the last one

how does calcium affect muscle contraction?

when skeletal muscle fibers are stimulated by a nerve impulse from the brain, Ca ions are released from intracellular stores within muscle cells, which along with enough ATP, permits the contractile proteins to slide along each other muscle relaxation happens when ca ions are actively transported to the intracellular storage site

What is bone remodeling?

the process of bone continually being built, broken down and reshaped it is vital for bone health ebcause it allows bones to normally grow and repair and replace damaged or brittle areas permits calcium and phosphorus to be withdrawn and used for other functions

What is hypocalcemic tetany?

when nerve impuses develop spontaneously due to low calcium availibility. this is characterized by muscle spasms because they continue to receive stimulation

micronutrients in beverages

-sweetened beverages have very little micronutrients -milk and fruit beverages are micronutrient rich replacing fruit juice with sweetened bevs decreases, Vit C, Vit A, and folate some are fortified with some vitamins and micronutrients

Factors that affect mineral absorption

-physiological need for a mineral at time of consumption -bioavailability of the mineral, largely based off of how much of any given mineral has been consumed since they have similar MW and charges so competition occurs -ex. Mg, Ca, Fe, Cu, Zn all have 2+ charge, so high zinc can decrease absorption of Cu -also based off of nonmineral substances in diet

excretion of minerals

-primarily through urine -some trace, like copper, secreted by liver into the bile for excretion in the feces -when kidney function fails, mineral intake must be controlled to avoid mineral toxicity such as with phosphorus and potassium

alcoholic beverages

-primarily water, but ethanol increases urine output by inhibiting the action of antidiuretic hormone which helps control fluid lost in urine

What does boiling cubed potatoes do?

-reduces potassium, magnesium, manganese, sulfur and zinc by 50 to 75%

water needs

-vary with body size, physical activity, environmental conditions and dietary intake -Adequate intake (AI): -men: 15 cups (3.7 liters) -women: 11 cups (2.7 liters) -this can come from water, beverages and food

Water function

-maintaining blood volume so that nutrients and oxygen can be transported through the body -forming specialized fluids throughout the body, such as saliva, tears, bile, and the amniotic fluid that surrounds a growing fetus in the uterus -helping form lubricants in the knees and other joints -acting as a solvent, helping dissolve minerals and other nutrients, making them more availible to cells throughout the body -keeping exposed tissues moist, including eyes, nose, mouth and skin -participating as a reactant in many reactions -regulating body temp within narrow range -removing waste products via urine

waste product removal: urine

-most unwanted substances leave the body via urine -liver metabolism converts some fat soluble compounds, such as meds and potential cancer-causing substances, into water-soluble compounds to be extreted -typically urine output of 4.25-8.5 cups (1-2 liters)/day, which responds to fluid protein and sodium intake -urea (from protein) and sodium concentrations are variable based on amounts consumed -minimum urine output: 2.5 cups (600ml)/day -low regular urine output causes heavy ion concentration especially in men which may cause kidney stones (minerals and other substances that have percipitated out of urine and accumulated in kidney tissues)

Magnesium

(major mineral) foods: - found in chlorophyll - plant products like greeen leafy vegetables, broccoli, squash, beans, nuts, seeds, whole grans, and chocolate - lesser sources: milk and meats needs: - RDA= 400mg/day for men 19-30 and 310 for women - needs increase beyond 30 - DV= 420mg - fewer than 25% meet the RDA storage & excretion: - 30-40% consumed is absorbed, but absorption can rise to 80% when intakes are low - small intestine by both passive and active absorption - active vitamin D hormone (1,25(OH)2) enhances magnesium absorption to limited extent - half is found in bones and rest is stored in other tissues such as muscles - kidneys regulate blood conc, able to reduce magnesium loss to urine when intake is low functions: - 2nd most abundant intracellular cation (Mg2+) - helps stabilize ATP by binding the phosphate groups - required by more than 300 enzymes that utilize ATP - energy metabolism, protein synthesis, and muscle contraction - Mg dependent enzyme pumps sodium potassium pump - DNA and RNA synthesis - calcium metabolism, indirectly effects bone structure and mineralization - nerve transmission - glucose and insulin metabolism - heart and smooth muscle contraction deficiency: - causes irregular heartbeat, weakness, muscle spasms, disorientation, nausea, vomiting, seizures, abnormal nerve cell function - could all be effect of impairment of Na/K pump - low blood calcium, increasing risk of osteoporosis - develops very slowly due to body stores - linked to cardiovascular disease - those with GI disorders at risk and heavy perspiration for weeks in hot climates can increase requirements toxicity: - UL: 350 mg/day - weakness, nausea, slowed breathing, eventual malaise, coma, and death - older population at risk due to a decreased kidney function

