Time magazine survey found that 84% of respondents (men and women) agreed that husbands and wives "___________________ the rules, relationships and responsibilities more than those earlier generations did".
masculine, feminine
Across the diverse cultures of our planet, males are generally expected to behave in culturally defined "_____________" ways and females in "______________" ways. ----Few people fully conform to these stereotypes—most exhibit a blend of characteristics.
attention
Activists have long sought to bring _______________ to conditions of female oppression and male dominance.
75
Although only about a quarter of U.S. women describe themselves as "feminist," more than two thirds believe the women's movement has made their lives better—including ______% of women under age 35.
half, 76, 12
Among Hispanics, in 1994, just over ___________ of all male and female high school graduates enrolled in higher education. By 2012, there was a significant gap, with _______% of female graduates and 62% of male graduates matriculating. Among Whites, there is a 10-point gap and among Blacks, a ____-point gap; among Asian Americans, the gap is smaller at 3 points.
glass ceiling
An artificial boundary that allows women to see the next occupational or salary level even as structural obstacles keep them from reaching it.
median
At the beginning of the 20th century, _____________ earnings for women working in full-time, year-round jobs were only half as much as those for men.
paid
At the end of the 19th century, only one in five women age 16 or older was __________ for her work; most paid female employees were young, unmarried, or poor (often all three) and held very low-wage jobs.
millennial
Attitudes toward and practices of gendered behavior and sexuality are changing in the ______________ generation.
1/3
By 1950, 5 years after the end of World War II, the proportion of American women working outside the home for pay rose to _________.
1980
By ________, more than half of U.S. women were in the paid workforce.
social, economic
By the 1960s and 1970s, young women had greater __________ and ______________ support at home.
Doctors, parents, or society rarely tolerate uncertainties in sex categorization. What is the result of this?
Children are usually subjected to surgeries and medications intended to render them "categorizable" in societally normative terms.
normative
Children learn a great deal about socially _______________ gender roles from their families, particularly their parents.
interactions
Complex ____________ between biology and culture shape behavioral differences associated with gender.
male
Daughters encouraged to excel in traditionally "_________" areas like science and mathematics are more likely to grow up to pursue science- or math-related careers.
German
During World War I, when Germany invaded Belgium and France, ______________ soldiers terrorized villages by burning houses, raping women, and killing villagers.
features
Even today, where women and, often, racial and ethnic minorities, appear in history textbooks, they are often shown in special ___________________ outside the main text that are more likely to be overlooked.
labor supply factors
Factors that highlight reasons that women or men may "prefer" particular occupations.
loans
For most American college students, the ability to secure __________ has become a prerequisite to entering college.
invisible
For the "founding fathers" of sociology, gender stratification was all but _______________.
shyness
From an early age _______________ is discouraged in boys at school because it is viewed as violating the masculine norm of assertiveness.
Soviet
Historians have also documented mass rapes by ___________ soldiers, particularly at the end of the war, when brutal assaults were perpetrated against German women and even women liberated from the Nazi camps.
acute
Homophobia can be _________ during adolescence.
creation
Important agents of gender socialization contribute to the ______________ of our gendered selves.
voices
Integrating women's ____________ into contemporary sociology is an important goal and one that is being achieved.
pursuit
Intuitively, we might associate son preference and the determined _____________ of a male child with traditional societies.
minority
Just a few decades ago, women were a clear _____________ in most institutions of higher education.
5
Just over a generation ago, fewer than ___% of husbands did as much housework as their wives.
demand
Labor __________ factors highlight what employers need and prefer—employees with human capital. ---These preferences are not gendered but instead focus on skills, knowledge, and credentials. ---A pay gap exists at every educational level; in a sense, women cannot educate themselves out of the gap.
supply
Labor ___________ factors draw our attention to the agency we exercise in choosing a career path and the decisions we make about how and when to be a part of the paid labor force.
Betty Friedan
Liberal feminism is reflected in the work of ___________ _____________ and those who followed her lead.
2014
More women than men are studying in U.S. institutions of higher education. In _________, more women in U.S. society also held a bachelor's degree.
expectations
Norms and characteristics are dynamic: men and women both shape and are shaped by these _________________.
dynamic
Notably, sociologists generally consider sex and gender to be __________ concepts.
explicitly
Other labor supply factors may introduce gender more _______________ into employer preferences. ---Ex: some employers believe they will incur higher indirect labor costs by hiring females. --- Because women are still associated with the roles of wife and mother, employers may assume they are more likely than men to be costly employees.
beliefs
Parents often have particular _____________ about how their infant daughters and sons are supposed to behave, and they communicate these attitudes in countless subtle and not-so-subtle ways. ----Ex: A girl may play with a toy truck with few social consequences, while a boy may be teased for enjoying a baby doll. ---- highlights the stigmatization of practices and objects associated with femininity.
behaviors
Parents' ideas about gender affect their ______________ toward children, even before birth.
residence
Place of _________________—in this case the state where couples live—has an influence on the household division of labor.
same sex
Playing in _________-______ peer groups, interestingly enough, may have a different effect from playing more often in mixed groups.
portray
Popular music videos tend to ____________ women as sex objects who are submissive in relation to men. ---"although sexual objectification is commonplace in media culture, music videos provide the most potent examples of it".
focus
Radical feminists _________ their attention on the nature of patriarchy. ---Ex: male dominance in economics and politics.
all-women
Radical feminists advocate ______-_____________ efforts to provide shelters for battered women, rape crisis intervention, and other issues that affect women directly.
unchallenged
Radical feminists argue that if patriarchal norms and values go ___________________, many women will accept them as normal, even natural. --- Men should also work to end male domination, but it is only by joining with other women that women can empower themselves.
relations
Radical feminists point to gender inequality in the economy, religion, and other institutions to argue that _____________ between the sexes must be radically transformed before women can hope to achieve true equality.
historical
Recently, books have begun to present a more diverse cast of _________________ characters. ---Women were not viewed as an integral part of the historical record. ---Vast majority of women remained silent and invisible, their history subsumed under general descriptions of men's lives. ---Women were sometimes praised for having successfully assumed male roles, traditional, patronizing phrases and denigrating stereotypes abstracted and diminished even their exceptional personalities and experiences.
obstacles
Recognize the power of sex and gender as categories that offer opportunities and construct ____________.
action
Reflecting common findings that men are "___________" figures while women are largely passive, Haninger and Thompson (2004) discovered that in the 81 teen-rated games they sampled, fully 72 had playable male characters, while just 42 had playable female characters.
imitation
Research on elementary school playgroups has found that girls often gather in smaller groups, playing games that include ______________ and the taking of turns.
t.v.
