Systems Analysis & Design - Exam 1 Review - Ch. 1 - 5

Explain how an expected value can be calculated for a cost or benefit. When would this be done?

(%*Incr.1) + (%*Incr.2) + (%*Incr.3) + ... An expected value consists of a combining set of possible outcomes along with the associated probability of each outcome. For example, the Production department may estimate possible increases in costs for parts based on economic indicators. They estimate that there is a 40% chance the costs will increase to $300,000, a 25% chance the costs will increase to $400,000 and a 35% chance the costs will increase to $350,000. Overall the expected value of the rise in costs would be estimated to be $342,500 = ($300,000 * .40) + ($400,000 * .25) + ($350,000 * .35). Estimating the expected value of a cost or benefit would be done when assigning costs and benefits when determining economic feasibility.

List three techniques to reduce conflict

1 Clearly define the roles on the project, 2 hold team members accountable for their assigned tasks, 3 develop detailed operating procedures and make sure the team members understand them, 4 have each team member commit to the project charter

Describe three types of standards, and provide examples of each.

1. Coding standards define the content and structures that are to be used in programs. An example would be that all programs are to be written following structured programming guidelines. 2. Procedural standards define processes that are to be followed by all team members. An example would be required attendance at a weekly team progress meeting, and required honest progress reporting at that meeting. 3. User interface design standards create a common understanding of the appearance and functioning of the screens the end users see. An example would be to create a standard group of icons that are used consistently on all screens.

18. Outline suggestions to make observation a useful, reliable information gathering technique.

1. Keep a low profile 2. Do not interrupt employees at work 3. Do not influence those being observed 4. Keep in mind that what you observe may not be normal day-to-day behavior 5. Gather clues from working environment

Explain what is meant by a functional requirement. What are two types of functional requirements? Give two examples of each.

A functional requirement relates directly to a process the system has to perform (process-oriented) or information it needs to contain (information-oriented). Process-Oriented: 1. System must allow registered customers to REVIEW their own order history for the past 3 years 2. the system must CHECK incoming customer orders for inventory availability Information-Oriented: 1. system must RETAIN customer order history for three years. 2. system must INCLUDE budgeted and actual sales & expense amounts for the current year and 3 previous years.

What is the difference between a methodology and a work plan? How are the two terms related?

A methodology provides a standard, formalized list of steps and deliverables for the SDLC. Work plans include the specific steps, tasks, and deliverables that will be needed for a specific project. Methodologies form the basis for creating work plans; the project manager can select the parts of the methodology that apply to the specific project, and use that in defining the appropriate steps and tasks.

Explain what is meant by a nonfunctional requirement. What are the primary types of nonfunctional requirements? Give two examples of each.

A nonfunctional requirement refers to behavioral properties that the system must exhibit. Types of nonfunctional requirements include: * Operational - physical & technical environments in which the system will operate - system will run on android mobile devices - system should be compatible with any web browser. * Performance - speed, capacity, & reliability of system - any interaction b/w the user & system should not exceed 2 seconds - system should be available for use 24 hrs/day, 365 days/year * Security - Who has authorized access to the system under what circumstances - only direct managers can see staff personnel records - technicians can see only their own work assignments * Cultural and Political - Cult & pol factors & legal requirements that affect the system - should be able to distinguish b/w US currency & currency from other nations - personal information is protected in compliance with Data Protection Act

Describe a "risky" project in terms of technical feasibility. Describe a project that would NOT be considered "risky."

A project that would be technically risky would be one that is: * large in scale, * utilizes technology that we have little or no experience with, and * is for a business area that is new and unfamiliar to the organization. A project that would NOT be considered technically risky would be one that is: * small in scale, * uses technology that is well-understood, and * is for a business area that is very familiar to the users and developers.

7. What is the value of producing a requirements definition and having the project sponsor and key users review and approve it?

A requirements definition effectively describes the scope of the project. Project sponsors and key users need to review the requirements definition to ensure that it encompasses the key features of the new system. At this point, any discrepancies and misunderstandings can be addressed.

What is the distinction between: a temporal trigger and an external trigger? Give two examples for each.

A temporal trigger is based upon the passage of time. Examples are time to pay a bill; library book is due. External triggers are things outside the system to which the system must respond. Examples are a customer placing an order; customer payment is received.

2. How do use cases relate to the requirements stated in the requirements determination?

A use case describes in more detail the key elements of the requirements definition. Use cases will provide more detail on the processes by which the system is to meet those requirements and the data the system needs to capture and store.

Describe the major elements and issues with agile development

Agile development is a methodology in which the SDLC is streamlined. Much of the modeling and documentation is eliminated and the emphasis is placed on simple, iterative development in which each iteration is a small project on its own, complete with planning, requirements analysis, design, coding, and testing. Agile development is dependent upon a team that is highly motivated, cohesive, stable, and experienced. This type of development works best with small projects. If the project is not small, or the teams do not work well, then the likelihood of success is reduced.

What belongs in the electronic project binder? How is the electronic project binder organized?

All project deliverables, all internal communication, and all project documentation should be placed in the electronic project binder (binder). The sections of the binder should follow the phases of the life cycle, and each deliverable produced during the project should be placed in its appropriate place.

Describe how projects are selected in organizations.

An organization will base the selection of a project on an evaluation not only of the project's costs and expected benefits, but also the technical and organizational risks that have been identified for the project. Both the systems request and feasibility analysis can provide that type of information.

Describe the four steps of business process management. Why do companies adopt BPM as a management strategy?