Phosphorus

(major mineral) foods: - milk cheese, meat, bakery products, and cereals most abundant in diet - bran, eggs, nuts, and fish - food additives needs: - RDA= 700mg/day - average intake= 1625mg/day for men and 1187 for women - DV= 1250mg absorption, transport, storage, & excretion: - absorbs up to 70% of dietary phosphorus - absorption in upper small intestine by active transport and diffusion - 1,25(OH)2 (active vitamin D) enhances absorption - poor absorption in grains and legumes due to the phytate state, we lack enzymes for this - yeast in grains breaks down the phytates, more digestable - 80% storage in bones and teeth - rest in found in every cell and in extracellular fluid as PO4-2 - excreted in the kidneys, regulated by PTH and FGF23 functions: - major components of bones and teeth - major intracellular anion - component of ATP, critical to energy production and storage - part of DNA and RNA, cell membranes, and many enzymes - acid base/phosphorylation cellular message systems deficiency: - unlikely due to efficient absorption - chronic deficiency can contribute to bone loss, decreased growth, poor tooth development - symptoms of rickets may appear in children due to insufficient bone mineralization - anorexia, weight loss, weakness, irritability, stiff joints, bone pain - marginal status: preterm infants, alcoholics, older people, long term diarrhea, those who use aluminum containing antacids toxicity: - rare - long term effects unknown - high blood phosphorus (hyperphosphatemia) can cause calcium-phosphorus precipitates to form in body tissues, can also be caused by poor kidney function - UL: 3-4g/day

Sulfur

(major mineral) what we know: - bright yellow mineral - sulfur containing aa methionine and cysteine - inorganic sulfate found in water and food in preservatives that protects color of dried fruits and white wines - found in fish, meat, eggs, etc - required for synthesis of compounds that stabilize proteins (collagen, hair, nails, skin) - acid base balance - part of vitamins and aa - aids in drug detoxification needs: - no AI, RDA, or UL - this is because we are able to obtain ample sulfur from protein-containing foods (those aa) - no known deficiency or toxicity

Iron

(trace mineral) foods: - beef, pork, seafood, poultry (heme iron found in hemoglobin or myoglobin) -vegetables (spinach, dark leafy greens, and kidney, garbanzo, and navy beans) , grains and supplements (nonheme iron) -- less bioavailable than meats - added into refined flour - can be cooked in with iron cookware needs: - after 51, needs drop due to menopause in women absorption, transport, storage, & excretion: - about 18% of dietary iron is absorbed - small intestine by carrier-mediated mechanisms (ferritin- is made from body iron stores, key iron binding protein , binds and stores mucosal iron, preventing it from entering the blood stream= mucosal block) - too much iron can overtax the mucosal block and increase risk of toxicity - ferrous (Fe2+)--> ferric (Fe3+): to transport absorbed iron to body cells it goes through this process by a copper containing enzyme called transferrin - the released iron is utilized for cellular functions or stored in the liver, bone marrow, and spleen with ferritin (the primary storage protein) or hemosiderin - hepcidin regulates iron absorption (normally 90% of iron used is recovered and 10% excreted) - Factors That Increase Absorption: * High body demand for red blood cells (blood loss, high altitude, physical training, pregnancy, anemia) * low body stores of iron * Heme iron in food * Meat protein factor (MPF) * Vitamin C intake * Gastric acidity - Factors That Decrease Absorption: * Low need for iron (high level of storage iron) * Phytic acid in whole grains and legumes * Oxalic acid in leafy vegetables * Polyphenols in tea, coffee, red wine, and oregano * Reduced gastric acidity * Excessive intake of other minerals (zinc, manganese, calcium) - vit C increases nonheme absorption and aids in providing an electron to yield Fe2+ from Fe3+ functions: - redox reactions - can form free radicals that damage cell membranes and DNA so it is tightly bound to proteins - Functional proteins: hemoglobin, myoglobin, iron-containing enzymes - transport proteins: transferrin, ferroportin - storage proteins: ferritin and hemosiderin - needed in CAC - neurotransmitter synthesis -immune function - energy metabolism, drug and alcohol transformation, and excretion of organic compounds deficiency: - *1 in 4 people globally have anemia, and a large portion of that due to iron deficiency - at risk: young children and pregnant women, premature infants, teenage girls, vegetarians and vegans, those that donate blood often - less prevalent in industrialized countries - leading global health risk - impairs oxygen transport, causing fatigue, decreased ability to perform normal activities, impairs immune function, impairs energy metabolism and delays cognitive development toxicity: - UL= 45mg/day - found in highly fortified foods - cause nausea, vomiting, stomach irritation, diarrhea, and impaired absorption of other trace minerals -lead cause of poisoning in children under 6 therefore iron containing supplements over 30mg must be individually wrapped and have a warning label - iron toxicity in adults due to hemochromatosis

Copper

(trace mineral) foods: - liver, shellfish, nuts, seeds, lentils, soy products, dark chocolate - dried fruits, whole grain products and tap water can also be sources - meat may promote copper absorption from other foods needs: - average adult intake is above RDA absorption, transport, storage, and excretion: - small intestine by simple diffusion and active transport into intestinal absorptive cells then transported out of mucosal cells into bloodstream - in blood copper is bound to albumin and others to the liver (main storage site) and kidneys - out of the liver in ceruloplasmin to body tissues - little is stored in body but excess binds to metallothionein - excreted through bile into feces - abs. varies from 12 to 70% from diet functions: - component of enzymes - 2 oxidative states Cu1+ and Cu2+ - functions in metabolism, in proteing called ferrodoxidase I which is oxidizing ferrous iron to ferric iron and iron transport to body cells from liver - is a part of the superoxide enzymes which eliminate free radicals and prevents damage to cell membranes - catalyzes last step of ETC - regulation of neurotransmitters via monoamine oxidase enzymes - connective tissue formation and tensile strength deficiency: - very rare - reported in premature infants fed milk-based formulas, recovering from malnutrition, or in long term total parenteral nutrition without copper or excessive zinc. - found in individuals with rare genetic disorder Menkes disease - anemia, decreased white blood cell count (leukopenia), skeletal abnormalities, loss of hair and hair pigmentation, cardiovascular changes and impaired immune function toxicity: - not common - accidental overdoses in children, and those who drink contaminated food or water - Wilson disease, genetic disorder resulting in excess copper storage - abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea - severe cases cause liver damage, brain causes cirrhosis and neurological damage - UL= 10mg/day due to risk of liver damage

