Sociology Exam #3

Key terms (chapter 9)

assimilation: the process of being absorbed into the mainstream culture (300) authoritarian personality: Theodor Adorno's term for people who are prejudiced and rank high on scales of conformity, intolerance, insecurity, respect for authority, and submissiveness to superiors (295) compartmentalize: to separate acts from feelings or attitudes (299) discrimination: an act of unfair treatment directed against an individual or a group (289) dominant group: the group with the most power, greatest privileges, and highest social status (288) ethnic cleansing: a policy of eliminating a population; includes forcible expulsion and genocide (299) ethnicity (and ethnic): having distinctive cultural characteristics (286) ethnic work: activities designed to discover, enhance, or maintain ethnic and racial identity (288) genocide: the systematic annihilation or attempted annihilation of people because of their presumed race or ethnicity (286) individual discrimination: the negative treatment of one person by another on the basis of that person's perceived characteristics (291) institutional discrimination: negative treatment of a minority group that is built into a society's institutions; also called systemic discrimination (291) internal colonialism: the policy of exploiting minority groups for economic gain (299) melting pot: the view that Americans of various backgrounds would blend into a sort of ethnic stew (289) minority group: people who are singled out for unequal treatment and who regard themselves as objects of collective discrimination (287) multiculturalism: a philosophy or political policy that permits or encourages ethnic differences; also called pluralism (300) pan-Indianism: a movement that focuses on common elements in the cultures of Native Americans in order to develop a cross-tribal self-identity and to work toward the welfare of all Native Americans (314) pluralism: the diffusion of power among many interest groups that prevents any single group from gaining control of the government (300) population transfer: the forced movement of a minority group (299) prejudice: an attitude of prejudging, usually in a negative way (289) race: a group whose inherited physical characteristics distinguish it from other groups (289) racism: prejudice and discrimination on the basis of race (284) reserve labor force: the unemployed; unemployed workers are thought of as being "in reserve"—capitalists take them "out of reserve" (put them back to work) during times of high production and then put them back "in reserve" (lay them off) when they are no longer needed (296) rising expectations: the sense that better conditions are soon to follow, which, if unfulfilled, increases frustration (308) scapegoat: an individual or group unfairly blamed for someone else's troubles (295) segregation: the policy of keeping racial-ethnic groups apart (300) selective perception: seeing certain features of an object or situation, but remaining blind to others (297) split labor market: workers are split along racial, ethnic, gender, age, or any other lines; this split is exploited by owners to weaken the bargaining power of workers (296) WASP: a white Anglo-Saxon Protestant; narrowly, an American (302) white ethnics: white immigrants to the United States whose culture differs from WASP culture (302)

Chapter summary (chapter 8)

Gender stratification refers to males' and females' unequal access to power, prestige, and property on the basis of their sex. Gender is especially significant because it is a master status that cuts across all aspects of social life. Sex refers to the biological characteristics that distinguish males from females; gender refers to the social characteristics that a society considers proper for its males and females. Primary sex characteristics consist of organs directly related to reproduction, such as a vagina and a penis. Secondary sex characteristics are those not directly connected to reproduction but that become evident during puberty. These secondary characteristics include muscle development and the change to a lower voice in males and the development of broader hips and breasts in women. Although human beings are born male or female, they learn how to be masculine or feminine. This process of gender socialization begins at birth and continues through the life course. In short, we inherit our sex but learn our gender. There is a significant debate over whether biology or culture is most responsible for gender differences. The dominant sociological position is that social factors, not biology, most account for gender differences in behavior, including male aggressiveness and female nurturing. A minority view within sociology, however, attributes male dominance in society to biological differences between males and females. A classic study addressing the nurture versus nature argument is the case study of an identical twin who was subjected to a sex change shortly after birth after an inept physician severed the baby's penis during circumcision. Another study of Vietnam veterans measured the relationship between testosterone level and aggressiveness. The issue of sex typing is not an invention of the industrial society. Anthropologist George Murdock found that premodern societies sex typed activities as male or female, and that activities considered "female" in one society could be considered "male" in another society. In practically every society, however, greater prestige is given to male activities, regardless of the types of activities. Globally, females are discriminated against in areas of education and politics, average less pay than men, and are frequently subjected to acts of male violence. To some degree, this unequal treatment stems from the idea that women are considered a minority group because they are discriminated against on the basis of a physical characteristic—their sex. A patriarchy is a society in which men dominate women and authority is vested in males. Although nobody knows the origins of patriarchy, the dominant theory contends that patriarchy was a social consequence of human reproduction. Frederick Engels, an associate of Karl Marx, proposed that patriarchy developed with the origin of private property. In response to patriarchy, the feminist philosophy was developed. Feminism is the belief that men and women should be politically, economically, and socially equal, and that gender stratification must be met with organized resistance. Feminists further believe that biology is not destiny and that stratification by gender is wrong. In the United States, the "first wave" of the women's movement (early in the twentieth century) gained women the right to vote. The "second wave," beginning in the 1960s, contributed to women achieving more rights and gains. For example, women earn more bachelor's and master's degrees than men, have made significant breakthroughs in the political arena, have sharply increased their proportion of the labor force, and have made significant increases in their income. However, there are still many forms of gender inequality in various aspects of everyday life that continue to persist. Among these are a devaluation of things feminine, violence against women, and sexual harassment. As females come to play a larger role in the decision-making processes of American social institutions, structural barriers and traditional stereotypes will continue to fall. This should result in less gender stratification as both males and females develop a new consciousness.