Scholars have written extensively on the role _______ plays in reinforcing gender identities in society.
branded
Sexism is inherent in the way that young female pop stars are "_____________," with the media hypersexualizing them and subjecting their romantic relationships to intense scrutiny.
discover, create
Smith argues that standpoint does matter, since we do not so much _____________ knowledge as we ___________ it from data we gather and interpret from our own standpoint.
frustrated
Socialist feminism in the United States emerged in the 1960s, when liberal feminists became _______________ by the pace of social reform and sought to address more fundamental sources of women's oppression.
capitalist
Socialist feminism is deeply critical of ____________ institutions and practices.
condition
Stereotypes may also ________________ employers' views, especially when jobs are perceived as "feminine" or "masculine." --- men are widely perceived to be more comfortable under male leadership. ---women are perceived to be more nurturing.
diverse
T.V. images of men are rarely ____________: they are still likely to be portrayed as more aggressive and analytical than women; they also disproportionately occupy fictional positions of leadership, whether in business, politics, or the media.
inappropriate
Teenage boys reinforced norms of masculinity and heterosexuality by disciplining behavior deemed ________________, feminine, or otherwise "unmanly," using slurs.
actions
The ____________ and judgments of our peers affect the ways we enact our gender roles.
brain-womb conflict
The idea of a "__________-________ _____________" faded as the United States entered the 20th century, other beliefs persisted.
internalized
The implication is that gender is an __________________ identity, not natural, but still a fundamental aspect of the social self.
traffics
The popular music industry ___________ in gender stereotypes.
feminine
The top 10 jobs most commonly occupied by women today still include several heavily and traditionally "______________" jobs done by women since they entered the workforce in large numbers starting in the 1960s and 1970s.
derision
The transgender population has long been an object of _______________ and fear: In 2016, a fight continued in a number of U.S. states, including North Carolina, over bills to require people to use the restroom of the "sex they were assigned at birth," regardless of their gender identity or outward presentation of self.
second shift
The unpaid housework that women typically do after they come home from their paid employment.
sexuality
The ways in which people construct their sexual desires and relationships, including the norms governing sexual behavior.
identifiable
There are _________________ factors that help us understand the growing gap between men and women in college attendance and completion. ---The picture becomes more complex when we look not only at gender but also sexuality.
sex, gender
To highlight the distinction between biological and social factors, sociologists use the term ________ to refer to biological identity and the term ____________ to refer to the "masculine" or "feminine" roles associated with sex.
stratification
Today, gender __________________ persists, but in a rapidly changing and dynamic social environment.
money
When women earn and control economic resources, family __________ is more likely to go toward needs such as food, medicine, and housing.
1920
While Stanton and Mott's efforts were a landmark in women's history, the results they sought were achieved only much later (women did not gain the vote in the United States until __________).
victimized
Women are ________________ by their rapists and often again by families and communities that feel shamed by the rapes.
7
____% of millennials identify either as lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender.
82
______% of women today believe that the status of women has improved over the past 25 years, and about half of all younger women believe there is still a need for a strong women's movement.
91
_______% of children ages 2 to 17 play video games.
video games
__________ _____________ offer an area for expanding research on media and socialization.
mass shootings
defined as shootings in which four or more people were killed by a lone shooter, though in three instances, there were two shooters.
Patricia Hill Collins
---"Black feminist thought." ---standpoint epistemology. ---Black women have long been denied status as "agents of knowledge"—that is, creators of knowledge about their own lives and experiences. ---Other groups have used their power to define Black women, creating a picture that is incomplete and disempowering. ---must recognize Black women as agents of knowledge and the use of Black feminist thought as a tool for resisting oppression. --- points to factors that fundamentally affect status and standpoint, including gender, race, class, and sexual orientation. ---concept of a matrix of domination. ---"all groups possess varying amounts of penalty and privilege in one historically created system. . . . Depending on the context, an individual may be an oppressor, a member of an oppressed group, or simultaneously oppressor and oppressed". ---Black women's experience of multiple oppressions makes them wary of dominant frames of knowledge, few of which have emerged from their own experience. ---comprehensive knowledge is born of a multitude of standpoints, and creation of knowledge is a form of power that should extend across social groups.
Erving Goffman
---"Doing gender" theory. ---Goffman's work does not have gender at its center. ---He illustrated idealization, in which we present ourselves in ways that exemplify the values and norms of society. ----Ex: a young woman choosing not to appear smarter than her male date. ---individuals seek to perform gender in accordance with societal expectations.
statistics on third-wave feminists:
---Among millennial women, about 63% call themselves feminists, a figure higher than that of generation X women but just below the proportion of baby boomer women calling themselves feminists (68%; this generation of women is most likely to have been part of the second wave feminist movement).
Second wave of feminism:
---Called for the equal treatment of women. ---Women and men were to be viewed not as fundamentally different but as similar; given equal opportunity, women would show themselves the equals of men in all respects. ---Strongly appealed to the growing number of well-educated, professional women drawn to work and public life during the 1960s. ---Result = an explosion of feminist thinking and activism.
child survival hypothesis:
---Declining child mortality in a society further correlates with fewer pregnancies and smaller families. ---If women feel confident their children will survive, they are less inclined to feel the need for "extra" children to ensure that some reach adulthood.
ovarian determinism ideology:
---Dr. Edward Clarke. ---Idea of a "brain-womb conflict". ---Adolescent women's menstrual cycles, reproductive capacity, and general health were all ruined by inattention to their special monthly demands [menstruation]. ---Clarke against higher education ---Believed women's bodies were more complicated than men's. ---Young girls needed time and ease to develop, free from the drain of intellectual activity.