Zinc

(trace mineral) foods; - protein rich meat and seafood (70%) - nuts, beans, wheat germ, and whole grains make up the rest - found in small amounts in refined flour needs: - 40% absorption - many meet RDA requirements absorption, transport, storage, & excretion: - small intestine by simple diffusion and active transport - induces synthesis of cysteine rich intestinal protein CRIP and metallothionein which creates a mucosal block - if the intestinal cells do not transported out of the cell before it is sloughed off then it is excreted in feces - increases absorption: low to moderate intake, zinc deficiency, certain aa, increased need for zinc - decreases absorption: phytic acid and fiber in whole grains, excessive zinc intake, high nonheme iron intake, good zinc status - absorbed into the bloodstream binded to blood proteins such as albumin for transport to liver - liver repackages zinc and redistributes to the body - no stores, but has "exchangeable pools" in the liver, bone, pancreas, kidneys and blood therefore recyclable -excess readily excreted in feces and small amounts in urine and sweat functions: - essential for normal growth and development - 300 different enzymes in the body that require zinc - contributes to DNA and RNA synthesis, heme synthesis, bone formation, taste acuity, immune function, reproduction, and antioxidant defense network, stabilizes cell membrane proteins, gene transcription fingers ("zinc fingers"), receptor for vitamin A , D, and thyroid hormone - MAY play a role in shortening duration of common colds if used within 24 hours of symptoms deficiency: - high intake of unleavened beans in Middle eastern diets combines with low zinc intakes result in zinc deficiency - loss of appetite, delayed growth and sexual maturation, dermatits, impaired vit A function, alopecia, decreased taste sensitivity, poor would healing, immune dysfunction, severe diarrhea, birth defects, increased infant mortality - mostly reported in young children, individuals with Crohn's disease and other malabsorptive diseases, kidney dialysis, and who restrict animal based foods toxicity: - reported by supplementation of more than 5x the RDA. - UL= 40mg/day - loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, intestinal cramps, diarrhea, impair immune function, reduce copper absorption and activity of copper enzymes

Where is water found

-intracellular fluid compartments: 2/3 of water found here -extracellular fuild compartments: 1/3

Water in foods

-75% rto 95% of water by weight in fruits and veggies -50-75% water in potatoes, chicken and steak -35% water in jam, honey, crackers, butter and margarine -0% in vegetable oils

What is phytic acid (phytate)?

-Found in wheat grain and legume fiber -Can limit the absorption of some minerals by chemically binding to them and preventing their release during digestion -associated with fiber intake greater than 28 to 38g/day -levened grains with yeast, enzyme produced by the yeast can break some of the chemical bonds between phytic acid and minerals

Body's water content

-Makes up between 50-75% of our body weight depending on body fat and age -highest in infants and declines with age -in lean individuals: water content in lean tissue is 73% and in adipose tissues its 20% water

faucet water

-US is leader in bottled water: 36.3 gal/person/year -bottled water is considered more conviennent, better tasting, and safer than tap, but it is not anymore safe than tap -bottled water can come from springs, artesian wells and public water sources (tap) -bottled water may not contain fluoride which protects against dental caries (cavities) -environmental impact of plastic

coffee and tea

-a lot of people don't think they should count towards daily fluid intake, but not supported -caffeine is a mild diuretic but 500mg/day (4.5 cups of brewed coffee) won't cause problems

What influences the quantity of minerals in foods?

-agricultural factors: including genetic variations, mineral composition of animal feed and meds, anf mineral content of soil, water, fertilizers, and pesticides -food processing: iron from cooking equipment and food containers -additives: phosphorus, calcium, and others added to enhance flavor, maintain texture and preserve foods -sanitizing solutions: iodine may be left behind -processing decreases mineral content

prevetion of osteoporosis?

-calcium rich diet -vitamin D -magnesium -potassium -prtoein -nutrient reich dietary patterns such as dash diet

What is oxalic acid (oxalate)?

-found in leafy green plants -binds minerals and makes them less bioavailible ex. spinach contains lots of Ca, but only 5% can be absorbed because of high [oxalate], but in milk 32% can be absorbed

What are polyphenols?

-group of compounds containing at least 2 ring structures that each have 1 hydroxyl group attached -lower bioavailibility of minerals, especially iron and calcium -found naturally in plants, such as tea, dark chocolate, wine -some, such as flavonoids and tannins, may help prevent cancer and heart disease

What are the two types of extracellular fluid compartments:

-interstitial fluid: between cells -intravascular fluid: fluid in blood and lymph

What are the layers of bone?