BPM is a methodology used by organizations to continuously improve end-to-end business processes. It follows a cycle of systematically creating, assessing, and altering said processes. The four steps of BPM are: Step 1: defining and mapping the steps in a business process, Step 2: creating ways to improve on steps in the process that add value, Step 3: finding ways to eliminate or consolidate steps in the process that don't add value, and Step 4: creating or adjusting electronic workflows to match the improved process maps. By studying and improving their underlying business processes, organizations can achieve several important benefits, including: enhanced process agility, improved process alignment, and increased process efficiencies.

23. How can informal benchmarking contribute to requirements determination?

Benchmarking in general refers to studying how other organizations perform a business process in order to learn how your organization can do something better. Informal benchmarking consists of managers and analysts observing other organizations by taking a customer perspective with the business processes. Informal benchmarking is quite effective with web-based processes as requirements determination based on any of the three requirements (business, user, or functional) can be ascertained in part.

Is the primary purpose of requirements determination to discover facts or to discover opinions? Explain your answer.

Both are valuable. An opinion is a statement about an issue or situation that may or may not be supported by fact. If it is stated "Most of our collections are on-time," this is an opinion that can be confirmed or denied by doing an actual measurement of on-time collections. This information is factual, and may provide the basis for the opinion expressed. Alternatively, the opinion may be a misstatement of actual fact, and may suggest an area where there is misunderstanding of the true situation.

What are the major roles on a project team?

Business analyst - emphasis on the business issues addressed by the system: value of new system; identification of problems and opportunities; revision of business processes and policies. Systems analyst - emphasis on IS issues of the system: how IT can be used to support business processes; design of new business process and IS; and enforcement of IS standards. Infrastructure analyst - technical issues associated with integrating new system components to existing technical infrastructure. Requirements analyst - eliciting the requirements of the new system from all stakeholders. They understand the business well, are excellent communicators, and are highly skilled in obtaining system requirements. Change management analyst - emphasis on facilitating organizational adaptation to new system. Helping to identify and overcome resistance to change and assuring adequate training and documentation of new system. Project manager - ensuring that progress is made on the project; time schedules and budgets are met; supervision of project team; and manage relations with project sponsor and users.

Give an example of: * a closed-ended question, * an open-ended question, * and a probing question. When would each type question be used?

Closed-ended questions are used when the interviewer is looking for specific, precise information. "How many requests do you process per day?" Open-ended questions are used to gather a broader, rich information set. Open-ended questions can help the interviewer learn why things are the way they are, and also give the interviewee the chance to add ideas or issues that the interviewer did not anticipate. "what do you think about the way invoices are currently processed?" Probing questions are used whenever the interviewer is not satisfied with his/her understanding of the interviewee's answer, and needs more explanation before moving on to another topic. "Can you give me an example?" (see Figure 3-5)

Describe three technical skills and three interpersonal skills that would be very important to have on any project

Desirable technical skills might include: 1. programming experience in the chosen programming language, 2. experience in configuring the hardware and communications technology platform correctly, and 3. experience in utilizing the file/database environment effectively. Desirable interpersonal skills might include: 1. interviewing skills, 2. negotiation skills, and 3. conflict resolution skills.

Why is document analysis useful? What insights into the organization can it provide?

Document analysis focuses on existing documentation of the current system, forms and reports that are a part of the current system, plus any personal forms, reports, or files that have been developed informally by the end users. By studying this material the analysts can gain insight into the existing system, how it is used, and possibly also aspects of the system that are not being used.

22. Compare and contrast duration analysis and activity-based costing. What role do these activities play as analysis strategies?

Duration analysis requires a detailed examination of the amount of time it takes to perform each process in the as-is system, while activity-based analysis examines the cost of each major process or step in the as-is system. Recalling the triangle with the corners of functionality, time, and money, one can draw a conclusion that utilizing these two analysis tools is beneficial to the strategies employed.

Distinguish between: business requirements, user requirements, and functional requirements

During a systems development project, requirements will be created that describe what the business needs; these are referred to as business requirements. Requirements that are created that describe what the user needs are called user requirements. Those requirements that describe what the software should do are functional requirements.

Describe two special issues that may be important to list on a system request.

Examples of special issues that may be important to include are: environmental factors that should be considered (e.g., new governmental reporting requirements); competitive factors (e.g., IS-enabled systems introduced or anticipated by competitors); externally imposed deadlines that cannot be altered (e.g., completion by the start of the next fiscal year); mandated technologies.

What are the key factors in selecting a methodology?

How well are user requirements understood? How familiar are the systems developers with the technology being employed? How complex is the system? How essential is system reliability? How demanding is the time frame/project schedule? How visible is the project schedule? (see FIGURE 2-9)

Compare and contrast extreme programming and throwaway prototyping.

Extreme programming uses continuous testing, simple coding performed by pairs of developers, and close interactions with end users. System functionality grows over time iteratively after a very superficial planning phase. Code is thoroughly tested as it is added to the system. By practicing discipline and keeping the development team small and focused, extreme programming can create good results very quickly. Throwaway prototyping focuses more on experimentation during the design phase. The prototypes are intended to clarify technical issues before the 'real' system is built. The prototypes will be discarded and do not become the final system.

15. Describe the primary roles involved in JAD sessions. What is the major contribution made by the person(s) fulfilling each role?

