Why Dance Matters Midterm

Discuss the social significance of the following roles as performed by Vaslav Nijinsky of Les Ballets Russes, considering the social and political climate at the time of their debut performances: 1) "The Rose" in Le Spectre de la Rose (1911) 2) "The Golden Slave" in Scheherazade (1910) 3) "The Faun" in L'Après-midi d'un faune (1912) 4) Anonymous tennis player in Jeux (1913)

-Vaslav Nijinsky -Sergei Diaghilev § Though Diaghilev commissioned several works founded on Russian folk tradition, much of the company repertory echoed the European imperialism, and consequently, an exploitative trend of exoticizing the "other" and orientalism 1) Rose- pink costume, showcased Nijinsky's talents, tendril arm movements as opposed to classical port de bras, feminine upper body, flipped gender narrative, Fokine choreographed, fantastical mythological creature that woman usually plays 2) Golden slave- staged hyper-sexuality, transgression is punished, homophobic ending, exploitation of orientalism- brown face paint (Fokine choreographed), androgyny, also heteroerotic, he dies at the end 3) Faun- bas relief, classical Greek frieze, ends in erotic orgasm (was modified after original performance--lots of criticism but sold out shows), none of the dancers touch, sexual awakening 4) Jeux- modern ballet, tennis players that have a threesome, Athletic force and ruggedness by all dancers, regardless of sex § Ambiguity of gendered movements, whereas the women performed of equal strength and sentiment § Staged representation of the "third sex" § Suggestion that sex could be divorced from feeling with the presence of an averted gaze -Heterodoxy, homosexuality, the "third sex" and queer identity in late 19th - early 20th century § 1890 - 1920's Europe caught between social reform and its consequential reactionary anti-feminist and anti-homosexual factions § Onset of early feminist and homosexual rights movements § Backlash of the reassertion of traditional masculine and feminine roles, and oftentimes, religious values § Consequently, resistance influenced a new sense of identity centering on the existence and affiliated vulnernablity said communities § Extensive legislative and medical attempts to define and control homosexuality § Developing field of psychology was amongst the first professional route to which opposition addressed homosexuality aside from religious condemnation § Initial studies were prompted to research "criminal activity" § Les Deux Prostitutions: études du pathologie sociale (The Two Prostitutions: Study of the Social Pathology) (1857) by François Charles § Presented methods for police to persecute through documentation of homosexuality § Contrary sexual feeling (1870) Carl Westphal § Homosexuality as a psychiatric disorder § Psychopathia Sexualis (1886) by Richard von Krafft-Ebing § Homosexuality was a symptom of other psychopathic behavior that could be an inherited disposition to degeneracy § Degeneracy served as predominant theory for homosexuality into early 20th century § Derivative of eugenic and social Darwin theories § Physical, intellectual, and moral abnormalities are due to disease, urban over-population, malnutrition, alcohol, and other societal "failures" § Start of intellectual and social resistance to societal subordination § Michel Foucault describes the significance of this era, stating that though "the sodomite had been a temporary aberration; the homosexual was now a species." (43) "If sex is repressed, that is, condemned to prohibition, nonexistence, and silence, then the mere fact that one is speaking about it has the appearance of a deliberate transgression. A person who holds forth in such language places himself to a certain extent outside the reach of power; he upsets established law; he somehow anticipates the coming freedom." (6) § Prior to Les Ballet Russes, there was no particular affiliation of homosexuality with ballet § Under the direction and influence of Diaghilev, ballet along with related realms of professional art and performance, and the business thereof, became a safe space for a homosexual man [and woman] to be public about their sexuality without repercussion § Ramsey specifically refers to a lack of allegiance to heterosexual norms as acted upon by Diaghilev, in which the "possibility of criticizing or even rejecting the legacy of nineteenth-century gender representations and ideologies becomes possible. The idea of enjoying the presentation of the male dancing body was conceivable at that time only by homosexual men (together with heterosexual women) who would have appreciated the spectacle of male sexuality." § Most repertory emerging out of Les Ballets Russes positioned the male dancer as its central character, his female partner playing the supporting role; the antithesis of previous Romantic and Classical ballet traditions § Garafola names said new male roles as "heterodox," referring to their transgression of traditional, strict categories of masculine behavior § Ramsey reminds us that said transgressions were socially, and therefore conservatively, "acceptable" under the guise of 1) male prowess, 2) male