Marx and Engels
---Originators of the concept of socialist feminism. ---Argued that inequality, including that of women, is an inevitable feature of capitalism. ---The family unit was historically based on the exploitation and male "ownership" of women. ---Ex: The practice of a father "giving away" his daughter in marriage is rooted in the symbolic "giving" of a young woman from one "keeper" to a new one.
modern industrial societies:
---Requirements of physical survival, reproduction, and economic organization no longer exert the same sorts of constraints. ---advent of reliable birth control, along with the invention of bottle-feeding around 1910, freed women from long periods of pregnancy and nursing. ---Mass education encouraged women to seek knowledge and eventually careers outside the home.
Dorothy Smith and Patricia Hill Collins:
---Sociologists who offer valuable perspectives on what it means to do sociology from a feminist perspective. ---explicitly recognize women as both subjects and creators of new knowledge. ---important contributor to standpoint theory. ---Our sociological picture of the world has emerged from a variety of standpoints, but until recently they were largely the perspectives of educated and often economically privileged White males. ---our base of knowledge is incomplete because much of what we know—or think we know—about the social world has come from a limited number of perspectives.
Charlotte Perkins Gilman (1898):
---Was one of the first female and feminist sociologists. ---Viewed heterosexual marriage between males and females as a sexuoeconomic relation. ---Women were expected to be financially dependent on men, and in turn, to serve as caregivers for their husbands and children. ---Women's gender socialization included significant pressure to find husbands, who in turn felt obligated to support their wives. ---The sexual relationship between men and women also became an economic one, with negative effects for the relationship, as well as women's autonomy.
Why feminists rejected Parson's theory:
---While he recognized sex roles as the product of socialization rather than nature, his perspective appeared to justify what many feminists saw as fundamentally unequal positions in society. ---In a capitalist society, power derives from the ability to earn independently, and the role Parsons foresaw for women was one of economic and social dependence.
forced labor statistics:
---almost 21 million people are victims of forced labor ---about 11.4 million women and girls and 9.5 million men and boys ---Of those exploited by individuals or enterprises, 4.5 million are victims of forced sexual exploitation.
"Brain drain"
---an obstacle to the development of rural health care systems ---Nurses and physicians from developing states are welcomed by wealthier countries experiencing shortages of health care providers, further diminishing access in poorer countries and communities. ---Wealthy countries far more likely to have a significant number of doctors per 1,000 population than poor states.
Third-wave feminism:
---emerged in the early 1990s as a response to some of the perceived shortcomings of second-wave feminism, but also as a product of changing societal norms and opportunities—and the Internet. ---paid significant attention to issues such as gendered violence and reproductive rights. ---argue that any issue a feminist finds important can and should be talked about. ---Choice is a central tenet; any choice is valid. ---this feminism looks different, in many ways, than that of earlier generations. ---shaped less by a shared struggle against oppression than by a collective embrace of individual freedoms. ---concerned less with targeting narrowly defined enemies than with broadening feminism's reach through inclusiveness. ---held together not by a handful of national organizations and charismatic leaders but by the invisible bonds of the Internet and social media. ---emphasis on intersectionality which recognizes the intersecting identities and oppressions of race, class, gender, sexuality, and so on. ---the feminist agenda has migrated to the Internet, making it at once less centered and communal, but more accessible and democratize.
Talcott Parsons:
---functionalist sociologist who offered a theory of sex roles in the U.S. kinship system that sought to explain them in terms of their functionality for family and society. ---In a modern capitalist society, women make their contribution by raising children and maintaining the family unit ---Men do so by earning the family income through outside labor. ---role not attributed to specialization to biology. ---Women were socialized in the family to acquire "expressive" qualities, such as sympathy and emotionality, needed in the private sphere of the home. ---Men were socialized into "instrumental" qualities like rationality and competitiveness, which were needed for the capitalist workplace. ---Competition for standing in the family was avoided with a division of roles, and the family's status in society was clear because it derived from the man's position in the workforce. ---Sex roles functioned positively on both the micro (family) and macro (society) levels.
Transgender includes, but is not limited to, other categories and identities, such as:
1) A person who was female assigned at birth but identifies as a man 2) A person who was male assigned at birth but identifies as a woman 3) transsexual 4) cross-dresser 5) androgynous 6) genderqueer 7) bigender 8) third gender 9) gender nonconforming
Statistics on women's representation among bachelor's graduates:
1) In 1972, women earned just 7% of law degrees and 9% of medical degrees in the United States. 2) In 2013, women earned 47% of law degrees conferred. 3) In 2015, women were 48% of medical school graduates in the United States.
Factors that have contributed to improvements in women's economic status:
1) Legal protection against discrimination 2) high rates of women's college completion 3) men's worsening labor market position ---A decreasing pay gap for women.
4 "basic rules of manhood":
1) No "sissy stuff"—avoid any hint of femininity. 2) Be a "big deal"—acquire wealth, power, and status. 3) Be a "sturdy oak"—never show your emotions. 4) "Give 'em hell"—exude a sense of daring and aggressiveness.
Gender earnings gap statistics:
1) Physicians who teach at U.S. public medical schools. ---Research on over 10,000 faculty members (65% male, 35% female) at 24 schools found a gender earnings gap: ---Without accounting for rank and other differences like specialty and years of residency, male doctors were found to average $257,000 annual salary, while women averaged $206,000. --- Importantly, even controlling for factors like rank, age, specialty, publications, years of residency, and research funding, the researchers found a gap of close to $20,000. 2) Retail sales ---Women earn about 70% of what men earn. 3) managers, as well as waitstaff ---women earn about 82% of men's earnings. 4) registered nurses, ---women earn 90% of men's earnings.
What is the role of rape in war?