1. compact bone: outer dense shell also known as cortical bone that makes up 75% of skeletal mass 2. spongy bone: hard, spongy network of rods, plates and needlelike spines that adds strength without much weight. -it is abundant at ends of long bones and inside spinal verebrae and inside the flat bones of the pelvis -where most minerals move in and out of bone

how many adults in the us have osteoporosis?

10% of adults over 50 in us, and 43 million have low bone mass aferican americans have lowest rates, followed by those of hispanic and latino heritage. caucasians and asains ahve highest rates women are more likely then men

Mineral fortification

1940s: added iron to milled grains 90 years: iodine to table salt calcium: into orange juice, etc many into breakfast cereal

What is the average daily water sources for US?

20% solid food, 80% fluids (13 cups for men and 9 cups for women)

What is the sodium-potassium pump?

A cell membrane protein that uses energy to pump sodium out of the cell, creating a concentration gradient which powers a lot of cells

what is osteoporosis?

A disease linked to low intake of calcium so that the body withdraws calcium from bone. it develops over many years and begins first as osteopenia. the bones most likely to suffer ar the hips (20% of those who have this die after a year), the wrist and the vertebrae

What is antidiuretic hormone (ADH)?

A hormone that signals the kidneys to retain water when the osmotic pressure of extracellular fluids increases (hypertonic blood) at the same time, blood pressure falling signals the kidneys to release reni

what percentage of people drink 4 cups of plain water daily?

3/4 people over the age of 2

what is water recycling in intestinal tract?

32cups of water enter the intesinal tract daily from numerous sources, but only about .5-.75 cups are lost in feces, so the kidneys work to reabsorb 97% of water from waste products

Which minerals are most likely to be deficient?

Ca, Mg, K, Fe are likely to fall short of DRI recommendations in US diet -association with health concerns means they are public health concern

What does low blood pressure cause?

Causes the kidneys to increase water conservation in the body, so that it limits amount of water that becomes urine until the body is no longer dehydrated

How does gastric acidity affect bioavailibility?

HCl in stomach makes minerals more bioavailible by dissolving them and converting them to a form that can easily be absorbed gives ferric iron (Fe3+) an electron to yeild ferrous iron (Fe2+), which is better absorbed

Molybdenum (Mo)

Mo: -ultratrace mineral -plant based foods, grains, legumes, nuts -RDA: 45 mg/day -cofactor for oxidase enzymes -USA diet meets/exceeds -DV: 45 mg -Ul: 2000 mg/day

Chloride

Sources: -almost all comes from table salt and salt subs -also found in seaweed, olives, rye, lettuce, a few fruits and some vegetables Requirements: -AI: 2300mg -40:60 ratio of Na: Cl so that 1500mg Na: 2300mg Cl -DV: 2300mg -average: 9g salt=5400mg Cl -UL: 3600mg Absorption: -almost 100% absorption in the small and large intestines Transport: Storage: -found in extraceullar fluid to balance positive charge of Na Excretion: -occurs through kidneys Function: -balance the positive charge of sodium ions -maintain fluid volume and balance -nerve pulse transmission -electrolyte -component of HCl in stomach -used during immune response when white blood cells attack foreign cells -maintain acid-base balance and dispose of carbon dioxide by way of exhaled air Deficiency: very very rare -caused by frequent, lengthy bouts of vomiting when coupled with poor nutrient diet since HCl is lost in hgih volumes -symptoms: weakness, anorexia, lethargy -loss of HCl can disrupt acid-base balance Excessive intake: -may contribute to increased blood pressure -can lower sodium and therefore Cl to help