FACILITATOR is responsible for conducting the session. He/she is generally knowledgeable about IS issues, JAD facilitation, and group behavior management. The facilitator is responsible for GUIDING the group through the planned activities on the JAD agenda. The facilitator must keep the group ON TRACK and try to prevent it from digressing in unproductive directions. The facilitator also helps FOSTER COMMUNICATION among the group members and assists them through the analysis techniques that are being used. Finally, the facilitator RECORDS the group's ideas on a public display area, ORGANIZES the information, and ASSISTS the group in working with the information. The SCRIBE merely records information as the session proceeds, perhaps using CASE tools.

Discuss the considerations that should be made when determining who to include in interviews and/or JAD sessions.

First, identify the information that is needed, and then identify the people who can provide that information. Second, consider the political ramifications of including or excluding people. All key stakeholders must be included in the information gathering process.

What does "gradual refinement" mean in the context of SDLC?

Generally, the clarity of understanding and the depth of detail of the new system are gradually refined during the phases of the SDLC. Initially, the requirements are only vaguely understood. This understanding is improved during the Analysis phase. Further detail is developed during Design, and then is fully expressed during Implementation.

10. Should a use case be prepared for every item on the event-response list? Why or why not?

Initially, every event on the event-list should be translated into a use case. This results in a tentative set of use cases. Use case development can be viewed as an iterative process, and further analysis may allow the developer to discard or add use cases to the set.

12. What role does iteration play in developing use cases?

It is best to develop the major use cases and their basic information first so that no major events are forgotten. Then, the inputs and outputs are added and the detailed steps are outlined. As the inputs and outputs associated with each step are identified, more details may be identified. It is not practical to try and get every detail right the first time through the use case, so we cycle through the steps iteratively until the use case is complete.

Some companies hire consulting firms to develop the initial project plans and manage the project, but use their own analysts and programmers to develop the system. Why do you think some companies do this?

It is possible that a company does not have skilled project managers available on its in-house staff. Project management requires a unique set of skills, and consulting firms may develop project management capabilities because of the many projects undertaken. It may also be useful to have an 'outsider' serving as project manager, since he or she may be better able to assess the project objectively and resist scope creep more effectively than an in-house employee.

Describe the major elements and issues with iterative development.

Iterative development is characterized by multiple versions of the overall project. The initial version contains the most important and fundamental requirements. This version can be accomplished with a mini-waterfall process. Once the version is complete, feedback is solicited as to the appropriateness of the system. The project then goes into the next version of the project, incorporating feedback that was received. The benefit to this is that an abbreviated version is quickly available for review. The disadvantage to iterative development is that the early versions are abbreviated. Customers must understand that each version will have additional functionality until the final version is delivered.

2. What are the key elements of a system proposal?

Key elements of a System Proposal include: 1. detailed requirements definition, (what do you need) 2. use cases, (how will it be used) 3. process models, (what are the steps) 4. data models, (what information is needed) 5. a revised feasibility analysis and (can we do it) 6. a work plan. (yes we can! - here's how)

"Interviews should always be conducted as structured interviews." Do you agree with this statement? Why or why not?

No one interview type will be appropriate for every interview and each type of interview has a purpose. Structured interviews are interviews that are planned to gather very specific, detailed information. These interviews use more closed-ended questions that zero in on specific information and facts. These interviews will be conducted later in the information gathering process, when the analyst has learned enough about the business process in order to formulate more specific, detailed questions. Unstructured interviews are interviews that are planned to include broad, far-ranging questions. Often open-ended questions are used to gather information. These interviews are most likely to be used early in the information gathering process, when few details are known, and the analyst is trying to understand the basic business process and the As-Is system.

List two intangible benefits. Describe how these benefits can be quantified.

One example of an intangible benefit is reduced response time to address customer requests. Estimating the increase in the number of customers that could be served and the average revenue gained per customer could approximate the value of this benefit. So, if we currently have 1000 customers, the average revenue per customer is $100, and by reducing our response time we can increase the number of customers served by 30%, then our benefit will be $30,000 (300 add'l customers @ $100). A second example of an intangible benefit is improved customer satisfaction. Determining how much repeat business we lose from dissatisfied customers could approximate the value of this benefit. The amount of repeat business lost could be determined through customer satisfaction surveys or marketing research. Assume we currently have 1000 customers, each customer brings in average revenue of $100, and we currently lose the repeat business of 10% of our customers due to dissatisfaction. If an improvement in customer satisfaction resulted in losing only 5% of repeat business, then the value of that benefit would be $5,000 (50 customers retained @$100).

4. What is the purpose of the input and outputs section of the use case?

The purpose of the inputs and outputs section is to list all inputs and associated sources, and outputs and associated destinations for the proposed system.

11. Describe two ways to handle a situation in which there are a large number of use cases.

One possibility for the large number is that the use cases are not defined at the right level of detail. If the use cases are too 'small' we do not need to bother to create a use case, but simply use the information in the requirements definition itself to build the process and data models. If there really are more than eight or nine major use cases, the use cases are grouped together into packages of related use cases. These packages are then treated as the major processes for the top level of the process model with the use cases appearing on lower levels. The packages could also be treated as separate systems and modeled as separate systems.

Name two ways to identify the tasks that need to be accomplished over the course of a project.

One way to identify tasks is to follow a top-down approach, defining high level tasks first, and then breaking those tasks down into subtasks. A second way is to follow a methodology, which will provide a standard list of tasks for the SDLC. This standard task list can be modified as needed for the specific project.

Compare and contrast: * outcome analysis, * technology analysis, and * activity elimination. What general contribution do these strategies play in determining requirements?