1) Rape has historically been a "normal" component of war and a "right" of the victors. ---Those who have conquered their enemies may make a claim on the spoils of war, which include female bodies perceived as another form of property to be appropriated or conferred as "rewards." 2) Rape targets women for political and strategic reasons, including territorial gain. ---Rape and its threat were used to drive women from their homes so that the territory could be occupied by the aggressors. ---A way of physically destroying a community or group, as the brutality of war rapes can leave women unable to bear children. ---Raped women are also considered dishonorable and may be shunned by their families and the community. 3) Rape is a means of communication between male combatants on opposing sides. ---Where women are considered the "property" of their fathers, husbands, brothers, or the patriarchal social order itself, rape is a symbolic assault on the men who have failed to protect them.
Societal institutions that have taken steps against discrimination of transgendered people:
1) The Cooper Union, a college in New York, announced that it is removing gender identification from restrooms on campus and opening single-occupancy toilets for anyone's use. 2) The National Basketball Association pulled the 2017 league's all-star game out of Charlotte, citing "the issue of legal protections for the LGBT [lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transsexual] community". 3) In July of 2016, the U.S. military reversed a ban on transgender service members, allowing transgender members of the military forces to serve openly.
What explains these differences within occupations?
1) While the Equal Pay Act of 1963 made it illegal to pay men and women different wages for the same work, differences have been documented in fields from journalism to construction to academia. 2) In some occupations, men and women concentrate in different specialties, with men tending to occupy the most lucrative sectors. 3) temporal flexibility --- the persistence of the wage gap lies in how jobs are structured and remunerated. ---women are economically disadvantaged by their need or desire for flexibility in work hours. ---Women may work a comparable number of hours to men, but they are less likely to work odd hours or be willing or able to be available at any hour. ---aka. "caregiving penalty" ---the lack of women workers' flexibility is usually linked to their obligations to children or aging parents. 3) Men who work in traditional "women's" fields, such as librarianship, social work, nursing, and elementary school teaching, benefit from a glass escalator. --- Presumed that the men want to move up. ---Many of the men were put on promotional tracks even when they were ambivalent about leaving positions in which they felt satisfied. ---Men experience the glass escalator effect differently based on their race. 4) Qualified women may still encounter a glass ceiling.
Disadvantages of women today:
1) Women are still earning less than their male counterparts in the workforce and reaching fewer positions at the top of the corporate ladder and in politics. 2) Women across the globe remain deeply vulnerable to violence and exploitation. 3) Deep-seated prejudices hamper both men and women who do not behave as their societies expect: Gays, lesbians, transgendered individuals, and others who "do gender" differently are subject to ostracism, discrimination, and abuse.
Reasons for the growing college enrollment gap between women and men:
1) a high school degree is a prerequisite to college, and significantly more men than women leave high school without diplomas. 2) struggles not attributed to differences in cognitive abilities, but rather to differences in non-cognitive skills among boys: --- inability to pay attention in class ---inability to work with others ---inability to organize and keep track of homework or class materials ---inability to seek help from others. 3) Boys are also more likely than girls to have behavioral or disciplinary problems that lead to dropping out before completion of high school. 4) young women as a group have higher grades than young men --- Predictive factor of college matriculation and success. ---The mean high school GPA for female students was 3.1 of a possible 4.0, while for male students it was 2.9. 5) Women perceive college as bringing greater returns. ---Women are more likely than men to say college was "very useful" in increasing their knowledge and helping them grow intellectually (81% compared to 67%), as well as helping them grow and mature as a person (73% compared to 64%). ---Perceptions about the necessity of a college education for "getting ahead in life" were also split by gender: 77% of respondents indicated this was true for women, while 68% felt it was true for men. 6) Men are more likely than women to leave college without finishing a degree. ---student debt plays a role in this. ---mounting debt during their undergraduate years leads to a rethinking of the benefit of the degree versus dropping out to enter the workforce. --- men may be more averse than women to accruing debt. ---Men drop out with lower levels of debt than women do, but they are also more likely to leave before graduating.
Ways liberal feminists have fought to eliminate inequality:
1) elect women to the U.S. House and Senate 2) enact legislation to ensure equal pay for equal work 3) protect women's rights to make choices about their fertility and their family lives.
2 areas in which we can explore both stasis and change are:
1) family 2) education
Critical early influences on gender roles include:
1) family 2) peer groups 3) the mass media 4) schools
What explains the difference between boys' scores and girls' scores on the SAT?
1) gender bias in the test ---Girls did better than boys on questions focused on relationships, aesthetics, and the humanities, while boys performed better when questions involved sports, the natural sciences, or business. --- Gender differences could be altered through selective use of test items. 2) girls may underperform on math tests because they have been socialized to believe that boys are better at math. ---this is an example of stereotype threat. ---highlights the assertion that a person's performance on a task may be negatively affected by anxiety related to perceived low expectations of the individual's group—such as the expectation that "girls are not good at math." ---informing female test takers of stereotype threat before a test improved their performance. 3) more girls—and girls representing more varying levels of achievement and ability—take the test, explaining their lower average score. --- Boys' higher average score is the product of a limited pool of test takers representing the best-prepared young men.
Why gender matters:
1) gender can make a difference in someone's experience. 2) It can determine whether someone has the opportunity to visit a health clinic, attend school, or work in a paid job. 3) Historically and often today it still gives men the power to choose whom women will marry, what they can own, and whether they can assert control over their own lives, fertility, economic independence, and physical safety.
Why does gender occupational segregation exist and persist?
1) labor supply factors ---highlight reasons that women or men may "prefer" particular occupations, preparing for, pursuing, and accepting these positions in the labor force. 2) Labor demand factors ---highlight the needs and preferences of the employer.
Maternal death in childbirth can be linked to factors such as:
1) lack of schooling 2) lack of rural health care capacity 3) cultural disregard for women
Why U.S. women are at greater risk than their male counterparts:
1) risk of falling victim to crimes such as sexual assault or rape 2) of experiencing discrimination in the workplace 3) being subjected to sexual harassment on the street, at work, or in school. 4) more likely to be poor or uninsured.
Why did women in the past only seek 3 occupational categories?