Calcium

Sources: -in US over half from: milk and cheese -others: yeast breads, rolls, crackers and other foods made with dairy products, kale, collards, turnip greens, broccoli, almonds, and calcium-fortified fruit juices, soy milk, rice milk and breakfast cereals -tiny soft bones in canned fish such as salmon and sardines, and tofu -when selecting, bioavailiblity must be considered since in leafy greens calcium is bound to oxalate Requirements: -RDA: 1000mg/day, 1200mg/day for women over 50 and men over 70, 1300mg/day for adolescents -DV: 1300mg -average: adolescent and adult females: 842mg/day and 852mg/day -adult and adolescent males: 1086mg/day and 1189mg/day -females in peak bone building years (9-18) and those over 71 have lowest intake -only 15% of younger females and 39% of older women meet RDA -70% of males over 70 reach RDA Calcium Supplements: commonly taken by older women after an accident but little support has shown that this is effective since little bone density increase and no affect on fractures -US preventative services task force has recommended against daily supplementation for noninstitutionalized postmenopausal women -adverse effects: -gastrointestinal symtoms: constipation and flatulence -calcium-alkali syndrome: characterized by hypercalcemia which can cause kidney stones, high bp, and kidney failure (not a problem if calcium is below 1500mg) -calcification of coronary arteries (only caused by supplements) -potential interaction with other minerals by decreasing zinc, iron, mg absorption but appears to be small -ingestion of lead in contminated supplements (FDA since 2008 requires purity test) -most popular: calcium carbonate (antacid tablets) and calcium citrate -calcium carbonate has highest proprtions of calcium with 40% as opposed to 9% in calcium gluconate -absorption is best when doesn't exceed 500mg and is taken with or acter a meal since HCl improves abrosption -calcium citrate is better absorbed in those with low stomach acid Absorption: -occurs throughout the intestinal tract but is most efficient in upper part of small intestines because of the slightly acidic pH which helps keep Ca ions dissolved. the more basic it becomes, the lesser the absorption, but some still can occur through passive diffusion -calcitriol promotes and regulates active transport of calcium in upper intestinal tract -low vitamin D, means low Ca absorption -adults aborb 25-30% of Ca eaten, but can reach 75% during infancy or pregnancy -declines with age especially after 70 and menopause -enhanced by eating calcium rich foods with other foods especially those containing lactose, other sugars and proteins -reduced when there is reduced secretion of stomach acid, chronic diarrhea, or large intake of phytic acid in fiber, oxalic acid, dietary phorphorus and polyphenols such as tannins in tea -fat malabsorption decreases intake since ca binds to fatty acids forming unabsorbable soaps in intesinal lumen Transport: -transported in bloodstream to cells as either free ionized calcium or bound to proteins Storage: -99% of calcium in teeth and skeleton -cells also need calcium Balance: -blood calcium controled by hormonal control such that calcium can be released from the bones to keep concentrations high enough in blood and cells -this happens through the parathyroid releasing parathyroid hormone that raises blood Ca by increasing kidney's reabsorption of Ca so that urinary calcium decreases -this hormone also increases calcium absorption indirectly by promoting synthesis of calcitriol in kidneys -may result in hyperparathyroidism which can cause persistently elevated blood calcium Excretion: -urine, skin and feces Function: -developing and maintaining bone and teeth -blood clotting -nerve impulse transmission -muscle contraction -cell metabolism Benefits: -examined link between calcium intake and wide array of diseases -AI benefits beyond bone health such as protecting against colon cancer, formation of calcium oxalate kidney stones, decrease blood pressure (Ca diet of 800 to 1200mg/day) Excessive intake: -UL of 2500mg for adults 19 to 50 and 2000mg for adults over 50 -increased risk of kidney stones and hypercalcemia -usually prevented bt small intestines -symptoms: irritability, headache, kidney failure, kidney stones, and decreases absorption of other minerals

Sodium (Na)

Sources: salt (NaCl 40:60), processed food, and at restaurants with sodium food additives -10% from naturally present sources -10-15% added through cooking -softended tap water and certain medicines -1 tsp=2300mg -unprocessed foods have little sodium except for milk Salt in Diet: -without processed foods: 500mg/daily -average: m-4094mg w-2997mg -purpose: addes flavoring, flavor enhancers (monosodium glutamate), preservatives (sodium benzoate), leavening agent (sodium bicarb aka baking soda), curing agents (sodium nitrate), wetting agents for quick-cooking cereals (sodium phosphate), color preservative (sodium bisulfite), anticaking agents (NaAl silicate), etc -major contributers: mixed dishes, protein foods, various grains, vegetables, snacks and sweets; sauses, bottled condiments, spreads and dips -65% of Na from retail processed foods Requirements: -AI: 1500mg (age 20-51), 1300mg (51-70), 1200mg (71+) -DV: 2300mg -2400mg -lower amounts for adults with hypertension -2015-2020 guidelines:2300mg -american heart association: 1500mg -UL: 2300mg Absorption: -in intestinal tract by active transport in both large and small intenstines -energy for active transport comes from sodium potassium pump Transport: -in blood Storage: -most found in extracellular fluid compartment (ECF) and is tightly regulated -when concentrations are in blood are low, hormone aldosterone inhibits secretion by kidneys Excretion: -when concentraions are high it is excreted by the kidneys -lost in feces and perspiration Function: -help the absorption of glucose and some amino acids in the small intestine -normal muscle and nerve function: rely on electical charges created by shift of both Na and K -aids in water balance -regulates ECF and plasma volumes Nephrotic syndrome and congestive heart failure: sodium excretion by kidneys is faulty and causes significant fluid retention and edema, causing the blood pressure to rise and strain to occur on the cardiovascular system Deficiency:rare -occurs when loss exceeds intakes such as when someone sweats a lot (only when 2% of total body weight from sweating occurs (5-6lbs)) -avoid in atheletes by drinking sports drinks with electrolytes -perspiration contains about 2/3 sodium concentration found in blood -hypoatremia: sodium depletion caused by ingestion of excess water -symptoms: headache, nausea, vomiting, fatigue, and muscle cramps -sometimes: seizures, coma and death Excessive intake: hypertension and cardiovascular disease -hypertension: reduce risk by lowering sodium consumed (DV intake means 20% less likely to get it) -sodium >2g/day increases calcium loss in urine and problems with bones as a result, but not yet linked to osteoporosis -can lead to the formation of calcium oxalate kidney stones

Osmosis

The passive diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane (all membranes in the body). Water moves from a a side of low solute concentration to the side of higher solute concentration hypotonic: solute concentration is low outside the cell, causing water to move in and the cell will swell, possibly rupturing isotonic: concentration inside is equal to outside so that its in equilibrium hypertonic: solute concentration outside the cell is high than inside the cell, so water move outside, causing the cell to shrink

When are water needs balanced?

When inputs = outputs inputs: water from foods and beverages as well as the water generated during metabolism (1.5 cups/day) outputs: sensible and insensible water loss

What happens when reni is activated?