genius, 3) exotic and/or 'oriental' othering, and therefore, a distancing from European impact § Who was said spectacle devised for? The dominant argument(s) are 1) female gaze, 2) residual male gaze whereas heterosexual men are attracted to the spectacle of female sexuality; heterosexual male norms are generally maintained by keeping heterosexual male sexuality invisible on stage, 3) homosexual and bisexual male spectactors § Other scholars emphasis the power of Nijinsky's androgynous character; male strength and form combined with feminine sensuality and sensitivity § At other times, Nijinsky was portrayed as non-human or bestial, or rather lesser than human (i.e. "primitive") § For many male homosexual artists of the time, the concept and image of the androgynous male was seen as a positive portrayal of the homosexual man, oftentimes regarded as a "third sex" § German Lawyer Karl Ulrich's theory of the "third sex" (1860) argued that homosexuality was neither sin nor sickness; defended its practice Nijinsky was the first queer performer in dance--the first time homosexuality was affiliated with dance Heterodox- transgressing binaries Nijinsky was portrayed as "primitive" which was a way in -Europe Oscar Wilde Trials (1895) § Oscar Wilde (1854- 1900) was a Victorian celebrity, poet, and playwright § Although married with 2 sons, identified and engaged in homosexual relations and relationships § Homosexuality was a crime in Great Britain until partially decriminalized by the Sexual Offences Act of 1967 and its eventual sanction in 2013 § Records indicate approximately 100,000 arrests for same-sex acts between 1885 and 2013 § Records reveal that anti-gay laws were policed more aggressively following the 1967 legislature § The 1967 legislature repealed pre-existing maximum penalty of life imprisonment for anal sex § In 1895, the Marquess of Queensbury, father to Wilde's lover, left his calling card at Wilde's club with a handwritten note, reading "For Oscar Wilde, posing as a somdomite" § The note was publicized, forcing Wilde to face the accusation of committing the crime of sodomy § Wilde initiated a private prosecution against Queensbury for libel § Queensbury's lawyers hired private detectives to collect evidence of Wilde's homosexual relations § Detectives fed the press stories of affiliations with male prostitutes, cross-dressing, homosexual brothels, and various relationships; many relations were coerced to appear as witnesses and were regarded as accomplices to the crime § While on stand, Wilde was questioned on the morality of his art § Wilde's response was that artwork is incapable of being moral or immoral but only well or poorly made, and that only "brutes and illiterates," whose views on art "are incalculably stupid" would make such judgments about art § Wilde dropped the prosecution when the defense announced having located several male prostitutes willing to testify § As Wilde left the court, a warrant was issued for his arrest on charges of sodomy and gross indecency § Arrested under Section 11 of the Criminal Law Amendment Act of 1885 § Though unable to reach a verdict, Wilde was brought to trial again and convicted of gross indecency with a sentence of 2 years of incarceration Movement and movement quality Costuming Narratives and sub narratives -Audience reaction § In 1791, France adopted new penal code which no longer criminalized sodomy § France was the first Western European country to decriminalize homosexual acts between consenting adults; homosexuality was legal from 1792 - 1942 § Many 19th - early 20th century French literary figures were publicly homosexual § Oscar Wilde sought refuge in France after his release from prison § The prestige and success of Les Ballets Russes was significantly paradoxical for the era; despite social ideological differences regarding its mainstream appeal, the company and its artists maintained acclaim and applause from both its elite and popular audiences § Diaghilev was a strategist and brilliant publicist § Audiences and patrons of Les Ballets Russes (up until 1914) were elite socialites, artists, also including many women: Misia Edwards (Sert), Marchioness of Ripon, Lady Ottloine Morrell, Lady Juliet Duff, Margot Asquith, Lady Cunard, Coco Chanel § Prominent, openly homosexual and bisexual creative and fan-bases: Jean Cocteau, Compte Robert de Montesquiou, Marcel Proust, Lytton Strachey, Keynes, Cecil Beaton § Suzanne Moore's theory of the female gaze, arguing that "the codification of men via gay discourse enables a female erotic gaze" § Socially acceptable to desire and fetishize the male body under the veil of unattainability via sexuality and the theatrical fourth wall § Exoticism of Russian culture whereas Russia was non-European and regarded as pagan-derivative § Les Ballet Russes was a hybrid of French ballet tradition with Russian folk and orientalist traditions

Juxtapose the treatment of sex, gender, and power in the character roles and performance of: 1) Marius Petipa's "Rose Adagio" and "Bluebird Variation" in The Sleeping Beauty (1890) 2) George Balanchine's "Phlegmatic" duet in The Four Temperaments (1946)