1) socialization ---women were encouraged to choose "feminine" occupations, and many did. 2) choices women made based on their families' needs ---schoolteacher's daytime hours and summers off were a good fit with her children's schedules. ---Today, women are far less limited by either imagination or structural obstacles, as we have seen in the educational and occupational statistics.
standpoint epistemology
A philosophical perspective that argues that what we can know is affected by the position we occupy in society.
stereotype threat
A situation in which an individual is at risk of confirming a negative stereotype about his or her social group.
17
A study by the University of Michigan found that the total amount of housework done by women has fallen since 1976 from an average of 26 hours per week to about _______, while the amount done by men has grown from 6 hours to 13 hours. ---Labor-saving devices have contributed to changes ---The ability of more dual-earner households to pass the burden of domestic work to housekeepers, gardeners, etc. has contributed to the changes.
transsexual
A term used to refer to people who use surgery and hormones to change their sex to match their preferred gender.
concentrated
An important aspect of the gender wage gap is the fact that men and women are still, and more than we might think, ________________ in different occupations. ---aka. Occupational segregation by gender.
transgender
An umbrella term used to describe those whose gender identity, expression, or behavior differs from their assigned sex or is outside the gender binary.
inequalities
Anthropological studies have found that ________________ in almost all known societies, past and present, favor men over women.
trolling
Articles written by women attract more abuse and dismissive _____________ than those written by men, regardless of what the article is about.
private
Auguste Comte and Émile Durkheim drew on earlier philosophers, including Jean-Jacques Rousseau, to argue that women were best suited to "____________" family roles such as nurturance and child rearing and were "naturally" subordinate to men. --- Men were seen as possessing inherent advantages in such spheres as science, industry, and government.
Why is gender occupational segregation significant?
Because jobs dominated by men have historically paid more than jobs dominated by women. ---Those jobs have higher pay scales, which means that men's earnings tend to start higher and end higher than women's earnings.
Why do sociologists call the home a "factory of gendered personalities"?
Because of the power of the family in the production and reproduction of gender.
rules
Because we are constantly renegotiating our gender roles in social interaction, we can change and challenge "_________" regarding gender that we find to be limiting.
stereotypical
Beginning at an early age, girls and boys learn ____________________ gender roles in peer groups.
shaping, implications
Biologically based sex differences are not unimportant in ____________ social norms of gender. --- The fact that only biological women can bear and nurse children, for example, has enormous ___________________ for women's roles in all societies, but this does not mean that, as Sigmund Freud asserted, biology is destiny.
revolution
Both society and families have been part of the _________________ in women's higher education.
own
Boys are more likely to be taught to complete tasks on their _______, while girls are instructed to ask for help or have tasks completed for them.
rule goverened
Boys play in larger groups at _________-_________________ games that occur over larger physical distances than girls occupy.
materials
Classroom _________________ reflect gender power and position too. ----Ex: History books are still heavily populated by male characters, the great heroes and villains of the global and local past.
indirect labor costs
Costs in time, training, or money incurred when an employee takes time off to care for sick family members, opts for parental leave, arrives at work late, or leaves a position after receiving employer-provided training.
borne
Countries offering opportunity and mobility to women prosper economically; where fully half the population is deprived of rights, education, and access to the labor market, the consequences are ultimately ___________ by the whole society and state.
Soviet Union
During World War II, rape was practiced by all sides, with Nazi German forces assaulting girls and women as they beat a path into the _______________ __________.
correlation
Educated, literate women are healthier women; there is a strong ______________ between education and health that manifests in a variety of ways.
mothering
Education may foster healthier ______________ and better care of mothers. ---A better-educated birth attendant can treat her patient more effectively. ---Implementing quality midwifery services could prevent about two thirds of women's and infants' deaths globally," but those states most in need have the fewest trained midwives, nurses, and physicians.
labor demand factors
Factors that highlight the needs and preferences of the employer.
abolitionism
Feminism emerged in the United States in connection with _______________, the campaign to end slavery in the 1830s. ---Gave birth to the struggle by women to achieve basic rights, including the right to vote and own land.
activity
Gender is an _____________ that creates differences between men and women that, while not biological, appear natural because they are so consistently enacted.
biologically
Gender is less about being ________________ male or female than about conforming to mainstream notions of masculinity and femininity, though the characteristics we associate with gender vary across time and space.
active
Gender roles are neither biologically determined nor passively acquired from others. ---Each of us plays an ____________ role in learning what it means to be a boy or a girl and a man or a woman in a particular culture.
marginality
Girls and women have made tremendous strides in schools, families, and workplaces, and for many, equality seems achievable. For many others, __________________ is still the hallmark of societal experiences.
gendered
Importantly, while negotiation skills are valuable, apps are less likely to be able to address the _________________ work environment in which they occur.
vulnerable
Impoverished girls from the developing world are particularly _____________ to sexual exploitation and trafficking. -sex-trafficking = "modern-day slavery."
72
In 1963 they were still only about three fifths as much, but by 1999 the gap had narrowed, and women earned just over _______% of the median male wage.
527
In 2015, the average score for boys on the mathematics section of the SAT was _________ out of 800; girls scored an average of 496. --- While both boys' and girls' scores have risen over time (though there has been a decline in recent years), the gap has remained steady.
influence
In an age of growing media ___________________, when stories and images and ideas reach us not only through television, films, and games but also through computers, phones, and other devices, it is important to consider what kinds of gender images are conveyed.
developing
In many _________________ countries, however, women have little control over their fertility and childbirth is a persistent risk.
blending
In many cultures people believe male and female stereotypes represent fundamental and real sex differences, and while some "______________" is acceptable, there are social consequences for diverging too far from the social scripts of gender.
Disney "princess" films statistics:
In older "classic" films = female characters more likely to speak than female characters in newer Disney films. a) Cinderella (1950), women spoke about 60% of lines. b) Little Mermaid (1989), female characters spoke 32% of the time c) Mulan (1998), female characters spoke 23% of the time. d) Frozen (2013), two young princesses take center stage, but female characters have 41% of spoken lines.
policy
In recent years, scholars have begun to draw attention to the proposition that rape is not just a product of war but also a _____________ of war.