Key people (chapter 1)

Jane Addams*: Addams was the founder of Hull-House—a settlement house in the immigrant community of Chicago. She invited sociologists from the nearby University of Chicago to visit. In 1931 she was a winner of the Nobel Peace Prize. (12) Mario Brajuha: During an investigation into a restaurant fire, officials subpoenaed notes taken by this sociologist in connection with his research on restaurant work. He was threatened with jail. (32) Auguste Comte*: Comte is often credited with being the founder of sociology, because he was the first to suggest that the scientific method be applied to the study of the social world. (5-6, 15) Charles Horton Cooley*: One of the founders of symbolic interactionism, a major theoretical perspective in sociology. (13) Lewis Coser: Coser pointed out that conflict is likely to develop among people in close relationships because they are connected by a network of responsibilities, power, and rewards. (18) W.E.B. Du Bois*: Du Bois was the first African American to earn a doctorate at Harvard University. For most of his career, he taught sociology at Atlanta University. He was concerned about social injustice, wrote about race relations, and was one of the founders of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). (9-12) Emile Durkheim*: Durkheim was responsible for getting sociology recognized as a separate discipline. He was interested in studying how individual behavior is shaped by social forces and in finding remedies for social ills. He stressed that sociologists should use social facts—patterns of behavior that reflect some underlying condition of society. (7, 15) Laud Humphreys*: This sociologist carried out doctoral research on homosexual activity but ran into problems when he misrepresented himself to his research subjects. Although he earned his doctorate degree, he was fired from his position because of his questionable ethics. (32) Harriet Martineau*: An Englishwoman who studied British and U.S. social life, Martineau published Society in America decades before either Durkheim or Weber were born. She is known primarily for translating Auguste Comte's ideas into English. (9, 12) Karl Marx*: Marx believed that social development grew out of conflict between social classes; under capitalism, this conflict was between the bourgeoisie—those who own the means to produce wealth—and the proletariat—the mass of workers. His work is associated with the conflict perspective. (6, 8, 17-18) George Herbert Mead*: Mead was one of the founders of symbolic interactionism, a major theoretical perspective in sociology. (13) Robert Merton*: Merton contributed the terms manifest and latent functions and dysfunctions to the functionalist perspective. (15-16) Wright Mills*: Mills suggested that external influences (a person's experiences) become part of his or her thinking and motivations and explain social behavior. As the emphasis in sociology shifted from social reform to social theory, Mills urged sociologists to get back to their roots. He saw the emergence of the power elite, composed of top leaders of business, politics, and the military, as an imminent threat to freedom. (4, 12, 19) William Ogburn: As early as 1933, Ogburn noted that personality was becoming more important in mate selection; this supported the symbolic interactionists' argument that there was a fundamental shift in the symbolic meaning of U.S. marriages. (14-15) Talcott Parsons*: Parsons' work dominated sociology in the 1940s and 1950s. He developed abstract models of how the parts of society harmoniously work together. (12) Diana Scully and Joseph Marolla: These two sociologists interviewed convicted rapists in prison and found that rapists are not sick or overwhelmed by uncontrollable urges but rather men who have learned to view rape as appropriate in various circumstances. (22, 31) Herbert Spencer*: Another early sociologist, Spencer believed that societies evolve from barbarian to civilized forms. He was the first to use the expression "survival of the fittest" to reflect his belief that social evolution depended on the survival of the most capable and intelligent and the extinction of the less capable. His views became known as social Darwinism. (6, 15) Max Weber*: Weber's most important contribution to sociology was his study of the relationship between the emergence of the Protestant belief system and the rise of capitalism. (8-9)

Key people (chapter 8)