1) -Marius Petipa's technique and aesthetic of classical ballet --simple movements -Development of the "pas de deux" § Athletic evolution of dancing en pointe § Long, complex balancing en pointe necessitated the assistance of a partner dancer § Departure from side-by-side dancing residual of ballet de cour § Instead, the male dancer stood behind his female partner to guide her revolutions and/or maintain her balance § Held at the waist or hand, as well as the development of weight-bearing postures and lifts § Solo variations, offering equality to both participants: § Male variation: strength, athleticism § Female variation: pointe-work and balance §Known to create complimentary of faculties and talents of the dancer at-hand § Expanded the classical ballet vocabulary §Orchestration of masses and soloists as a "dance symphonism" §Massive and intricate spatial designs nostalgic of ballet de cour § Rose Adagio: 16-year old Princess Aurora is supported by 4 suitors § Showcased the virtuosity and strength of the original Aurora, Carlotta Brianza § Metaphor for the test of grace and endurance whilst under stress; a test of free will Bluebird Variation: § L'Oiseau bleu by Madame d'Aulnoy (1697) § Prince who falls in love with Princess Florine, imprisoned in a tower by her wicked stepmother § When the Prince rejects the Princess' stepsister, he is transformed in to a bluebird by her wicked fairy godmother and attempts to court Florine in her tower § Bluebird Pas de deux created as a pas d'action in which Bluebird is depicted as trying to help Florine escape from her tower by teaching her how to fly § Her final jété exit infers that she succeeded in learning how to fly § Subsequent versions include famous shoulder lift § Rumors that Cecchetti may have choreographed the duet § Example of revolutionary, athletic approach to male training and performance -First example of strong male solo variation -Enrico Cecchetti 2) -George Balanchine's technique and aesthetic of neo-classical ballet -neoclassical genre that permitted the absence of narrative, and instead an emphasis on spatial and rhythmic design -Fetishization versus dehumanization, male gaze, and the androgynous ballet body "Balanchine's statements about his idealized 'Woman' openly declare their patriarchal foundations. Familiar themes emerge: Woman is naturally inferior in matters requiring action and imagination. Woman obligingly accepts her lowly place. Woman is an object of beauty and desire. Woman is first in ballet by default, because she is more beautiful than the opposite gender." (9) § Artificial, abstracted representation nostalgic of old-fashioned fantasies and folklore; dehumanized the female § Hyper-heterosexual approach § Manipulation and control § Utilized in choreographies as"[m]ale gaze apparatus" with dominance-submission patterns § Violent and erotic undertones § In the ballet, men act but women are acted upon § Man creates the beauty, that object that he desires; Woman seduces § Daly writes, "[a]n iconographic hangover from the 19th century, the Balanchine ballerina now serves as a powerful but regressive model in a social milieu where women are struggling to claim their own voices." (9) § Daly argues that the ballerina is residual of the Romantic ballerina's elusiveness and the contemporary American woman § She rarely performs intentional touch nor initiates; "[m]etaphorically, she makes no movement of her own" (14) § Also, a significant reminder that the ballet dancer is specifically white, heterosexual American women: fast, precise, impassive -Dancing on My Grace (1986) § Balanchine is directly responsible for popularizing ballet's hyper-thin female body type in the United States § Prominent collarbones, long necks and limbs § One of his own company members was quoted as calling the aesthetic "concentration camp aesthetic" § Encouraged an entire generation of dancers to engage in extreme dieting/starvation, smoking, laxatives, vomiting, and the abuse of diet pills and diuretics; private and group purging habits § Several former ballerinas have come forward to reveal Balanchine's verbal abuse, and those professional actions taken against them if they retaliated § Gelsey Kirkland's Dancing on My Grave (1986) cited Balanchine as tapping her sternum and ribcage during rehearsals, saying "Must see bones...Eat nothing." § Kirkland was 5'4" and 100 lbs.; suffered from anorexia and bulimia, as well as an overall body dysmorphia that led her to several plastic surgeries § Poor nutrition and inadequate calcium leading to hormonal irregularities and stress on musculoskeletal system, oftentimes leading to recurrent stress fractures and early onset osteoporosis § Amongst prestigious pre-professional training programs, the majority of female students suffer from eating disorders that impact their thyroid and hormonal balances, whereas many have irregular or no menstrual cycles § It is estimated that nearly half of teenage female ballet dancers do not consume an adequate amount of calories to ensure normal growth § Admission to the SAB still reflects Balanchinian aesthetic § Auditions for young and 11 - 18 year old pre-professional dancers include a hands-on survey of an applicant's body with an emphasis on "anatomical structure suited to the demands of classical dance: a well-proportioned, flexible, coordinated body, good turn-out, and a high instep." -Black and White Ballets no costuming no set design, just the bodies, music, and space, no narrative Phlegmatic Duet -the 4 ancient greek humors -complex, athletic, and revolutionary in patterning, the female dancer was frequently at the mercy of heavy-handed manipulation -loss of agency for female dancer -the abstraction of the classical arabesque § emphasis on the exploration of her body weight § Passive weight, counterweight, displaced weight, the compression of balanced weight, no weight; shifted spectator's focus onto the woman's support system (i.e. her legs) § Vulnerable to his control and experimentation; testing the boundaries and limitations of her body § Restricted to access and independent experience of the stage space § At its completion, the female body appears lifeless and is literally dragged off of the stage -"presenting the woman" -Partnering motifs and specific exchanges between the male and female dancer in said ballets androgynous figure, stripped of sexuality, erasure of individuality, manipulation + control, male gaze, dominance-submission