Outcome analysis focuses on understanding the fundamental outcomes that provide value to customers. Technology analysis starts by having the analysts and managers develop a list of important and interesting technologies. Activity elimination is just that, the analysts and managers work together to identify how the organization could eliminate each and every activity in the business process. There is common ground among these strategies, as a new technology could eliminate an activity and increase business value to the customer. These strategies focus on users (outcome analysis), functional needs (technology analysis), and what the business needs (activity elimination).

Describe the major elements and issues with parallel development.

Parallel development modifies the SDLC by altering the design and implementation phases. In parallel development, general design of the entire system is performed; then, the project is divided into sub-projects, each of which is designed in detail and implemented. Work on the sub-projects occurs simultaneously in an effort to reduce the time between analysis and delivery of the system. After all sub-projects are complete, the pieces are integrated into the final delivered system. The total time to deliver the system can be reduced using parallel development as compared to waterfall development. However, there can be significant challenges in integrating the sub-projects since design decisions made in one sub-project may affect other sub-projects if they are not completely independent.

Describe how project portfolio management is used by IT departments.

Portfolio management is the process of determining the mix of project types that will maximize benefit to the organization, while minimizing risks and costs to the organization. Included in portfolio management is the process by which an organization assesses how potential projects fit into the existing projects currently underway. Ideally, the organizational project portfolio consists of both high and low risk projects, large and small projects, etc.

Describe the major elements and issues with prototyping.

Prototyping collapses analysis, design, and implementation into one phase, and this phase is cycled through several times until the system meets user needs. A "rough" version of the system is developed early and rapidly, and user feedback is solicited. Based on user comments, the system is modified and refined repeatedly. Ultimately, the system will be refined to the point where the users accept it and it can be put into production. Prototyping does provide rapid delivery of a system to the users, and user involvement in determining refinements helps assure a good fit with business needs. The haste to get "something" to the users quickly, however, may lead to poor initial specification of the prototype. Subsequently, substantial revisions may be needed to correct for inadequate initial analysis.

Discuss the reasons why question design for questionnaires is so difficult.

Questions on questionnaires need to be very carefully stated in order to avoid misunderstanding by the recipient. If a question during an interview or a JAD session is misunderstood, the misunderstanding can be immediately detected and the question clarified. A poorly worded question on a questionnaire may confuse the recipient, causing him/her to answer with incorrect information, or may antagonize the recipient, causing him/her to forego completing the questionnaire.

What are the best ways to motivate a team? What are the worst ways?

Research has shown that technically-oriented people are motivated by: * recognition, * achievement, * the work itself, * responsibility, * advancement, and * the chance to learn new skills. The worst ways to motivate technical staff include: * setting unrealistic deadlines, * failing to recognize good effort, * accepting low quality output, * rewarding all team members monetarily regardless of work quality, * failing to include team members in important project decisions, and * providing poor working conditions.

13. Describe the best way to validate the content of use cases.

Role-playing can be useful in confirming the validity of the use case. If the users execute the steps of the use cases using the written steps of the use cases as a "script" for actions to take, they will be able to find errors or confirm the correctness of the use cases.

21. Discuss root cause analysis as an analysis strategy. What are the strengths and limitations of this technique?

Root cause analysis focuses on problems first rather than solutions. A list of problems with the current system is generated. The list is prioritized and then rather than look for solutions the analyst generates a list of all possible root causes for the problem. Ultimately the process reveals the true root cause or causes of the problem and the right solution can be designed. Root cause analysis allows the analysts to not jump to conclusions about a solution to a problem without gaining a deep understanding of what the root problem is. A limitation of this strategy is that the organization has to allow sufficient time for the process to work well.

What is scope creep, and how can it be managed?

Scope creep refers to the addition of new requirements to the project after the initial project scope was defined and "frozen." Scope creep can be managed by: doing the best possible job in determining the project requirements at the outset. Intensive meetings with users and prototyping are very beneficial in clarifying requirements early in the project. If a requirement is identified after the project begins, the consequences of adding it to the project should be carefully analyzed and presented to the users so that the impact of adding the requirements is understood (i.e., no free lunch). It may be possible to defer a requirement as a future enhancement to the system so that the current project scope is not increased.

What factors are used to determine project size? HINT: #ET-S #DS DI

Some factors that can be used to determine project size include: the number of people on the project team, the expected time to complete the project, the breadth/scope of the project, the number of distinct features to be included in the system, the degree of integration required between the system and existing systems.

What is stakeholder analysis? Discuss three stakeholders that would be relevant for most projects. HINT: SC SU OM

Stakeholder analysis is a systematic process that identifies all parties that will be affected by a new information system, and attempts to estimate the consequences of the project for each stakeholder group. A major goal of stakeholder analysis is to ensure that the consequences of a new system are considered for all parties that will be affected by the system. The most common stakeholders to consider for most systems projects are: the system champion, the system users, and the organization's management. The system champion is the person or group who initiates the project and provides support for it. The users are the individuals who will work with the system once it is implemented. The organization management commits resources to the project and has an interest in seeing those resources be used to improve the functioning of the organization.

Describe the principal steps in the analysis phase. What are some major deliverables? HINT: 1 AS 2 ACS 3 CNSC 4 MA 5 P&PSP Deliverable: SP

Step 1 - Analysis Strategy: based on the nature of the project, the project team will formulate the approach that will be used to develop the requirements for the new system. The strategy usually includes the following steps: Step 2 - Analyze the current system: gather information from the project sponsor and users of the current system regarding its strengths and weaknesses. Use the problems identified to formulate objectives for the new system. Step 3 - Create new system concept: based on the gathered information, develop a general concept of the new system, including functions and capabilities it will have. Step 4 - Modeling activities: express ideas for the new system's processing and data requirements with process models and data models. Step 5: Prepare and present system proposal: assemble the analysis results, system concept, process model and data model into a proposal for the new system. Project sponsor and/or approval committee will determine if system has enough merit to continue development. The primary deliverable for the analysis phase is the system proposal, which combines the information generated during this phase into a document that expresses the initial conceptual design for the new system and the basis for the design decisions.