Janet Chafetz: Chafetz studied the second wave of feminism in the 1960s, noting that as large numbers of women began to work in the economy, they began to compare their working conditions with those of men. (249, 258, 260) Donna Eder: This sociologist discovered that junior high boys call one another "girl" when they don't hit each other hard enough during a football game. (262) Sue Fisher: She discovered that surgeons were recommending total hysterectomies to female patients when they were not necessary. (263) Douglas Foley: This sociologist's study of sports lends support to the view that "things feminine" are generally devalued. (262) Marvin Harris*: This anthropologist suggested that male dominance grew out of the greater strength that men had, which made them better suited for the hand-to-hand combat of tribal societies; women became the reward to entice men into battle. (253) Alison Jaggar: She observed that as society changes, we may see a greater appreciation for sexual differences, and gender equality can become a background condition for living in society rather than a goal to strive for. (274) Gerda Lerner*: While acknowledging that in all societies women—as a group—have never had decision-making power over men, Lerner suggested that patriarchy may have had different origins in different places around the globe. (251, 253) George Murdock*: This anthropologist surveyed 324 premodern societies around the world and found that in all of them, activities were sex typed. (253-254) Alice Rossi*: This feminist sociologist has suggested that women are better prepared biologically for "mothering" than are men. (249) Diana Scully: She learned that surgeons "sell" unnecessary female operations to women in order to keep themselves in business. (263) Jean Stockard and Miriam Johnson: These sociologists observed boys playing basketball and heard them exchange insults that reflect a disrespect and devaluation of women. (262) Samuel Stouffer: In his classic study of combat soldiers during World War II, Stouffer noted the general devaluation of things associated with women. (261)

Learning objectives (chapter 1)

LO 1.1: Explain why both history and biography are essential for the sociological perspective. (p. 2).3 LO 1.2: Trace the origins of sociology, from tradition to Max Weber. (p. 4) LO 1.3: Trace the development of sociology in North America and explain the tension between objective analysis and social reform. (p. 8) LO 1.4: Explain the basic ideas of symbolic interactionism, functional analysis, and conflict theory. (p. 13) LO 1.5: Explain why common sense can't replace sociological research. (p. 20) LO 1.6: Know the main elements of the 7 research methods: surveys, participant observation, case studies, secondary analysis, analysis of documents, experiments, and unobtrusive measures. (p. 22) LO 1.7: Explain how gender is significant in sociological research. (p. 31) LO 1.8: Explain why it is vital for sociologists to protect the people they study; discuss the two cases that are presented. (p. 32) LO 1.9: Explain how research versus reform and globalization are likely to influence sociology. (p. 34)

Learning objectives (chapter 10)

LO 10.1 Define marriage and family and summarize their common cultural themes. (p. 301) LO 10.2 Contrast the functionalist, conflict, and symbolic interactionist perspectives on marriage and family. (p. 306) LO 10.3 Summarize research on love and courtship, marriage, childbirth, child rearing, and family transitions. (p. 308) LO 10.4 Summarize research on families: African American, Latino, Asian American, Native American, one-parent, couples without children, blended, and gay and lesbian. (p. 315) LO 10.5 Discuss changes in the timetable of family life, cohabitation, and elder care. (p. 322) LO 10.6 Summarize problems in measuring divorce, research findings on children and grandchildren of divorce, fathers' contact after divorce, ex-spouses, and remarriage. (p. 324) LO 10.7 Summarize the dark and bright sides of family life. (p. 330) LO 10.8 Explain the likely future of marriage and family. (p. 332)

Learning objectives (chapter 8)

LO 8.1 Distinguish between sex and gender; use research on Vietnam veterans and testosterone to explain why the door to biology is opening in sociology. (p. 230) LO 8.2 Discuss the origin of gender discrimination, sex typing of work, gender and the prestige of work, and global aspects of pay, violence, and education. (p. 236) LO 8.3 Review the rise of feminism; summarize gender inequality in everyday life, health care, and education. (p. 242) LO 8.4 Explain reasons for the pay gap; discuss the glass ceiling and sexual harassment. (p. 251) LO 8.5 Summarize violence against women: rape, murder, and violence in the home. (p. 257) LO 8.6 Discuss changes in gender and politics. (p. 260) LO 8.7 Explain why the future looks hopeful. (p. 260)

Learning objectives (chapter 9)

LO 9.1 Contrast the myth and reality of race, race and ethnicity, and minority and dominant groups; discuss ethnic work. (p. 263) LO 9.2 Contrast prejudice and discrimination and individual and institutional discrimination; discuss learning prejudice, internalizing dominant norms, and institutional discrimination. (p. 270) LO 9.3 Contrast psychological and sociological theories of prejudice: include functionalism, conflict, and symbolic interactionism. (p. 274) LO 9.4 Explain genocide, population transfer, internal colonialism, segregation, assimilation, and multiculturalism. (p. 277) LO 9.5 Summarize the major patterns that characterize European Americans, Latinos, African Americans, Asian Americans, and Native Americans. (p. 281) LO 9.6 Discuss immigration, affirmative action, and a multicultural society. (p. 294)

Chapter summary (chapter 1)