L'Apres-midi d'un faune (1912)

Choreographed by Nijinsky 12-minute ballet in 1 scene § Presented in same program as Le Spectre de la rose § Inspired by the poem L'Après-midi d'un faune (1876) by Stéphane Mallarmé, staged as a tableau reminiscent of a Classical Greek frieze § Movement deliberately positioned in profile as if the dancers existed in bas relief § All dancers performed in bare feet, and with internal rotation and extreme, static angles § Overtly erotic subtext ending in a dramatized erotic fantasy sequence: "[T]he Faun holds up the veil, nuzzles in it, then stretching it out on the ground, lowers himself on it, head tucked under, and finally, as muted horns and harp harmonies over a quiet flute chord conclude the choreographic poem, consummates his union with it, taut on the ground, by a convulsive jerk. We are to imagine that this is his first sexual experience." (240) § Questions of desire, lust, territory, sexual discovery, and/or resistance to temptation; narrows the definition of sex to pure instinct "In the case of Faune, where Nijinsky the overt homosexual declared himself a covert heterosexual, the fetishism of the scarf bespoke a deep-rooted ambivalence toward men and women alike. Torn between the power of his lust and the fear of its consequences, Nijinsky opted for the safe haven of self- gratification." (57) § Conversely, the dancers never touch § The faun stands behind the nymph with triangular arms thought to depict a decapitation; not rape but lust and territorial claim on the body § The choreographic geometric design of bodies thought to unsex and abstract § Choreographed gestures outside of classical ballet vocabulary integrated to enhance narrative, including out-stretched arms and thumbs to indicate an erection § The final, stylized orgasm was modified after its debut performance § Calmette, editor of Le Figaro, declared the work as bestial, crude and lecherous; engaged in published debate with Diaghilev who had recruited the support of Rodin § Russian Embassy convinced that Calmette's counter was an attack on the Franco-Russian alliance § Parisian police were summoned to halt the next performance; Calmette obtained an injunction for further performances § Police appeared but declared that Faune would not be forbidden § Since it was the last movement that was objected, it was agreed that there would be slight modification for its continued run § Enticed public interest; show sold out weeks in advance dancers had bare feet erotic subtext--strong statement of what could be presented on stage in context of social reform at the time, sex as an instinct, the dancers never touch

The Four Temperaments (1946)

Choreography by George Balanchine § 30-minute ballet divided into 5 parts; 1 theme and 4 variations § Revival with revisions in 1951 and 1964 § Inspired by the ancient Greek 4 humors: Melancholic, Sanguinic, Phlegmatic, Choleric § Regarded as Balanchine's first "modern ballet" § Its first public sharing was performed in practice clothing and without scenery § Derivative of classical ballet vocabulary but exercised its inversion and deconstruction; far more aggressive than earlier choreographies, especially regarding dancers' anatomies § Thwarted the traditional pas de deux, although maintained Woman as supported by Man § Phlegmatic duet was created on a simple motif: the abstraction of the classical arabesque § Manipulated by male partner with particular emphasis on the exploration of her body weight § Passive weight, counterweight, displaced weight, the compression of balanced weight, no weight; shifted spectator's focus onto the woman's support system (i.e. her legs) § Vulnerable to his control and experimentation; testing the boundaries and limitations of her body § Restricted to access and independent experience of the stage space § At its completion, the female body appears lifeless and is literally dragged off of the stage Balanchine's approach to the male/female partnership emphasized his concept of "presenting the woman" "My presenting the ballerina gives me great pleasure and I find it a very masculine thing to do. It's very masculine to hold a door for a woman or to take her elbow to help her across the street. The male dancer does the same kind of thing. We take the woman's arm and we take her waist, we lift her and present her. It's a social as well as ballet tradition." (Edward Villella,1969) § Critics describe said approach in the Phlegmatic variation as that of "male door-opening ceremony" "[T]he man 'is manipulating [the ballerina] - controlling her...He opens her arm [to the] side and then puts her arm in front. He's doing her port de bras [...] The boy should appear then to be strumming -playing- some sort of harp or cello. The girl is like an instrument.'" (Suki Schorer, 1985) § Emotional response to movement was detached § "If Balanchine did 'glorify Woman,' the question remains: whose idea of Woman is she?"