When the kidneys regulate reni, angiotensinogen (a circulating blood protein made in the liver) which forms angiotensin I. In the lungs, angiotensin I, is converted to angiotensin II which causes the ristriction of blood vessels and the release of aldosterone by the adrenal glands aldosterone signals the kidneys to retain more sodium and chloride and therefore more water

What is calmodulin system?

a calcium binding protein that binds 4 ca ions so that when ca enters the cell, they bind to the protein and the complex can activate many intracellular enzymes, including those that initiate breakdown of glycogen

What is hydroxyapatite?

a latticelike crystal formed from calcium and phosphorus that binds collagen fibers. this combination allows bones to be strong and resilient -collagen protein: allows skeleton to absorb impact -hydroxyapatite crystal makes bones strong

how does calcium transmit nerve impulses to target cells?

after a nerve impulse is transmited to target site across the synapse, the calcium ions in the synapse move from the EC medium into the nerve cells, causing the synaptic vesicles to release their store of neurotransmitters from the nerve cell to the target cell

What is required to be considered a nutrient?

biological function or health must decline when they are lacking in diet

temperature regulation

body temperature needs to be regulated in order protect body systems and functions. maintains in 2 ways: 1. water has a specific heat that resist temperature change because water is able to form 4 hydrogen bonds with other water molecules that requires large amounts of heat to overcome the attraction. 2. sweat: 99% water, helps maintain normal body temp during exercise or hot water, which allows the skin to cool when the water on the skin evaporates. This happens more when it is lower humidity. need to hydrate to replace lost water

What is kyphosis?

caused by loss of bone in the spine which causes compression fractures in the vertebrae, loss of height and dowager's hump

water intoxication

causes: -drinking too much water too fast -when the kidneys cannot remove water fast enough to keep pace with intake conditions: hypoatremia -when water accumulates in the blood and dilutes the Na+ -symptoms: headache, nausea, blurred vision, respiratory arrest, convulsions, and death (brain swelling) at risk: -those with mental disorders -infants under 6 months given bottle with overdiluted formula -those with isolated instances of forced water digestions -overhydration by athletes solution: drink when you're thirsty

what are sensible vs insensible water losses?

sensible: what we notice -urine (1000-2000ml/day) -heavy perspiration insensible: water loss we don't notice -water lost through skin, lungs and feces

How many minerals are there?

close to 400, but 16 minerals and a few ultratrace minerals are recognized as nutrients

what common belief is there regarding water and the kidneys

common belief that high water intake helps flush out "toxins" but little research has been done to support this

How to avoid mineral imbalance?

consume the DV or less

How does antacid and old age affect bioavailibility?

decreases it with the decrease in stomach acid production

Manganese (Mn)

essential trace mineral in foods: -whole grains, nuts, legumes, leafy greens, tea -meat and dairy have very little -american diet 2-6mg/day dietary needs: -AI: 2.3mg/day for men, 1.8mg/day for women -Daily Value: 2.3 mg -UL: 11mg/day Absorption, transport, storage, and excretion: -absorption in small intestine -bounds to transpoter to liver then transfered by protiens to pancreas, kidney, and bone -excreted via bile -5-10% is absorbed absorption is effected by iron! increased by low Mn and iron and decreased by high Mn and iron or copper fxns: -like zinc, & copper -cofactor for enzymes -CHO metabolism, gluconeogensis, collagen formation, antioxidant defense Deficiency and Toxicity: -very few causes of deficiency (nausea, poor growth, skeletal abnormalities, impaired CHO & lipid metabolism) -toxic causes neurological impairment, similar to parkinson disease

How often is the adult skeleton replaced

every 10 years but in middle age,

dehydration

fluid loss> fluid consumption causes: -diarrhea, vomiting, inability to consume sufficient fluid (while unconcious), poorly controlled diabetes mellitus, and burns -heavy exercise, hot weather, dry environments, high altitudes (rapid breathing and water loss from lungs), ignoring thirst signals -prolonged exercise causes 3 to 8 cups/ hour lost prevention: listening to thirst signals -doesn't always work well during intense exercise, illness, infancy, and old age signs of mild to moderate dehydration: -dry mouth and skin -fatigue, muscle weakness -decreased urine output, deep yellow urine -headache, dizziness symptoms; -solute concentration rises in blood, bp decreases, heart rate increases -long term: kidney failure, seizures, delirium and comma -death replacement may need to happen until medical supervision

What are minerals needed for?

for normal function, growth, and maintenance of body tissues

water in beverages

highest water beverages: water, milk, tea, juice, soda and liquid foods (also can supply calories and contribute to obesity and cardiovascular disease) high sugar and calorie intake beverages: sugar-sweetened, soft drinks, fruit drinks, energy and sports drinks, tea and coffee drinks sugar in soft drink: 65g added sugar/ 20 oz