Sociology offers a perspective, a view of the world. The sociological perspective opens a window into unfamiliar worlds and offers a fresh look at familiar worlds. Sociologists study the broader social contexts that underlie human behavior. These include the social groups that influence human behavior and the larger society that organizes it. The sociological perspective is an approach to understanding human behavior by placing it within its broader social context. C. Wright Mills referred to the sociological perspective as the intersection of biography (the individual) and history (social factors that influence the individual). Sociology grew out of the social, political, economic, and technological revolutions of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The Industrial Revolution, in particular, eroded old traditions and necessitated new ways of perceiving and examining the social world. With the success of the natural sciences serving as a model for the social sciences, sociology emerged in Western Europe as a distinct discipline in the mid-1800s. Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Max Weber were early thinkers in the development of sociology. The idea of applying the scientific method to the social world, known as positivism, was first proposed by Auguste Comte. Based on this innovation and Comte's effort to apply the scientific method to social life, he is credited as being the founder of sociology. Herbert Spencer, one of the most dominant and influential English sociologists, is often called the "second founder of sociology." Spencer's concept of social Darwinism suggested that societies evolve from primitive to civilized and that the "fittest" societies evolve and survive, while unfit societies become extinct. The early history of sociology in North America was characterized by a debate over whether sociology should analyze or reform society. Jane Addams won the Nobel Peace Prize for her work with the disadvantaged in society and the development of the Hull House. W.E.B. Du Bois, the first African American to earn a doctorate from Harvard University, was a social critic and dedicated his life to analyzing and writing about social injustice. During the 1940s, the emphasis in American sociology shifted from social reform to social theory. "Grand theorists," such as Talcott Parsons, developed detailed, abstract models of how the complex parts of society harmoniously functioned together. Although this helped to legitimize sociology as a "science," it did little to critique, reform, and/or help to change the social injustices in society. C. Wright Mills' influential analysis of "the power elite"—a small group of business, political, and military leaders whose monopoly on power threatens freedom—helped to shift sociology back toward social reform in the 1960s and 1970s. Many sociologists continue to disagree over the proper uses of social research. Some sociologists practice basic (or pure) sociology, while others practice applied sociology. Whether one practices basic or applied sociology, a primary goal of social research is to separate fact from fiction while examining the links between what people do and the social settings that help shape their behavior. The current state of sociology encompasses social analysis and social reform, with a growing emphasis on applied sociology—a sort of middle ground that, rather than focusing on large and/or radical social change, uses sociological analysis to help solve problems in a specific setting. In an effort to pursue a social reform agenda, the American Sociological Association is now promoting "public sociology" with the goal of influencing politicians, public officials, and policy makers. Central to the study of any science is the development of theory. A theory is a general statement about how parts of the world fit together, relate to one another, and affect each other. Sociologists use three major theories—symbolic interactionism, functional analysis, and conflict theory—to observe and interpret social contexts, relationships, and realities in distinct ways. Symbolic interactionism analyzes how people use symbols to develop and share their view of the world. Focusing on the micro level, it studies the different ways that individuals and small groups create, disseminate, and/or interpret "reality" through their everyday, face-to-face interactions. Functional analysis examines how the various parts of society work together to fulfill their respective functions and, consequently, create a harmonious society. Focusing on the macro level, it also looks at how parts of society occasionally dysfunction, negatively affecting other parts of society and, consequently, contributing to a more unstable society. Conflict theory views the social world in terms of competing groups struggling over scarce resources. Also focusing on the macro level, conflict theory examines how groups of people with power maintain and/or impose their power, and how groups of people without power work to acquire power. Sociologists conduct research on almost every area of human behavior. The research conducted may be at the macro level, encompassing broad matters such as social structure, or at the micro level, which addresses individualistic and small group interaction. Sociological research is necessary for a variety of reasons. Research will confirm or deny the validity and extent of what is considered to be true simply because it "makes sense." Whereas culture has a significant impact on what one believes to be true, there needs to be a more objective manner in which to discover truth. Research provides the method through which truth can be discovered. Henslin identifies eight steps in the scientific research model. These are (1) selecting a topic, (2) defining the problem, (3) reviewing the literature, (4) formulating a hypothesis, (5) choosing a research method, (6) collecting the data, (7) analyzing the results, and (8) sharing the results. Other authors may identify more than or fewer than eight steps, but the basic model remains the same. Two key elements to research are validity and reliability. Validity addresses whether or not the research measures what it is intended to measure. Reliability is the extent to which research produces consistent or dependable results. In conducting research, sociologists choose between seven research methods: (1) survey, (2) participant observation, (3) secondary analysis, (4) documents, (5) unobtrusive measures, (6) case studies, and (7) experiments. Sociologists choose their research method(s) based on four primary factors: resources, access to subjects, purpose of the research, and the researcher's background. There are a number of factors researchers must take into consideration beyond the research method chosen. Some of these are beyond the control of the researcher, such as a change in the subject's behavior because he or she is aware of being studied. Gender is also a consideration that must be controlled by the researcher, especially when the sample being studied or the subject of the research is gender related. Gender can be a significant confounding factor in sociological research, and sociologists need to take careful steps to prevent gender differences from biasing their findings. Ethics are of fundamental concern to sociologists when it comes to doing research. Although sociologists are expected to follow ethical guidelines that require openness, honesty, truth, and the protection of research subjects, their studies can occasionally elicit great controversies. The Brajuha research created considerable controversy and legal complications over the protection of subjects. Laud Humphreys generated a national controversy by misleading subjects when conducting sensitive research about bisexual men's personal lives. A national columnist referred to his research as the product of "sociological snoopers." A court case loomed over his actions. As the world becomes more globally connected, American sociology is likely to expand its current horizons, incorporating new perspectives and worldviews that include—and encompass—global issues and concerns.