Describe the principal steps in the implementation phase. What are some major deliverables? HINT: 1. BTS 2. TU 3. CTNS 4. STNS Deliverables: 1. C&DP; UM± TM; P4SS

Step 1 - Build the system: programs are written and tested, and various infrastructure components are installed. Testing is conducted to verify system performance. Step 2 - Train the users: develop and conduct training programs so that end users are thoroughly familiar with the new system's functions and work procedures. Step 3 - Convert to the new system: transition from the old system and procedures to the new system and procedures. Step 4 - Support the new system: evaluate the development process for lessons learned from this project, and establish methods for identifying and implementing change to the new system as needed. The primary deliverables for the Implementation phase includes the completed and documented programs, users manuals and procedures manuals, training materials, and plans for system support.

Describe the principal steps in the design phase. What are some major deliverables? HINT: 1. DS 2. DSA 3. DUI 4. DDB 5. DTP Deliverable: SS

Step 1 - Design Strategy: based on the nature of the project, the project team will determine the appropriate means of developing the system (in-house custom development, purchase of pre-written software, or outsourcing development to a 3rd party. Following this, the steps below outline the various design tasks that must be performed: Step 2 - Design the system architecture: describe the basic hardware, software, and networking that will be used in the new system. Step 3 - Design the user interface: the overall structure of the system, the user's navigation through the system; the inputs and outputs of the system, and the appearance of the screens are designed. Step 4 - Design the database and/or files: develop specifications for the data storage structures that will be implemented for the new system. Step 5: Design the programs: develop plans and outlines for each program that will be written to implement the functions and capabilities of the new system. The primary deliverable for the design phase is the system specification, which combines all the design specifications mentioned above. The system specification is the basis for the construction work that will be performed by the programmers.

Describe the principal steps in the planning phase. What are some major deliverables?

Step 1 - Project Initiation: the project sponsor works with the IS department to develop a preliminary assessment of the project's feasibility. It is important to make an initial evaluation of the project's value (is it worth doing; is it technically possible for us; will it be used?). The system request and the results of the feasibility analysis are usually presented to management for approval. If the project is accepted, we move to: Step 2 - Project Management: the project work plan is created, project staffing is determined, and project management controls and procedures are established. These elements comprise the project plan. The deliverables in the planning phase include the feasibility analysis and the project plan.

8. Why do we outline the major steps performed in the use case?

Steps are outlined in order to determine the sequence of events that must occur to complete the use case. An outline of the sequence of events aids in ensuring that all steps are included.

Compare and contrast structured design methodologies in general to rapid application design (RAD) methodologies in general.

Structured design methodologies are usually fairly formal, step-by-step approaches to systems development. The project moves through the phases in a systematic way. The emphasis in most of these methodologies is development of paper-based specifications for the new system prior to implementation. RAD methodologies, on the other hand, tend to emphasize quick creation of a limited-capability version of the system or a model of the system. These methodologies focus on refining this preliminary system or model rather than trying to fully describe it on paper prior to implementation.

What is the difference between intangible value and tangible value? Give three examples of each.

Tangible value represents the system benefits that are quantifiable and measurable. Intangible value represents benefits that are real, but are difficult to quantify and measure. Examples of tangible benefits might be: 1. increased sales, 2. reduced operating costs, and 3. reduced interest costs. Examples of intangible value might include: 1. increased customer satisfaction, 2. improved decision making, 3. improved problem recognition.

Describe the three dimensions of feasibility analysis. HINT: T-E$-O!

Technical feasibility looks at the capability of the organization to successfully develop the proposed system. Included in this assessment are the project size, the types of technologies to be used in the project, and the amount of prior experience with that technology and the business application. Economic feasibility addresses the economic justification of the project. Here, we attempt to determine if the value of the project's benefits justifies investing in the project's estimated costs. Organizational feasibility evaluates whether the system is likely to be accepted and used by the organization. Included in this assessment will be the strength of the sponsor's and management's support for the project and the enthusiasm or resistance of the users for the project.

Describe the major elements and issues with the V-model.

The V-Model of development follows a waterfall approach in that each phase is completed before the next is begun. The V-Model differs in that during each phase of development not only are requirements specified and components designed, but the testing of those components is also defined. This allows for a well-defined testing plan which can improve the overall quality of the system. As with waterfall development, the V-Model of development is rigid, and may not be a good choice for a project that is dynamic in nature.

What is the purpose of an approval committee? Who is usually on this committee?

The approval committee generally serves as the decision making body regarding investments in information systems projects. This committee generally has a broad organizational representation and therefore can avoid allocating resources that will serve only narrow organizational interests. The approval committee commonly has project oversight responsibilities as well; monitoring project performance after the project has been accepted. The composition of the approval committee will vary from organization to organization, but generally consists of high-level managers from throughout the organization. The committee is often chaired by the CIO.

3. Describe the elements of the use case's basic information section.

The basic information section includes: * use case name, * number, * a brief description, and * the trigger for the use case.

What is the break-even point for the project? How is it calculated?