Hypertension

hypertension and nutrition: -1/3 adults or 80 million americans have it -measured in mmHg which is force of blood against artery walls -expressed as systoic bp (pressure in arteries when heart beats)/ diastolic bp (between beats) -optimal bp: 120/ 80 mmHg causes: -kidney disease, liver disease, diabetes can cause secondary hypertension in 5-10% of those with it -primary hypertension developes over time due to changes in arteries, kidneys and Na/K balance -as we age, arteries narrow and become more rigid (arteriosclerosis) and endothelial cells lining arteries release vasoconstrictors -results in: increated bp, increased release of renin by kidneys which ultimately triggers vasoconstriction risk factors: -age: 90% of people over 55 -race: african americans at greaer risk than whites from a younger age (45% of AA will have it in adulthood) -obesity: abdominal obesity increases risk -physical inactivity: inelastic blood vessels -poor diet: too much Na, too many kcals, too little K -diabetes: high insulin (type II) is associated with insulin-resistant adipose cells and obesity. also increases sodium retention and accelerates atherosclerosis. 65% of people target organs: heart, brain, kidneys and eyes -risk factor for stroke (highest) and heart attack, dementia, kidney disease and vision loss -no warning signs and no symptoms prevention and treatment: -lifestyle modifications: healthy weight and eating patterns, regular physical activity, limiting alcohol intake -DASH diet: dietary approaches to stop hypertension was designed to test affects of low sat fat, total fat and cholesterol, and high in fruits, veg, and low-fat dairy products on bp -rich in Mg, K, Ca, protein and fiber -revealed significantly lower bp for all and massive drop for those with hyperension (better than medication) -2 levels of sodium (2300mg or 1500mg), combines exercise and weight loss -also abundant in phytochemicals such as polyphenols, antioxidants, and carotenoids -prevents kidney stones, cancer and heart disease -minerals, phytochemicals and hypertension: -study tested sodium intake and showed sodium sensitivity (only 25-50% of people experience high bp with high sodium intake) -increasing K helps (eat 1 banana, .5 cups of beans or one sweet or white baked potato -diets rich in calcium, mg, and fiber have also been linked to lower bp but individual supplements haven't proven beneficial -chocolate and cocoa: -have flavanols epicatechin, catechin and procyanidins that reduce bp by improving vascular function and insulin sensitivity as well as inhibiting renin-angiotensin system -dark chocolate has short term benefits -caffeine: -can temporarily increase bp in some but they do not make hypertension worse -drug therapy: not usually perscribed until diasolic bp= 90mmHg or systolic bp =140mmHg over 3 times (may be 150mmHg for older adults) -diuretics: increase water and salt excretion (some also affect K excretion) - beta blockers: slow heart rate and force heart contration -angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors: reduce conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II in the lungs which leads to vasodilation - angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs) prevent angiotensin II from binding on receptors on blood vessels causing blood vessel dilation -calium channel blockers prevent calcium from entering the cells of heart and blood vessels, causing vasodilation

How does vitamin C affect bioavailibility?

improve iron absorption when both are contained in the same meal

How does vitamin D hormone calcitriol affect bioavailibility?

improves calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium absorption

What are the two categories of minerals?

major minerals, or macromineral: 100mg or more (calcium and phosphorus) trace mineral: any smaller concentration (copper and iron)

What minerals are most likely to be toxic?

iron and zinc to avoid this with supplementation, select brands approved by US Pharmacopeia (USP)

What organs regulate water?

kidneys, brain, lungs, and liver

What population is particularly affected by zinc deficiency?

middle eastern populations because of their heavy reliance on unleavened breads

Electrolytes

most abundant solutes in water that form when salts like NaCl or potassium phosphate dissociate to form ions intracellular fluids: -major cations: K+, Mg2+ -Major anions: phosphate, sulfate extracellular fluids: -major cations: Na+, Ca2+ -major anions: Cl-, bicarbonate (HCO3-)

What are minerals?

naturally occuring, inorganic solid substances that cannot be synthesized in the body

what is bone made up of

protein fibers, primary collagen and minerals (calcium and phosphorus from the diet) -deit also gives other nutrients needed: protein, Mg, K, Na, F, S, vitamin D and vitamin K

Three main types of bone cells and function:

osteoblasts: bone building cells that produce collagen and add minerals to form healthy bone. some fully mineralized osteoblasts form osteocytes osteocytes: biochemically active, they take up Ca from blood and release it back into blood as well as help bone become more dense if needed osteoclasts: cells on bones surface that dissolve bone (bone resorption) by releasing acid and enzymes. this activity is stimulated by the parathyroid horomone and in conjunction with vitamin D -vert active when diet is deficient in Ca during growth: osteoblast activity> osteoclast activity most bone is built from infancy to late adolescent years -genetic background controls up to 80% of the variation in peak bone mass built

Bone loss

osteoclasts become more dominant in men and women, so 25% bone density can be lost women experience greatest bone loss when estrogen levels fall in menopause because estrogen inhibits bone breakdown -20% bone loss 5-7 years after menopause significant bone loss is known as osteoporosis

blood clotting and calcium

participates in reaction cascade that produces fibrin the main component of blood clot

What does milling do?