Chapter summary (chapter 10)

The practices of marriage and family differ around the world. Although every human group organizes its members in families, how families are organized varies greatly from culture to culture. Broadly defined, a family consists of two or more people who consider themselves related by blood, marriage, or adoption. A household, in contrast, consists of people who occupy the same housing unit. Every human group establishes norms to govern who can marry whom. Although these norms vary from culture to culture, all societies use family and marriage to establish patterns of mate selection, descent, inheritance, and authority. Most societies demand endogamy, the practice of marrying someone within one's own group. In contrast, norms of exogamy specify that people may marry outside their group. Western culture norms are based on exogamy and use a bilateral system of descent, which means children are considered as related to both their mother's side and the father's side of the family. In a patrilineal system, descent is traced only on the father's side; in a matrilineal system, descent is traced only on the mother's side. In a society that practices these patterns of descent, the pattern of inheritance would be similar. A social system in which men dominate women is referred to as patriarchy. Although a matriarchy would be a society dominated by women, there is no historical record of a true matriarchy existing. Family patterns in America are becoming more egalitarian, or equal, although many of today's customs still reflect a patriarchal origin. According to the functionalist perspective, the family is universal because it serves six essential functions: economic production, socialization of children, care of the sick and aged, recreation, sexual control, and reproduction. Conflict theorists focus on the inequalities within the institution of the family and marriage, particularly as they relate to the subservience of women. Symbolic interactionists examine how the contrasting experiences and perspectives of men and women are played out in marriage. The major elements of the family life cycle are love and courtship, marriage, childbirth, child rearing, and the family in later life. Romantic love, people being sexually attracted to one another and idealizing the other, plays a significant role in courtship in Western culture. In Western culture, love is mostly regarded as the basis for marriage. Many Eastern cultures still practice arranged marriages, usually negotiated by the parents of the bride and groom. Choices of who marries whom in the United States follow highly predictable social channels of age, education, social class, race, and religion. In either case, a group's marriage practices match its values and patterns of social stratification. Compared to the 1970s and 1980s, both mothers and fathers are spending more time with their children because they are spending less time on housework (cooking and cleaning) and are less fussy about how their homes look. Some young adults are either not leaving or are returning home, leading to a not-so-empty nest. Although there are some variations in family life between white, African American, Latino, Asian American, and Native American families, the primary distinctions in families result from cultural differences and social class. The decline of the traditional family and the changing definitions of family are evident in the significant increase in one-parent, childless, blended, and gay and lesbian families. The percentage of U.S. children living with two parents has dropped from 85 percent in 1970 to 70 percent in 2010. The number of married women not giving birth has doubled over the past twenty years to an average of 19 percent today. Most childless married couples have made a choice to not have children. Referred to as DINKs (dual income, no kids), these couples prefer the personal comforts and convenience of not having children. With advances in contraception, the legalization of abortion, the high cost of raising a child, and the emphasis on materialism, this trend will likely continue. Blended families—those that have members who were previously parts of other families—are also on the rise. Although gay marriages are not allowed in most of the states, gay unions are becoming more public. Several trends since the 1960s are very apparent in U.S. families. Significant changes in the characteristics of the family include postponement of first marriage and childbirth, the cultural acceptance and increase in cohabitation, and the rise in births to unwed mothers. Moreover, with more people living longer, many middle-aged couples find themselves "sandwiched" between providing for their children's needs and caring for their aging parents. Divorce often has adverse effects on children that can carry over into adulthood. Children of divorced parents who are not made to choose sides, feel loved, live with a parent who is making a good adjustment, have consistent routines, and grow up in households with adequate finances to meet the family's needs adjust best to the effects of divorce. Men and women experience divorce differently. For men, divorce often results in weakened relationships with their children. For women, it typically means a decline in their standard of living. Although the institutions of marriage and the family fulfill universal needs, some marriages and families are characterized by a "dark side" that includes spouse battering, child abuse, marital rape, and incest. On the brighter side, a survey showed that out of 351 couples who had been married fifteen years or longer, 300 considered themselves to be happily married. They thought of their spouse as their best friend, considered marriage a lifelong commitment, and believed marriage to be sacred. They strongly wanted their marriages to succeed and often laughed together. Patterns of marriage and family life in the United States are undergoing a fundamental shift, with trends pointing to further increases in cohabitation, more births to single women, a higher age at first marriage, and an increased presence of married women in the workforce. Since we are living longer, more couples will find themselves sandwiched between caring for their parents and caring for their children.