American Document (1938)

Choreography by Martha Graham Debut of Erick Hawkins, first male dancer to appear in Graham's choreography and overall company "I want the audience to feel no obscurity or doubt at any time about what is happening on the stage. This dance is supposed to bring back to its full meaning what has largely become meaningless in America through familiarity. I refer to such a word as democracy that reminds us of rights we have but may not avail ourselves of. As the line goes in the script of the dance, 'We forget too much.'" Interview with Marcia Minor for New York's Daily Worker on October 7, 1938 § Lincoln Kirstein described the work as a "dance-drama of the first importance" § Many leftist artists became disenchanted with urban life; renewed interest and/or nostalgia for rural America § Earlier works American Provincials (1934) and American Lyric (1937) fed into its development § Gilfond's costumes set in the colors of the American flag, but sparingly; Graham's finale solo was costumed in red, Graham and Hawkins wore white in their duet, and the all-female ensemble wore blue outfits for the opening scene § Based on controversial minstrel show formula, starting with a "walk around" reminiscent of a cakewalk dance, and concluding in a "dramatic afterpiece" which would oftentimes be a parody or farce § Denied any intentions to follow the formula, but it was obvious to audiences of the era § Main body of the work was divided into 4 episodes: "First Episode: Declaration" depicting the arrival of European settlers; "Second Episode: Occupation" referring to settlement of the Great Plains and impact on native populations; "Third Episode: The Puritan;" "Fourth Episode: Emancipation" in reference to the history of African American slavery. § Graham was notoriously fascinated by the traditions of Native Americans, having made several trips to the southwest for observation § Yet, her research resulted in cultural appropriation of religious themes and dress, and its restaging on white, privileged bodies tries to give voice to different perspectives, but really it's her voice

The Bauhaus and Harlem Renaissance were cultural, responsive by-products of WWI. Discuss similarities and differences between the resulting movements in Europe versus the United States.

Consider examples of community, collaboration, and inter-discipline -Bauhaus--evolving stagecraft to be apart of the wholistic performance Emphasis on the overall masses and/or marginalized masses versus the individual and/or elite -Bauhaus- Importance of designing for mass production for mass society rather than the individual elite Emergence of amateur [without formal training] artists as leading professionals -§ Student body drew from a diverse range of social and educational backgrounds; emphasis on access and equity -Bauhaus- abstracted the body with geometrical costumes, pedestrian actions, didn't need a background in any of the arts they were learning -The self-taught tap dancer Weimar Republic- Germany in massive debt after WWI, extremist groups -Elimination of censorship under its new, liberal Weimar Republic § Cultural recovery in divided and impoverished postwar Germany The Bauhaus -a utopian craft guild that sought to combine architecture, sculpture, and painting into a single, unified medium of creative expression, and "to create a new guild of craftsmen, without the class distinctions which raise an arrogant barrier between craftsman and artist" -o reimagine the material world to reflect the unity of all the arts, or Gesamtkunstwerk Bauhaus Stage Workshop- no previous training needed -Students from all departments were encouraged to participate § Students were not required to have a background or other relative qualifications to enroll other than an interest in performance § Emphasis on collaborative theory and practice New Objectivity -(matter of factness, functionality, and shift away from emotion) § Students attended Bauhaus to be "cured of Expressionism" Oskar Schlemmer- he wasn't a trained dancer, fought in WWI--intersectional nature of (1) formal, (2) biological, (3) philosophical body in performance Gesture Dance (1926 - 1927) § Its creative process was aimed at examining his own abstract theories of the intellectual versus the emotional § Prepared a notation system that set the linear paths of motion and the forward movement of the dancers § Following said directions, 3 performers dressed in primary colors (red, yellow, blue) executed a complex set choreographed geometric gestures inspired by pedestrian and mundane actions such as "pointed sneezing, broad laughing and soft listening" § Masked and padded nature of the performer's costuming mocked social conventions and authorities of the time § Hyperbolized, animated plastic art of the human body and behavior Triadisches Ballett (Triadic Ballet) (1922)- inspired in part by observations and personal experiences of WWI, abstraction of the human body, different moods, reflective of industrial and technological movement--use in war The Great Migration -movement of African Americans north Race Riots and Red Summer of 1919 -high racial tensions after WWI -housing and job competition between new migrants and returning veterans -violent riots The Harlem Renaissance -artistic explosion in Harlem, influenced new identity of African Americans, means of attaining social equality. music, literature, art, dance Jazz music and jazz club culture -improvisational style, call and response -dance with music, dance clubs, nightlife culture -there became white only jazz clubs, spread to a commercial audience--not just high art like Bauhaus The career development of Bill "Bojangles" Robinson and The Nicholas Brothers -Robinson had vaudeville act without blackface, solo act, interracial performance, and headlined a Broadway production, stair dance, was in 14 feature films -he played restricted characters, one dimensional--but representation was rare -Nicholas Brothers were self taught, more full bodied, athletic performances, performed at Cotton Club, in films, and on broadway Peak of tap and jazz tap dance -contemporary tap dance is a confluence of different ethnic dance traditions that concentrate on the musicality of percussive footwork -the shuffle--West African