removes iron, selenium, zinc, copper and others

Potassium

people often do not reach necessary amounts Sources: unprocessed foods are the best sources -fruits, vegetables, milk, whole grains, dried beans, and meats -20%-fruits and veg -11% milk drinks -10% meat and poultry -10% grains -7% tea and coffee -5% juices -other sources: salt subss (KCl) and other food additives (acesulfame-K- artificial sweetner- and K propionate -preservative) Requirements: - AI: 4700mg/day -Average: m: 3016mg w: 2320mg (men get more total K because they eat more but women get more K per calorie) -DV: 4700mg Absorption: -body absorbs 90% of K consumed -large and small intestine Transport: -transported to body cells Storage: -95% in body's cells Excretion: -K balance by kidneys through exretion or retension Function: -major cation inside of cell -many of the same as sodium -maintains fluid balance, transmits nerve impulses, contracting muscles -helps to decrease calcium excretion in the urine (opposite of Na) -helps keep blood pressure normal -high dietary intake suppresses renin-angiotensin system and promotes excretion of excess sodium and water Deficiency: hypokalemia: low blood potassium and is life- threatening -symptoms: weakness, fatigue, constipation and irregular heartbeat (arrhythmia) that impairs heart's ability to pump blood -increases risk of stroke and development of kidney stones and bone loss -caused by excessive loss via urine or gastrointestinal tracy, or diuretics that are used to treat hypertension -at risk: people with eating disorders (low food intake and bulimia), alcoholics, athletes Excessive intake: hyperalkemia -high blood potassium and is life-threatening -rarely occurs in healthy individuals -happens which poor kidney function occurs, causing K build up -symptoms: irregular heartbeat and cardiac arrest -control diet

What do products by US Pharmacopeia (USP) guarantee?

tested and assure that contaminants are not presents in harmful amounts, ingredients listed on the label are present and will dissolve in the body and that supplements are made under safe and sanitary conditions

What does bioavailability refer to?

the degree to which the amount of ingested nutrients is absorbed and available to the body

chromium (Cr)

trace mineral in foods: -meats, liver, fish, eggs,wholegrain, broccoli, mushrooms, dried beans, nuts, dark chocolate, steel dietary needs: -AI: 19-50 y/o men 35mg/day -AI: 19-50 y/o women 25 mg/day -AI: above 50 y/o men 30 mg/day -AI: above 50 y/o women 20 mg/day -USA meets AI -DV: 35mg/day Absorption, transport, storage, excretion: -ansorption increases when levels are low and with vit C -phytates of whole grains lower bioavalibility -in bones, liver, kidneys, and spleen fxns: not sure -enhance insulin action -enhance muscle mass toxicity/deficiency: -weight loss, glucose intolerance, nerve damage -no UL

selenium (Se)

trace mineral in foods: _varries depending on soil content -seafood, meats, cereals, grains dietary needs: -RDA: 55mg/day -USA is typically above -DV: 55 mg absorption, transport, storage, excretion: -bound to amino acids: methionine, cystine -50-100% absorbed -balance is achieved through excretion -found in liver, pancreas, muscle, kidneys, and thyroid fxns: -component of enzymes and protiens -antioxidant with gluthathione peroxidase (GPx), Thiroedoxin reductase enzymes, and selenoprotien P -prevent lipid peroxidation and cell membrane damage -destory free radicals -helps T4 ---.> T3 -immune fxn -decrease cancers deficiency: -associated with changes in thyroid hormone -Keshan disease toxicity: -nausea, diarreha, fatigue, hair loss, impairment of sulfer and protein metabolism -UL: 400 mg/day

fluoride (F)

trace mineral in foods: -fluoridated water -tea, seafood, seaweed dietary needs: -AI: 3mg/day for women -AI: 4 mg/day for men -AI: infants 0.01mg/day absorption, transport, storage, and excretion: -80-90% absorbed -stored in teeth and bones greatest at young age fxns: -supports deposition of calcium & phosphorus -prevent caries deficiency/toxicity: -lack = dental caries -toxicity = nasuea, vomiting, diarrhea, sweating, spasms, convulsions, coma -mottling due to excess intake -UL: 10mg/day

Iodine (I)

trace mineral, heaviest element needed for human health and 1 fxn in foods: -content in food is low -iodized salt, seafood, seaweed, iodized salt, (dairy products have I additives) -plants can provide if soil was rich in Iodine (near seawater) -bioavailability decreased with goitrogens in raw veggies (broccoli, potatoes) dietary needs: -RDA: 150mg/day -USA diet usually exceeds -DV: 150mg absorption, transport, storage, excretion: -absorbed through small intestine -transported to thyroid gland and is stored there -excess is excreted via kidneys fxns: - essential component of thyroxine (T4) and triiodothryonine (T3) -T3 is active form selenium deficiency can decrease T3 levels -regulation of basal energy expenditure, macronutriten metabolism, brain and nervous system development Iodine Deficiency Disorders (IDD): - endemic goiter and endemic cretinism -thyroid enlargment due to TSH Deficiency: -is concerning in pregnancy (low birth rate, congenital abnormalities, poor development) -restriction of brain growth: mental redardation, loss of hearing/speech, short -Asia, Africa, Middle east, europe at high risk Toxicity: -UL: 1100mg -cause enlargement of thyroid gland -japan, chile

transport and storage of minerals

transport: -minerals travel in blood either in free form or bound to proteins -ex. calcoum ions either free or bound to blood protein albumin -trace minerals are highly reactive and toxic in free form so they are often bound to proteins storage: -varies greatly -calcium and phosphorus are stored in large quantities in bones and teeth -iron stored in bone marrow and liver in small quantities -small stores of most microminerals and ultratrace elements

Function of minerals

vary: -water balance: sodium, K, Ca, P -transmission of nerve impulses: Na, K, Cl -cofactors and enable enzymes to carry out chemical reactions: Fe, Mg, Cu, Se -components of body compounds -body growth and development (Ca and P)