Key people (chapter 9)

Theodor Adorno: Adorno identified the authoritarian personality type. (295) Kathleen Blee: She interviewed women who were members of the Ku Klux Klan and Aryan Nation. She found that their racism was not the cause of their joining but the result of their membership in those groups. (291) Ashley Doane: Doane identified four factors that affect an individual's sense of ethnic identity. (288-289) John Dollard: This psychologist first suggested that prejudice is the result of frustration and scapegoats become the targets for their frustration. (295) Raphael Ezekiel*: This sociologist did participant observation of neo-Nazis and the Ku Klux Klan in order to examine racism from inside racist organizations. (291, 293) Anthony Greenwald and Mahzarin Banaji: These psychologists created the "Implicit Association Test." They found that we learn the ethnic maps of our culture and a route to biased perception. (291) Eugene Hartley: His study found that prejudice does not depend on negative experiences with others. Those who are prejudiced against racial-ethnic groups are likely to be prejudiced against others. (291) Peggy McIntosh: She theorizes that being white is a "taken-for-granted" background assumption of U.S. society. (304) Ashley Montagu*: This physical anthropologist pointed out that some scientists have classified humans into only two races, while others have identified as many as two thousand. (284) Alejandro Portes and Rueben Rumbaut: These sociologists looked at the impact that immigration has had on our country, pointing out that there has always been an anti-immigrant sentiment present. (316) Muzafer and Carolyn Sherif*: The Sherifs researched the functions of prejudice and found that it builds in-group solidarity. (296) W.I. and D.S. Thomas*: The Thomases observed that once people define a situation as real, it is real in its consequences. (286) William Julius Wilson: Wilson is known for his work on racial discrimination, in which he argues that class is a more important factor than race in explaining patterns of inequality. (309-310) Louis Wirth*: Wirth offered a sociological definition of minority group. (287)

Chapter summary (chapter 9)

With more than six billion people on the planet, the world offers a fascinating array of human characteristics. Race refers to the inherited physical characteristics that distinguish one group from another. These distinguishing characteristics include a variety of complexions, colors, and shapes. Although there have been significant strides in the understanding of race and racial equality, two myths of race are still common. One is the perception that some races are superior to others; the other is that "pure" races exist. The idea of race remains a very real and powerful force throughout the world, shaping basic relationships between people in the United States and elsewhere. The question of how many races inhabit the planet is a debatable topic among anthropologists and sociologists. The number of race classifications has ranged from two to two-thousand. Ashley Montagu has classified humans into forty racial groups. While race refers to biological characteristics that distinguish one group of people from another, ethnicity refers to cultural characteristics that distinguish one group of people from another. Derived from the Greek word "ethnos," meaning "people" or "nation," ethnicity may center on nation of origin, distinctive foods, dress, language, music, religion, or family names and relationships. It is common for people to confuse the terms "race" and "ethnic group." Jews, for example, are considered by many as being a race, but, in reality, are more accurately classified as an ethnic group. People often construct their racial and ethnic identity through a process referred to as "ethnic work." Ethnic work refers to activities to discover, enhance, or maintain ethnic and racial identification. This includes clothing, food, language, celebrated holidays, and religion. Along with race and ethnicity, the concept of a minority group is often misunderstood. Louis Wirth defined a minority group as a group of people who are singled out for unequal treatment and who regard themselves as objects of collective discrimination. Four factors reduce or heighten people's ethnic identification with a group: its relative size, power, broad physical characteristics, and the degree to which it is subjected to discrimination. Although often used interchangeably, prejudice and discrimination are not the same. Prejudice refers to an attitude, or prejudging, usually in a negative way. Discrimination is an act of unfair treatment directed against an individual or group. Discrimination comes in two forms: individual discrimination, consisting of the negative treatment of one person by another on the basis of that person's perceived characteristics, and institutional discrimination, consisting of discriminatory practices embedded in and spread through society's social institutions. Psychological theories of prejudice include "scapegoating" (unfairly blaming another individual or group for one's own frustrations and troubles) and authoritarian personalities (people who are more inclined to respect authority and submit to superiors). Sociological theories of prejudice focus on the social environments that encourage or discourage prejudice. Functionalists examine the benefits and costs of discrimination; conflict theorists look at the way groups in power exploit racial and ethnic divisions, and symbolic interactionists explore how racial and ethnic stereotypes become self-fulfilling prophecies. Sociologists have identified six global patterns of intergroup relations between dominant and minority groups. They are genocide, population transfer, internal colonialism, segregation, assimilation, and multiculturalism. Each has been practiced in the United States at one time or another, and all are presently practiced somewhere in the world. The major ethnic groups in the United States are, from the largest to the smallest, European Americans, Latinos, African Americans, Asian Americans, and Native Americans. Each minority group faces different concerns or obstacles. For many years, white Europeans from countries other than England were not welcomed in America. Referred to as "white ethnics," these Caucasian Europeans had languages and customs different from the earliest immigrants and were considered to be inferior. Latinos are divided by country of origin. African Americans are increasingly divided into middle and lower classes. The well-being of Asian Americans varies widely by country of origin. However, the success of Asian Americans is attributed to their traditional family structures, their higher levels of education, and their assimilation into the dominant culture. For Native Americans, the primary issues are poverty, nationhood, and settling treaty obligations. All minority groups are concerned with overcoming discrimination. Every group that has immigrated to America has faced this problem, including Caucasian Europeans. It has been argued that people of color have faced greater degrees of discrimination. Current issues dominating race-ethnic relations in the United States include immigration, affirmative action, and multiculturalism.