The break-even point is the point in time when the project has generated enough cash flow to recapture its cost. The year in which the project breaks even is the first year in which the cumulative NPV is a positive number. The exact point during that year at which break even occurs is calculated by: (Yearly NPV (for first positive year) - Cumulative NPV at that year) / Yearly NPV (for the first positive year)

19. Describe a strategy for using the various requirements elicitation techniques is a project.

The different requirements elicitation techniques all have strengths and weaknesses, and the astute analyst will use a combination of techniques in any project. The analyst should select the techniques based on the type of requirements being sought, the breadth and depth of information needed, the degree to information needs to be integrated, the need for user involvement, and the cost of the technique. Interviews and JAD sessions are the most productive information gathering methods; however, these techniques require the most skilled analysts to conduct

14. Describe the five major steps in conducting JAD sessions.

The five major steps to conducting JAD sessions are: • Selecting participants - determine who should be included and why they should be included (what contribution will they make to the project?). • Design the JAD session - plan the activities and techniques that will be incorporated into the JAD session in order to accomplish the session goals. • Prepare for the JAD session - review related material; review JAD plan; inform participants about the process and the contributions they'll be expected to make. • Conduct the JAD session - establish rapport with the participants; define session ground rules; follow session plan and have facilitator conduct various activities and techniques; record information. • Prepare post-JAD report - summarize the session in a post-JAD report.

9. Discuss the appropriate way to set up and conduct interviews to elicit requirements. HINT: 1. Sel 2. Des-Q 3. Prep 4. Con 5. Post

The most commonly used requirement elicitation technique is interviews. It is important to include both management and staff to gain high-level and low-level perspectives. When the interview process is conducted the first goal is to build trust so interviewee is willing to tell you the whole truth. The interviewer needs to be unbiased and independent seeker of information. Start with an explanation of why the interviewee and interviewer are there and why they were chosen. It is critical that all information be accurately recorded - take careful notes, write down everything the interviewee says, regardless of relevancy. Make sure that there is time available for the interviewee to ask questions or provide information that they think is important but perhaps had not been covered in the interview. The five major steps to conducting interviews are: • Selecting interviewees - determine who should be interviewed, why they should be interviewed (what contribution will they make to the project?), and develop a schedule for conducting the interviews. • Design the interview questions - depending on who is being interviewed and the type of information desired, the analyst needs to design the interview session with the appropriate structure and question type. • Prepare for the interview - review related material; review interview plan; review interview questions and plan for any anticipated problem areas; inform interviewee about interview agenda. • Conduct the interview - establish rapport with the interviewee; explain purpose of interview; ask interview questions; record information from interviewee. • Prepare post-interview report - summarize the interview in an interview report.

20. Discuss problem analysis as an analysis strategy. What are the strengths and limitations of this technique?

The most straightforward (and possibly most used) strategy for analysis is problem analysis. The biggest strength of problem analysis is that the users and managers are personally involved in the process of identifying problems with the as-is system and then to offer suggestions on how to solve the problems for the to-be system. A common limitation of this strategy is that it tends to solve problems rather than capitalize on opportunities. Improvements tend to be small but do increase system efficiencies. On the negative side they seldom increase business value.

Explain the net present value and return on investment for a cost-benefit analysis. Why would these calculations be used?

The net present value (NPV) method compares the present values of the project's cash inflows and outflows. If the present value of the benefits (inflows) is equal to or greater than the present value of the costs (outflows), then the project is considered economically justifiable. NPV has the advantage of including a required rate of return in the calculation, so the NPV figure captures the costs associated with tying up money in the project. NPV also explicitly considers the timing of the cash flows throughout the system life. The return on investment (ROI) method simply compares the total net cash flows from the project with the total outflows in aggregate. While this ROI number gives some sense of how much money the project generates in comparison to its total cost, it omits any consideration of the timing of the cash flows and the time value of money. The ROI method, while simple to compute, is flawed in many ways and should not be used as the only economic indicator of a project's merit.

6. Why is it important to state the priority level for a use case?

The priority level of a use case identifies the relative significance of the use case in the overall system. Use cases are classified as high, medium, or low. This classification allows for immediate identification of essential use cases.

What are the trade-offs that project managers must manage?

The project manager must trade off: system size, development time, and project cost. A larger project will require more time and money; while a short time frame may require more money or reduced project size. Since most projects have time and/or money constraints, the project manager must strike a balance between size, time, and cost in order to define an achievable project

Describe the roles of the project sponsor and the approval committee.

The project sponsor is the individual or department responsible for initiating a systems request. Typically during the Planning phase the project sponsor works with the IT department to conduct a feasibility analysis. The approval committee (or steering committee) then evaluates the systems request along with the results of the feasibility study to determine whether or not to approve the request.

1. What is the purpose of developing use cases during systems analysis?

The purpose of a use case is to illustrate the activities that are performed by the users of the system, and is often thought of as an external or functional view of a business process. Use cases are developed during systems analysis activities to help the analysts better understand the situation and simplify later modeling steps in the analysis phase.

What is the purpose of an event-response list in the process of developing use cases?

The purpose of an event-response list is to provide an intermediate step between the requirements definition and use cases. Building an event-response list allows for a review of the requirements definition and associated actions.

5. What is the purpose of stating the primary actor for the use case?

The purpose of stating the primary actor is to identify the external entity that initiates the event to which the system responds. The primary actor may be a user, or a system event, or another system.

What are the purposes of the system request and the feasibility analysis? How are they used in the project selection process?