Jean-Baptiste Lande

Development of a state sponsored ballet school in St. Petersburg, eventually named the Imperial Theater School § In operation before the establishment of the Imperial Theaters § Originated for the purpose of Imperial Cadet Corps § Modeled German and French military and dance training, alike § In 1734, _______ hired to teach young cadets § Empress Anna (r. 1730 - 1740) ordered the appointment of _______ as dancing master in the military academy she established for her sons § Impressed by his work, Anna appointed him to direct an additional, formal dance school, eventually named the Imperial Ballet School § Established in 1738, _____'s tutelage began with a class of 24 children - all sons and daughters of palace servants § Initial classes were held in vacant rooms on the top floor of the Tsar's Winter Palace in St. Petersburg § His curriculum was founded on older, Western traditions fusing ballet and fencing § Despite the European origins of said approach, Russian training would become - and is still characterized - for its militaristic style and discipline

Peter the Great (1672 - 1725, r. 1721 - 1725)

First ruler of Russia to self-proclaim title of "emperor" § Grandson of Mikhail Romanov HOUSE OF ROMANOV: second [and last] dynasty to rule Russia, starting with the reign of Mikhail Romanov in 1613, spanning 3 centuries until the RussianRevolution in 1917 § Prior to reign, Russian throne maintained a close relationship to the Russian Orthodox Church § Isolationism; little influence from Reformation, Renaissance, and The Enlightenment compared to Western Europe § No universities § No secular literary nor cultural arts § Outside of religious music, musical instruments and dance deemed sinful; dancing was regarded as an act of peasantry and there was no court ballet § Independently pursued an education in various foreign languages, fencing, and dance § Constructed the city of St. Petersburg in European style, relocating Russia's capital city for more than 200 years § Intending to "'open a window' onto the West" and to radically reform Russian society in European image § Idolized Louis XIV § Conceived and modeled the Peterhof Palace after Versailles, including a measured match of its gardens and vistas § Fascination with Western fashion § Instigated a clean-shaven fashion in Russia § Muscovite culture believed beards to be godly [whereas God was bearded and demons were clean-shaven] § Mandated Western dress code amongst his nobility, specifically prohibiting beards § Prompted state inspections on beards, involving fines and an eventual tax on those that failed to conform § Subordinated the Church § Although he never learned the French language, he insisted his court to learn and speak French § He arranged to marry his children with European nobility § When his first wife opposed modernization, he banished her to a monastery and married a Lithuanian peasant girl who reformed into what he believed to be the epitome of elegance and modern fashion; crowned Empress of Russia, a.k.a. Catherine I !!!No ballet in Russia prior to him!!!! Westernization of Russia, obsessed with Louis the 14th

Le Spectre de la Rose (1911)