Key people (chapter 10)

Paul Amato and Jacob Cheadle: These sociologists were the first to study the grandchildren of divorced parents. They found that the effects of divorce continue across generations. (341, 347, 350-351) Philip Blumstein and Pepper Schwartz: These sociologists interviewed same-sex couples and found that they face the same problems as heterosexual couples. (343) Urie Bronfenbrenner: This sociologist studied the impact of divorce on children and found that children adjust better if there is a second adult who can be counted on for support. (350) Andrew Cherlin: Cherlin notes that our society has not yet developed adequate norms for remarriage. (351) Donald Dutton and Arthur Aron: These researchers compared the sexual arousal levels of men who were in dangerous situations with men in safe situations. They found that the former were more sexually aroused than the latter. (332) David Finkelhor and Kersti Yllo: These sociologists interviewed 10 percent of a representative sample of women from Boston who reported that their husbands used physical force to compel them to have sex. (354) Lori Girshick: She interviewed lesbians who had been sexually assaulted by their partners. (354) Mavis Hetherington: Her research shows that 75 to 80 percent of children of divorce function as well as children who are reared by both parents. (350) William Jankowiak and Edward Fischer: These anthropologists surveyed data on 166 societies and found that the majority of them contained the ideal of romantic love. (332) Melvin Kohn*: Kohn found that the type of work that parents do has an impact on how they rear their children. (337) Jeanette & Robert Lauer: These sociologists interviewed 351 couples who had been married fifteen years or longer in order to find out what makes a marriage successful. (364-355) Diana Russell: Russell found that incest victims who experience the most difficulty are those who have been victimized the most often over longer periods of time and whose incest was "more intrusive." (354) Nicholas Stinnett: Stinnett studied 660 families from all regions of the United States and parts of South America in order to find the characteristics of happy families. (355) Murray Straus: This sociologist has studied domestic violence and found that, while husbands and wives are equally likely to attack one another, men inflict more damage on women than the reverse. (352) Bob Suzuki: This sociologist studied Chinese and Japanese American families and identified several distinctive characteristics of Asian American families. (340) Judith Wallerstein: This psychologist claims that divorce has detrimental, long-term effects on children. (347, 350)

Key terms (chapter 1)