The purpose of the system request is to initiate a systems project. The system request pulls together preliminary ideas on the reason for the system and its expected value to the organization. The feasibility analysis represents a more detailed investigation into the proposed system outlined in the system request. The system analyst and the project sponsor work together to more fully develop the objectives of the system and to understand its potential costs and benefits to the organization. The system request and the feasibility analysis are the key inputs used by the approval committee in determining if the proposed system has enough merit to move into the analysis phase.

Describe the differences between a technical lead and a functional lead? How are they similar?

The technical lead is typically a project team member who supervises the programmers and more technically-oriented project staff. The functional lead is a team member who oversees the systems and business analysts on the team. Both positions report to the project manager, and are responsible for managing, controlling, and coordinating the work of their assigned team members

What is the meaning of analysis? What is the purpose of the analysis phase of the SDLC?

The term analysis can be defined as: breaking a whole into its parts with the intent of understanding the parts' nature, function, and interrelationships. The analysis phase takes the general ideas in the system request and refines them into a detailed understanding of what the new system needs to do

Compare and contrast BPA, BPI, and BPR. Which is most risky? Which has the greatest potential?

The three techniques applied within BPM for business processes are that of Automation (BPA), Improvement (BPI), and Reengineering (BPR). It is entirely possible that all three of these techniques could be used on the same project depending on the scope and impact the planned change will have on the steps of BPM. As a rule, when technology is applied to a process to enhance agility and provide more ability for change the project would be a BPA. When a process incorporates industry "best practices" or perhaps finds ways to eliminate or consolidate steps in the process it would be termed BPI. The BPR technique changes the fundamental way in which the organization operates. In effect, BPR makes major changes to take advantage of new ideas and new technology. BPR is considered to contain the most amount of risk of the three techniques due to the significant organizational and operational changes that result. The answers can certainly vary with regard to greatest potential. In many cases it will be a "hybrid" blend of all three that could hold the most potential for the organization.

Compare and contrast the role of Requirements Analyst, Change Management Analyst, and Project Manager.

These three roles also emphasize different perspectives on the system. Requirements analyst focuses on eliciting the requirements from the system stakeholders. (What do you require?) Change Management Analyst focuses on people and managing issues surrounding the installation of the system. (What's your issue?) Project Manager ensures that the project is completed on time and within budget and that the system delivers the expected value to the organization. (the "Time is Money" wrangler)

Compare and contrast the role of: Requirements Analyst, Change Management Analyst, and Project Manager.

These three roles also emphasize different perspectives on the system. The Requirements Analyst focuses on eliciting the requirements from the system stakeholders. The Change Management Analyst focuses on people and managing issues surrounding the installation of the system. The Project Manager ensures that the project is completed on time and within budget and that the system delivers the expected value to the organization.

Compare and contrast the role of a Systems Analyst, Business Analyst, and Infrastructure Analyst.

These three roles emphasize different perspectives on the system. Business Analyst represents the sponsor/users interests, while the (Sponsors' surrogate) Systems Analyst knows how to apply IS to support business needs. (Not quite the IT Dept - but keeps info going) Together, the Systems Analyst and the Business Analyst can design a system that conforms to the IS standards while adding value to the business. Infrastructure Analyst has more technical knowledge and provides the team with technical constraints, or identifies infrastructure changes that the new system will require. (This is the IT Dept's architect)

What is timeboxing and why is it used?

Timeboxing is a technique that is used to organize a project when time is a critical issue. With timeboxing, a fixed deadline is established, and the project team prioritizes the functionality of the system so that the essential features are delivered within the set deadline. If some features must be omitted given that time frame, they are postponed to a later version of the system. With this technique, the users are assured of getting a system with essential functionality by the project deadline, and other, less essential features and refinements are added in later system versions

What are the SEVEN steps for assessing economic feasibility? Describe each step. HINT: 1 ID C&B 2 C&B V 3 CF 4 NPV 5 ROI 6 B-E P 7 GRAPH B-E P

To assess economic feasibility, one should: 1. Identify costs and benefits of the proposed system. List tangible costs and benefits, including one-time and recurring costs. 2. Assign values to the costs and benefits. Work with business users and IT professionals to quantify each of the costs and benefits. Try to estimate intangible costs and benefits as well. 3. Determine the cash flow of the project over the analysis period. Project the costs and benefit annually over the analysis period, usually 3-5 years. 4. Determine the project's net present value. Calculate the present value of each year's costs and benefits, using the appropriate required rate of return for the project. Subtract the cumulative PV of costs from the cumulative PV of benefits to determine the project's net present value. If it is a positive number, the project is considered acceptable. 5. Determine the project's return on investment. Use the ROI formula to calculate the return the organization will get on its investment in the project. ROI = (Total benefits - Total costs) / Total costs. 6. Calculate break-even point. Determine the point in time when the project has generated enough cash flow to recapture its cost. 7. Graph break-even point. Plot the yearly costs and benefits on a line graph. The point of intersection is the break-even point.

List two tangible benefits and two operational costs for a system. How would you determine the values that should be assigned to each item?

Two tangible benefits are: an increase in sales and a decrease in uncollectible accounts receivable. The best way to measure these benefits is to go to the business people who understand these areas and ask them for reasonable estimates. The sales and marketing managers and the accounts receivable managers will be in the best position to determine these values. Operational costs are the ongoing costs associated with the new system, and are fairly easy to determine objectively. One common operational cost is that of maintenance agreements for new hardware, which can be determined by contacting hardware vendors about the costs of their maintenance contracts. Another common operations cost is that of new employees that will be needed to run the new system. Salaries and benefits for new employees can be determined by checking local and regional salary and wage surveys for the type of employee needed.