20
In spite of dramatic societal changes, the traditional model of the nurturing, homemaking mother and the breadwinning father still prevailed in books published late in the ______th century. ----Books do not just "entertain"; they also "socialize."
stage
In spite of the power of some women on the global __________ women's global voice is still limited.
market
In states where women have more labor ______________ power (measured by, among others, the number of women who are in the paid labor force, are college educated, work in management), married men are spending more time on domestic tasks. ---Mothers in these states, whether or not they work, are spending less time on housework.
traditionalism
In states with lower female labor market power and greater cultural __________________ (measured by, for instance, higher church attendance and higher marriage and fertility rates), married men spent less time on housework and mothers devoted more hours to home chores.
comfort
In the Asian theater of conflict in World War II, it is estimated that between 100,000 and 200,000 Korean women were kidnapped by Japanese soldiers and transported to the front lines, where they were pressed into sexual slavery as "____________ women."
dominance
In the United States and most other societies, sexism takes the form of men's ________________ over women.
disproportionate
In the United States, women still do the __________________ share of housework and child care.
DRC
In the _________, for example, tens of thousands of women have been raped by armed combatants in the country's civil war.
societal
In the _____________ order of things, from the ancient Greeks to the modern world, many families have pursued the goal of bringing forth a male heir.
anti-feminists
In the last 20 years, more women are calling themselves feminists, though nearly 40% do not identify as feminists at all or call themselves __________-______________.
inroads
In the last half century, women have made significant ____________ into historically male-dominated occupations.
social barriers
In the late 19th century, powerful __________ ____________ stood in the way of women's pursuit of higher education, such as beliefs about women's capacity to succeed at both education and reproduction.
Yugoslavia
In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, wars in Rwanda, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), and the former _______________ have been scenes of mass sexual violence against women.
priority
Inadequate funding of "women's concerns," including maternal health initiatives—and perhaps even their definition as "women's concerns" rather than family or national concerns—speak to the ___________ they hold.
teenagers
Long before they become ___________________, young people learn that gender matters and that the roles, norms, and expectations of boys and girls are often different.
sort
Looking at labor supply and labor demand factors can help us to ________ out how men and women have become concentrated in different occupations.
4-1
Male cartoon characters outnumber female characters _________—the same ratio as 25 years before. --- Male cartoon characters tend to be powerful, dominant, smart, and aggressive; female characters are more likely to lack personalities altogether. ---Male cartoon characters use more physical aggression, while females are more likely to display behaviors that are fearful, polite and supportive, or romantic.
birth
Many of these biologically based sex differences, such as differences in genitalia, are usually present at ____________. ----Others, triggered by male or female hormones, develop later—for example, female menstruation and differences in muscle mass, facial hair, height, and vocal characteristics.
mortality
Maternal and child ____________ are reduced with women's empowerment, as are the poverty, marginality, and illiteracy that may lead desperate girls and women to the global sex trade.
access
Membership in a sex category also brings differential _____________ to power and resources, affecting interpersonal relationships and social status.
share
Men are more broadly spread throughout the U.S. Census Bureau's occupational categories than are women, though in many categories, such as engineer and pilot, they make up a substantial __________ of all workers.
sexualized
Much has changed in U.S. society in terms of gender roles, media images often appear frozen in time, persistently peddling domestic or highly _______________ images of women—or cattiness and personal deceit, traits that appear frequently on "reality" TV programs as well as fictional shows.
central
Multicultural feminists acknowledge that much of the contemporary women's movement originated among heterosexual, White, and middle- or upper-class women in Europe and North America and that as a result its ___________ ideas reflect these women's perspectives. ---These perspectives are being challenged and changed by feminists of color from Africa, Asia, and Latin America, as well as homosexual, bisexual, queer, and trans women, contributing to an enriched multicultural feminist understanding.
illicit
On the __________ global market, available goods include weapons, drugs, pirated software and films, and women and girls.
independence
On the other hand, greater _______________—social or economic—may allow women to leave violent relationships or challenge norms that marginalize them.
SAT
One measure where boys have consistently outpaced their female peers, however, is the _________.
sons
Ordinary families with resources to support college study were more likely to invest them in their ___________, who were expected to be their future families' primary breadwinners.
dominated
Pre-K and elementary teaching is still largely female ____________________, and in many elementary schools the only men are administrators, physical education teachers or coaches, and janitors.
peer conformity
Pressures for _________ ________________ remain strong into college, where sororities, fraternities, athletic teams, and other social groups may reproduce stereotypical gender behavior.
conform
Pressures to ___________ to conventional gender roles exist in all cultures.
strategic
Rape in war is thus not just an incidental phenomenon but a _______________ one as well.
instrument
Rape is a conscious _______________ of war for combatants.
Why did women experience gains in employment and wage?
Result of postwar "baby boom" women, many of them educated and skilled, entering the workforce and moving into higher-paying jobs as they gained experience.
importance, causes
Several broad streams of feminist thinking agree on the ________________ of basic economic, social, and political equality for women—equal pay for equal work and the sharing of housework. --- They differ in their analyses of the ____________ of inequality, however, and in the solutions they propose.
notions
Sexism is at the foundation of this phenomenon: that is, while women are occupying a greater share of historically "male" jobs that require a college education, sexist ____________ about masculinity and "women's" jobs are keeping men from pursuing other occupations—including in growing fields like nursing—that need a college credential. ---Men may be choosing other historically "masculine" fields like construction and manufacturing, even though those sectors have seen declines in recent decades.
align
Sexuality may or may not ___________ conventionally with one's sex and gender.
"Doing gender" theory
Sociologist Erving Goffman ---Suggests that gender is less an identity than an activity. ---The social self is the product of a social interaction. ---Thus, the individual engages in "impression management" to tailor his or her presentation of self in a way most favorable to the given situation. ---The individual (or a group) is concerned with defining the situation and ensuring a believable performance.