Michel Fokine (1880-1942) § Father of the "new ballet" in Les Ballets Russes from 1909 - 1912 § First resident choreographer § Predominant transitional figure between 19th century classicalism and 20th century modernism in professional dance § Exceptional emphasis musicality and use of space; climatic § Particular use of diagonals to create the illusion of dominating the stage § Paired with Nijinsky's focus on the body; introspective § It was thought that "Russian male dancers were less trained by civilization and more in touch with 'natural' masculinity than their western contemporaries." (82) § Choreographic drama in 1 scene § Adaptation of verse by Théophile Gautier; performative personification of a young girl's souvenir rose from her first ball § Emblematic pink rose costume § Nijinsky had to be stitched into his costume for every show due to its form-fitting nature, with its silk flower petals needing to be touched up with a curling iron prior to each run § The dance is said to have been completed in 4 rehearsals, and was choreographed to showcase Nijinsky's unique talents and persona § Famous leap through windows, with the height of the leap being an illusion § Behind the set, 4 men were instructed to catch Nijinsky mid-air § Fokine intentionally abandoned the port de bras of classical ballet, and instead choreographed his own subtle "tendril-like" movements for the arms and fingers § Masculine power of the lower body paired with feminine delicacy of the upper body § Mirrored, or rather flipped, narrative and gendered character form of iconic Romantic ballet, La Sylphide (1832); epitome of the glorified and romanticized effeminate, and reflective of the fetishizing of Woman in 19th century ballet and its subsequent culture he is the personification of a rose a girl gets from her first ball, as a man, wears a pink unitard & wore makeup to portray female bone structure

Stormy Weather (1943)

Musical film released by 20th Century Fox with an entirely African American cast § Also in 1943, MGM released Cabin in the Sky § Considered a rare cinematic platform for African American performers of the era to perform in leading roles of a mainstream Hollywood production § 78 minutes featuring 20 musical acts § Its narrative was loosely based on the life and career of Bill "Bojangles" Robinson, who was featured as said protagonist § "Bill Williamson" is a talented dancer returning home after fighting WWI and is pursues a career as a performer § "Selina Rogers" is a beautiful singer and Willamson's love interest (starring Lena Horne) § The character of Selina was invented for the film whereas Robinson did not have a romance of the sort § Other notable performers casted in the film included Ada Brown, Cab Calloway, Katherine Dunham, Fats Waller, F.E. Miller, and the Nicholas Brothers § Stormy Weather provided Robinson with his first and only leading role in a Hollywood production § It was his final film § During its release, the NAACP lobbied for more positive African American roles in Hollywood film § Stormy Weather presented a misleading utopian depiction of the African American experience § Romanization of African American life via 1-dimensional characters § The influence and input of the African American experience was inhibited in production § Director Stone and his creative team were exclusively white § Despite issues of segregation at that time, white performers nor the impact of white society is never seen or even referenced in the film § Residual elements of minstrelsy § Even included a cakewalk performance that included flower headdresses reminiscent of "Little Black Sambo" and its misrepresentation of African American males § Stormy Weather was also seen as WWII propaganda to encourage nationalism amongst black audiences § In the midst of WWII, government sought to increase enlistment § But why enlist to fight the Nazis [sharing many similarities with the KKK] when little was being done to end racial terrorism at home? § Why risk another wave of race riots targeting the African American community? § The film referenced pro-military engagement with a WWI victory party and a show for WWII soldiers § Celebratory images of African Americans contributing to war efforts bookend the film § Cab Calloway presents his uniformed son § By specifically excluding the presence of white society [and subsequently, white racism], the film attempts to create a discourse of patriotism and nationalism for its target audience - the segregated black community "Black artists perform images of international travel, U.S. victory, and othering representations to mediate domestic racism and establish their own domestic inclusion, racial integrity, and national belonging." (Batiste, 230) "As war managers sought to maintain the tenuous balance among a diverse range of interests, the promotion of popular entertainers, athletes, and military heroes figured heavily in plans for raising black morale." (Durkin, 103) § It's complicated...while the film presents episodes of minstrelsy and primitivism, there is also the modernist framing of the black artist, and therefore, a hopefulness of being able to present personal narrative - or more importantly, authorship § However, self-representation is challenged by [white[ cultural imagery and imposed stereotypes § Overall focus on social conformity leads to an "emasculated minstrel rather than a heroic male lead." (Durkin, 103) "Fundamentally, the film's omission of white performers denies Robinson an opportunity for shared social and cultural status with white stars and underscores an enduring cultural denial of the injustices of segregation, while simultaneously providing audiences with nothing with which to subjugate and thus to devalue its African American performers, and thus positioning Robinson's performance as a potential site of identification for black audiences." (Durkin, 104)

The Sleeping Beauty (1890)