A system development project may be approached in one of two ways: * as a single, monolithic project in which all requirements are considered at once, or * as a series of smaller projects focusing on smaller sets of requirements. Which approach seems to be more successful? Why do you suppose this is true?

Typically, breaking a large project into smaller manageable projects has a higher rate of success. One reason for this is that it is difficult to determine requirements for a 'monolithic' project, the scope is simply too large to conceptualize. Breaking it down into smaller component projects allows for ease of understanding of functionality and processes.

Why do many projects end up having unreasonable deadlines? How should a project manager react to unreasonable demands?

Unreasonable deadlines are often the consequence of trying to complete the project to accomplish some business goal rather than being based on a realistic assessment of how long the project will actually take to complete. For example, in the CD Selections case, the project sponsor wants the Internet Order System to be operational in time to sell CDs for holiday shopping. Too often such external factors are used to create target dates for project completion. The project manager must develop accurate and realistic time estimates for the project, and use these to convince the sponsor that his/her timelines can't be achieved. The project manager is setting the project team up to fail if he/she goes along with a time frame that is known to be unachievable. If the time deadline is immovable, then the project manager should employ timeboxing to negotiate a narrowed project scope that will be achievable in the time allotted.

What is the difference between upper CASE and lower CASE?

Upper CASE refers to diagramming and other tools that are commonly used during the Analysis phase of the SDLC. Lower CASE refers to diagramming and prototyping tools and code generators that are used primarily to support the Design phase of the SDLC. These two components of CASE products are targeted at different segments of the life cycle.

Why should the system request be created by a businessperson as opposed to an IS professional?

Usually, the system request originates with a businessperson because the need for the system or system improvement is recognized in the business unit. It is unlikely the IS professionals in the organization will be able to recognize all the business needs and opportunities for systems and improvements in the business units since they are not involved directly in those areas. Also, the businessperson will have a much better idea of the value of the proposed system or improvement, and therefore is in a better position to create a meaningful system request.

Describe the major elements and issues with waterfall development.

Waterfall development follows the phases of the life cycle in sequence (planning, analysis, design, and implementation). Each phase is thoroughly documented and approval is required before proceeding to the subsequent phase. It is difficult, though not impossible, to go backwards in the SDLC under waterfall development. Waterfall development requires that the system requirements be precisely specified prior to implementation, and also often "freezes" those requirements during development. The high degree of effort devoted to specifying user requirements is a strength of waterfall development but specifying those requirements on paper is laborious and may lead to errors and omissions. "Freezing" the requirements during development helps assure that the system is developed according to specifications, but in a dynamic business environment, the system that is ultimately developed may bear little resemblance to what is actually needed at the time the project is completed. Therefore, extensive maintenance may be needed after implementation to revise the system to meet current conditions.

Create a list of potential risks that could affect the outcome of a project.

Weak personnel, scope creep, poor design decisions, overly optimistic project estimates

Describe the factors a project manager must evaluate when a project falls behind schedule.

Weak personnel, scope creep, poor design decisions, overly optimistic project estimates Typically a project falls behind schedule when one of the risk factors listed above are realized. At that point the manger should determine which of those risk factors, or which combination of those risk factors, is responsible for the project falling behind. Once identified, the issue can be addressed.

Which phase in the SDLC is most important?

While each phase is important to the overall systems analysis, special attention must be given to the planning and analysis phase. The planning phase is intended to determine the feasibility of a project and to create a project plan. If the feasibility analysis is poorly done or misunderstood or the project is ill-planned, then the chance of success is extremely low. Similarly, if the analysis phase is shortened or omitted altogether, then the requirements of the system will not be fully defined and may result in either a system that does not address business needs or one that does not get completed due to continuous rework.

Describe the major elements and issues with throwaway prototyping

While similar to prototyping, throwaway prototyping differs in that the analysis phase is not collapsed, but is developed in full. Once complete, any ambiguous features or challenging design issues may be addressed using a design prototype. A design prototype is created to enable users to understand the issues under consideration. Many design prototypes may be built to minimize the risk associated with the system by confirming that important issues are understood before the actual system is built. Throwaway prototyping can result in a longer time frame to delivery due to the fact that the prototypes are not necessarily used for the final design. However, this methodology creates an opportunity to address and resolve key issues that arise before getting to the development stage.

List and describe the six general skills all project team members should have? HINT: BAIT EM

[1] Technical skills (knowledge of how to employ technology in development system solutions). [2] Business skills (knowledge of how to apply IT to business problems to achieve a valuable solution). [3] Analytical skills (ability to solve complex problems). [4] Interpersonal skills (oral and written communication skills with both technical and non-technical audiences). [5] Management skills (ability to manage others and cope with an uncertain environment). [6] Ethical skills (ability to deal with others honestly and ethically).

What are the three basic steps of the analysis process? Is each step performed in every project? Why or why not?

[1] Understand the as-is system - study the existing system and processes and understand the strengths and weaknesses. [2] Identify improvement opportunities - look for the specific things that need to change. [3] Develop a system concept - create one or more target conceptualizations for the to-be system, including an outline of features and models of its basic design. The first step is sometimes skipped or done in a cursory fashion. This is because there may not be an existing system to study, the existing system may be irrelevant to the new system, or the methodology in use (particularly RAD and Agile Development) does not emphasize the existing system at all.

Give three examples of business needs for a system.

• To maintain or improve the competitive position. • To perform a business function more efficiently. • To take advantage of a new business opportunity.