Michael Kimmel:
Sociologist who argues, because men still dominate sociology—as well as society—it is also necessary to develop a sociology of masculinities. ---"masculinities" are not the same as men, adding that masculinities concern in particular the position of men in the gender order. ---Among men, status and power are not evenly distributed and may diverge along lines of class, race, and sexuality, among others. ---the focus is not on recognizing and analyzing masculinity (in the singular) so much as it is on examining the variety of cultural, social, and institutional influences that "make men."
product
Sociologists commonly define gender as a _____________ of agents of socialization, the combined influences of which create gendered selves.
culture, society
Sociologists seek to take both biological and cultural forces into account, though most believe _____________ and _____________ play more important roles in structuring gender and gender roles.
backlash
Some fear that women's empowerment can foster _______________, manifested as violence or social repercussions.
antiwar
Some feminists also grew frustrated with the civil rights and ____________ organizations of the 1960s and 1970s, which were headed by male leaders who often treated women as second-class citizens.
apps
Some new smartphone _______ are geared to help female employees address the persisting gender wage gap in the United States. ---focus on a variety of tasks -----including helping women to negotiate higher salaries and to learn more about pay disparities in their occupational field. ---effort on the part of the U.S. Department of Commerce, together with the White House Council on Women and Girls, to bring attention to: ----the issue of the pay gap ----- to disseminate usable information on disparities in pay -----to provide some tools to address it. ---#hackthepaygap
ingrained
Some notions of masculinity are so deeply ______________ in culture that when we discuss social problems like "teen violence," particularly shootings, in U.S. schools, we forget that we are talking almost entirely about the behavior of men.
sex ratio gaps
Some researchers suggest, however, that rising _______ __________ _______ in regions including East Asia (China, Vietnam), South Asia (India, Pakistan), and Asia Minor (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia) are associated with societal modernization. ---While son preference is rooted in traditional cultural norms, the means to ensure the birth of a son are decidedly modern.
Candace West and Don Zimmerman's (1987) article "Doing Gender" suggests:
That gender is an activity we do rather than a fixed identity. ---Sex is a set of biological categories for classifying people as male or female. ---Displaying and enacting gender as social norms and expectations determine.
hegemonic
The 4 "basic rules of manhood" reflect the concept of hegemonic masculinity.
size
The _________ of the transgender community in the United States is difficult to ascertain, as many people still live under the radar. ----A study from the Williams Institute at the University of California, Los Angeles, suggests a figure of 700,000.
scale
The __________ of the phenomenon of rape in war suggests that it is not just a private trouble but also a public issue.
gender-wage
The ___________-________ gap exists across all men as a group and all women as a group, and as well, within racial and ethnic groups.
division
The _____________ of household labor is also more likely to be equal among lesbian and gay couples.
proportion, 1991
The __________________ of women enrolled in college has been greater than the proportion of men since ________ though the actual numbers of women have been greater since the early 1980s, since women make up a larger share of the population.
objectification
The ______________________ of women in the music industry to be strongest in hip-hop and pop music, but it can be observed across genres.
sex
The anatomical and other biological characteristics that differ between males and females and that originate in genetic differences.
salary
The app's data, which is based on the American Community Survey, opens a trove of ____________ information that has been difficult for ordinary users to access. --- Most firms and organizations do not publish salaries, and many employees are uncomfortable asking colleagues about salaries, situations that can lead to uneven pay scales. ---Negotiation can then be based on information rather than assumption.
gender roles
The attitudes and behaviors that are considered appropriately "masculine" or "feminine" in a particular culture.
3-4
The average child in the United States spends __________ hours per day in front of the TV, more if the child has a television in his or her bedroom. ----Smartphones have further increased the "screen time" of many children.
multicultural feminism
The belief that inequality must be understood—and ended—for all women, regardless of race, class, nationality, age, sexual orientation, physical ability, or other characteristics.
sexism
The belief that one sex is innately superior to the other and is therefore justified in having a dominant social position.
feminism
The belief that social equality should exist between the sexes; also, the social movements aimed at achieving that goal.
liberal feminism
The belief that women's inequality is primarily the result of imperfect institutions, which can be corrected by reforms that do not fundamentally alter society itself.
socialist feminism
The belief that women's inequality results from the combination of capitalistic economic relations and male domination; argues that both must be transformed fundamentally before women can achieve equality.
radical feminism
The belief that women's inequality underlies all other forms of inequality, including economic inequality.
stepping-stone
The benefits of a college education have grown for women and they may be more motivated to use college as a _____________-________ to a desired job.
simulator
The collection of apps includes a negotiation ______________ intended to help users develop negotiation skills and build "soft skills" for interviews.
occupational segregation by gender
The concentration of men and women in different occupations.
industrialized
The dangers of childbirth have been nearly alleviated in _________________ countries, and maternal mortality is a rarity.
agricultural societies:
The development of metallurgy, trade and warfare became much more central features of social organization. --- Because women spent large portions of their active years pregnant or nursing infants, they were less likely to become merchants or warriors. ---Strong states emerged to manage warfare and trade, and these were controlled by men. ---women's status suffered.
gender wage gap
The difference between the earnings of women who work full-time year-round as a group and those of men who work full-time year-round as a group.
double burden
The diminished status conferred by deep poverty and being female imposes a profound _____________ ____________ on girls and women.
prospects
The effects of women's economic empowerment can also go beyond their own lives, improving _______________ for their children and communities.
Equal Pay Act of 1963
The enormous economic expansion that continued through the 1970s drew even more women into the paid workforce, attracted by higher pay and supported by the passage of laws such as the ____________ ________ ________ ___ ________, which made unequal pay for doing the same job illegal.
rape
The existence of __________ in war has a long and grim history across the globe.
movements
The fact that the world looks fundamentally different today is to a large degree thanks to the feminist _________________ of both the distant and the recent past.
1848
The first wave of feminism began in _________, when Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott organized a convention in Seneca Falls, New York, to pursue women's expanded rights.
roots
The function of rape has powerful historical _________: "Even as a system of law [on war] developed, rape was defined as a property crime against the man who owned the raped woman".
incentive
The gender gap in pay would be considerably reduced and might vanish altogether if firms did not have an _____________ to disproportionately reward individuals who labored long hours and worked particular hours.
perceptions
The gendered messages conveyed by everything from characters to themes to advertisements will affect the _____________, norms, and identities of young people.
visibility, rights
The issue of the transgender community and both its _____________ and __________ have garnered attention in the media recently.
gamers
The majority of ____________ are male, though the proportion of girls has been growing, and the percentage of players among the very young has also risen, particularly as more gaming has moved to mobile devices. ----This is significant because content studies suggest that popular video games consistently convey stereotypical gender images.