applied sociology: the use of sociology to solve problems—from the micro level of family relationships to the macro level of crime and pollution (12) bourgeoisie: Karl Marx's term for capitalists, those who own the means to produce wealth (17) case study: an analysis of a single event, situation, or individual (27) class conflict: Marx's term for the struggle between the proletariat (workers) and the bourgeoisie (capitalist) (17) closed-ended questions: questions that are followed by a list of possible answers to be selected by the respondent (25) common sense: those things that "everyone knows" are true (13) control group: the subjects in an experiment who are not exposed to the independent variable (29) conflict theory: a theoretical framework in which society is viewed as composed of groups competing for scarce resources (17) dependent variable: a factor in an experiment that is changed by an independent variable (29) documents: in its narrow sense, written sources that provide data; in its extended sense, archival material of any sort, including photographs, movies, CDs, DVDs, and so on (28-29) experiment: the use of control and experimental groups and dependent and independent variables to test causation (29) experimental group: the group of subjects exposed to the independent variable in a study (29) functional analysis: a theoretical framework in which society is viewed as composed of various parts, each with a function that, when fulfilled, contributes to society's equilibrium; also known as functionalism and structural functionalism (15) generalizability: the extent to which the findings from one group (or sample) can be generalized or applied to other groups (or populations) (27) globalization: the extensive interconnections among nations due to the expansion of capitalism (33) globalization of capitalism: capitalism (investing to make profits within a rational system) becoming the globe's dominant economic system (35) hypothesis: a statement of how variables are expected to be related to one another, often according to predictions from a theory (20) independent variable: a factor that causes a change in another variable, called the dependent variable (29) interviewer bias: effects that interviewers have on respondents that lead to biased answers (31) macro-level analysis: an examination of large-scale patterns of society (18) micro-level analysis: an examination of small-scale patterns of society (18) nonverbal interaction: communication without words through gestures, space, silence, and so on (19) objectivity: total neutrality (26) open-ended questions: questions that respondents answer in their own words (25) participant observation (or fieldwork): research in which the researcher participates in a research setting while observing what is happening in that setting (27) population: the target group to be studied (24) positivism: the application of the scientific approach to the social world (5) proletariat: Marx's term for the exploited class, the mass of workers who do not own the means of production (6) public sociology: sociology being used for the public good; especially the sociological perspective (of how things are related to one another) guiding politicians and policy makers (13) random sample: a sample in which everyone in the target population has the same chance of being included in the study (24) rapport: a feeling of trust between researchers and the people they are studying (25) reliability: the extent to which research produces consistent or dependable results (20) research method (or research design): one of seven procedures that sociologists use to collect data: surveys, participant observation, case studies, secondary analysis, documents, experiments, and unobtrusive measures (22) respondents: the people who respond to a survey, either in interviews or by self-administered questionnaires (25) sample: the individuals intended to represent the population to be studied (24) science: the application of systematic methods to obtain knowledge and the knowledge obtained by those methods (5) scientific method: the use of objective, systematic observations to test theories (5) secondary analysis: the analysis of data that have been collected by other researchers (27) social interaction: what people do when they are in one another's presence (18) social location: the group memberships that people have because of their location in history and society (4) society: a term used by sociologists to refer to a group of people who share a culture and a territory (4) sociological perspective: understanding human behavior by placing it within its broader social context (4) sociology: the scientific study of society and human behavior (6) stratified random sample: a sample from select subgroups of the target population in which everyone in these subgroups has an equal chance of being included in the research (24) survey: the collection of data by having people answer a series of questions (24) symbolic interactionism: a theoretical perspective in which society is viewed as composed of symbols that people use to establish meaning, develop their views of the world, and communicate with one another (13) theory: a general statement about how some parts of the world fit together and how they work; an explanation of how two or more facts are related to one another (13) unobtrusive measures: the various ways of observing people so they do not know they are being studied (31) validity: the extent to which an operational definition measures what it was intended to measure (20) variable: a factor thought to be significant for human behavior, which can vary (or change) from one case to another (20)

Key terms (chapter 10)

bilineal (system of descent): a system of reckoning descent that counts both the mother's and the father's side (328) blended family: a family whose members were once part of other families (342-343) cohabitation: unmarried couples living together in a sexual relationship (343) egalitarian: authority more or less equally divided between people or groups (in marriage, for example, between husband and wife) (329) endogamy: the practice of marrying within one's own group (327) exogamy: the practice of marrying outside one's group (327) extended family: a nuclear family plus other relatives, such as grandparents, uncles, and aunts (346) family: two or more people who consider themselves related by blood, marriage, or adoption (326) family of orientation: the family in which a person grows up (327) family of procreation: the family formed when a couple's first child is born (327) homogamy: the tendency of people with similar characteristics to marry one another (332) household: people who occupy the same housing unit (326) incest: sexual relations between specified relatives, such as brothers and sisters or parents and children (354) incest taboo: the rule that prohibits sex and marriage among designated relatives (327) machismo: an emphasis on male strength, high sexuality, and dominance (340) marriage: a group's approved mating arrangements, usually marked by a ritual of some sort (327) matriarchy: a society in which women as a group dominate men as a group (329) matrilineal (system of descent): a system of reckoning descent that counts only the mother's side (329) nuclear family: a family consisting of a husband, wife, and child(ren) (326) patriarchy: a group in which men as a group dominate women as a group; authority is vested in males (329) patrilineal (system of descent): a system of reckoning descent that counts only the father's side (328) polyandry: a form of marriage in which women have more than one husband (326) polygyny: a form of marriage in which men have more than one wife (326) romantic love: feelings of sexual attraction accompanied by an idealization of the other (332) system of descent: how kinship is traced over the generations (327)

Key terms (chapter 8)

feminism: the philosophy that men and women should be politically, economically, and socially equal; organized activities on behalf of this principle (258) gender: the behaviors and attitudes that a society considers proper for its males and females; masculinity or femininity (246) gender stratification: males' and females' unequal access to property, power, and prestige (246) glass ceiling: the mostly invisible barrier that keeps women from advancing to the top levels at work (269) matriarchy: a society in which women as a group dominate men as a group; authority is vested in females (263) patriarchy: a society in which men as a group dominate women as a group; authority is vested in males (251) sex: biological characteristics that distinguish females and males, consisting of primary and secondary sex characteristics (246) sexual harassment: the abuse of one's position of authority to force unwanted sexual demands on someone (271)