In modern Western societies, social institutions and norms embrace and elevate heterosexual relationships between biological males and females. This leads to :
The marginalization of other sexualities, including homosexuality, bisexuality, and asexuality.
glass escalator
The nearly invisible promotional boost that men gain in female-dominated occupations.
demographic
The new technologies also feature an app that uses U.S. Department of Commerce data to calculate an employee's "personal gender pay gap" based on _________________ characteristics that include race, age, occupation, and field.
statistics on adults who play video games:
The perception of gender representation is mixed: 1) 26% of all players and 35% of frequent players (those who labeled themselves "gamers") do not think women are portrayed poorly in most games. 2) 16% of players and 24% of "gamers" agreed that women are portrayed poorly in most games.
immersive
The program is _____________, simulating a variety of scenarios for the user as she prepares for real-world negotiation.
lessons
The roles of teachers, administrators, and other adults in the school provide some early ______________ to students about their future career prospects.
gig
There is also an app under development that seeks to ensure gender equity in the growing "______" or contract labor market, in which the stable, long-term employment of decades past is being replaced by a fluid labor market characterized by a growing number of shorter-duration positions occupied by "freelancing" professionals. --- As workers' job titles and occupational identities become more fluid as well, such an app may help women to ensure fair pay.
staples
Toys and books also function as ______________ of early childhood socialization in the family.
83, 719
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics figures from 2014 show that women working full-time and year-round earned about _______% of what their male counterparts earned, with variations by age. ---This translates to average weekly earnings of $_______ for women and $871 for men.
natural
Until the middle of the 20th century, most sociological theories assumed that existing sex roles and norms were __________, and by extension, positively functional for society.
decline
Wages of men without a college education have been on the __________ in recent decades, as well-paying jobs in sectors like manufacturing have been automated or moved to lower-wage areas abroad.
preferences
We can also use labor supply factors to talk about men's "________________" in the workforce.
verbal, english
While boys' advantage on the ___________ section of the SAT is smaller, it too has persisted, though girls tend to earn markedly better average grades in courses such as _____________.
socially
While it is clear that gender, which is associated with norms, roles, and behaviors that shift over time, is ____________ constructed and thus subject to transformations, a growing number of researchers have suggested that sex is also _____________ constructed rather than solely biological. ----Ex: cases of infants born with ambiguous sex characteristics and/or an abnormal chromosomal makeup.
role models
While parental practices may reinforce gender stereotypes, parents can play an equally important part in countering gender stereotyping by being _________ _____________ and socializing their children into norms and values reflecting greater gender equality.
Hilary Lips
Who wrote that parents give their daughters "roots" and their sons "wings"—that is, they nurture closer and more dependent ties with girls than they do with boys?
comfortable
Women are less _______________ with salary negotiation—and less likely to be successful at it. --- The discomfort may be conditional.
ahead
Women are moving __________ in academic achievement—and men are falling behind.
equal
Women are occasionally ___________ to men economically, politically, or socially, but in no known society do they have greater control over economic and political resources, exercise greater power and authority, or enjoy more prestige than men.
heterosexual
Women are still primarily responsible for domestic work in most two-parent _____________________ households.
representatives
Women are targeted as ____________________ of a community and a gender.
agency
Women have ____________, and even women in deprived circumstances can develop economic and political and social voice.
power
Women have made dramatic gains in areas like education, which have brought them independence, earning power, and greater workplace opportunities. Women are assuming positions of _________ in politics, the economy, culture, and education.
occupational
Women have made tremendous gains in the workplace, but in the United States and across the globe, they continue to lag behind men in earnings in most ________________ categories.
57
Women have represented about ______% of enrollments at American colleges since at least 2000.
139
Women in the Class of 2016 will earn ______ college degrees at all levels for every 100 men, and there will be a 610,000 college degree gap in favor of women for this year's college graduates.
predecessors
Women in their 20s, 30s, and 40s today came of age after the feminist social movement had already made great strides and are less likely to have experienced the same degree of discrimination as their ____________________.
opportunity
Women's climb to equality in educational _________________ has been long, but their gains in higher education since Title IX have been dramatic. ---Men's higher education gains have slowed.
gains
Women's educational __________ also opened up more professional and well-paid positions to them.
consciousness
Women's experiences in the civil rights and anti-Vietnam War social movements also helped shape a growing feminist ____________________.
ideas
Women's growing roles challenge men to reconsider long-held ____________ about sex and gender and to imagine, along with women, a world in which gender equality improves not only individual lives but also families, communities, and countries.
soared
Women's representation among bachelor's graduates has ____________ in recent decades. It has risen considerably as well in professional degrees.
transformation
Women's rising achievements in higher education represent a powerful social ___________________.
spoils
Women, who are often perceived in society as property rather than autonomous individuals, have been taken by soldiers and officers as "___________ of war" for many centuries.
Aina and Cameron, police
_________ _____ _____________ suggest that friendship patterns and peer pressure reflect and affirm stereotypes, especially among boys, who "___________" peers, stigmatizing perceived feminine traits.
Legal
_________ measures such as Title XI legislation, which was enacted in 1972, prohibited discrimination in educational institutions receiving federal funding and opened more educational opportunities to women.
Title IX
___________ _____is often associated with increasing equity in women's access to collegiate athletic opportunities. ---It foresees gender equity for men and women in every educational program receiving federal funding.
radical
____________ feminism is mindful that full equality for women has yet to be achieved in any existing political or economic system, radical feminism.
cartoons
_____________ also convey gendered images.
standpoint
_____________ theory offers a challenge to the sociological (and general scientific) idea that researchers can be, in Max Weber's words, "value-free."
feminisim
______________ is directly tied to both analysis and action. ----Seeks to explain, expose, and eliminate sexism.