Plot: Based on Charles Perrault's [first printed] 1528 fairytale, La Belle au bois dormant (The Sleeping Beauty) in combination with the Brothers Grimm 1697 variation, Little Briar Rose. At her christening, Princess Aurora is cursed by the wicked fairy, Carabosse. The royal family is threatened, for she will prick her finger on a spindle and die. The benevolent Lilac Fairy appears and reassures that she will not die; instead, she -along with the royal family- will fall into an enchanted sleep for 100 years until being awoken by a kiss from a Prince. She warns that the curse will take effect on the Princess' 16th birthday. Upon fruition, Petipa's production included wedding guests from other fictional stories written by Perrault, including Puss-in-Boots, Little Red Riding Hood, Cinderella, Ricky the Tuft, Bluebeard, Donkeyskin, and Hop-O'-My Thumb, as well as other fairy tale characters such as Beauty and the Beast, Goldilocks, the White Cat, Princess Florine and the Bluebird. § Lilac Fairy character derives from the Russian custom/belief that placing a newborn child's cradle beneath a lilac tree brings good fortune and wisdom § Sarabande scene no longer incorporated in subsequent productions: duet variations for dancers exhibiting stereotypes of Roman, Persian, Indian, § Feared that this new genre, ballet-féerie, might be ill-received and potentially damage the reputation of ballet amongst its upper class audiences. Rather, the best supported ballets of that era were oftentimes engaged in grave dramatic plots and character development. § The Sleeping Beauty was successful amongst balletomanes of St. Petersburg; second most popular ballet in the Imperial Ballet repertory by the turn of the 20th century § Also catered to a new middle class audience resultant of industrialization § Some critics regarded The Sleeping Beauty as the first truly Russian ballet, "[i]t was an impressive act of cultural absorption: this was no longer Russians imitating the French but instead a pitch-perfect summation of the rules and forms that had shaped the Russian court since Peter the Great" § Alexander III (r. 1881 - 1894): nationalist agenda and reforms for Imperial Theaters (increased wages), in defense of autocracy § The Garland Waltz in Act I was such a incredible success at its premiere performance that Petipa was called onto the stage to take a bow mid-production Bluebird Variation and Rose Adagio MORAL THEME: the disrespect or breach of royal courtesy ["even to such nasty adversaries as wicked fairies"] is capable, and therefore responsible, for chaos. Said chaos opposes the orderly flow of tradition and its supposed security.

Similarly, dance, and its production, was used as propaganda in WWII, both in Europe and the U.S.. Discuss similarities and differences between the production of the 1936 Summer Olympic Games and Stormy Weather (1943).

Racism, racial hygiene, racial inheritance, and racial stereotyping in social and political [legislative] contexts -racial hygiene influenced dance-- Isadora Duncan removed Jews from her company -Wagner put art into the context of these politics Joseph Goebbels -dismantled the arts, took away teaching positions and jobs and gave to those who might have no experience, in charge of propaganda, censorship of arts not meeting nazi standard The Degenerate Arts Exhibition § Presented 650 works of art confiscated from various German museums and was deliberately staged as an inverse to the Great German Art Exhibition (1937 - 1944) § Selected from 5,238 works that were confiscated within a 2-week raid § Degenerate works were thought to display decadence, mental illness, "weakness of character" or "racial impurity" § On July 18, 1937, Hitler delivered a speech to declare "merciless war" on cultural degeneracy and disintegration § Degenerate art would "insult German feeling, or destroy or confuse natural form or simply reveal an absence of adequate manual or artistic skill" § Hitler denounced modern art and its artists as "incompetents, cheats and madmen," and that there would be no modernist experimentation in the Reich § It is estimated that 1 million people attended the art exhibition during its first 6 weeks § Goebbels conceived the idea of a separate exhibition targeting works from the Weimar era, which he called "the era of decay" so that "the people can see and understand" § Works from several Bauhaus artists and lineage were confiscated and exploited § The exhibition was organized amongst 3 rooms: (1) works demeaning of religion; (2) works by Jewish artists (the irony being that only 6 of the 112 artists included were Jewish); (3) works deemed insulting to women, soldiers, and farmers of Germany -this pinned the artist against the common mass The Reich Theater Chamber- investigated theaters, state policies for dancers, most German dancers did support Hitler, but it is debated whether they truly believed the policies or were doing it to survive Eurhythmics and national fitness programs -the import of German physical fitness to (1) preparation for motherhood, (2) self-defense, (3) raising healthy citizens Ausdruckstanz- was appropriated as German national dance, free dance" § Emphasis on spatial exploration Rudolf von Laban and the movement choir -modern industrial society divided man against himself, and that dance would restore man and the natural bonds of community -The dancer in a movement choir discovers an awakened sense of movement in his inner being by representing himself not as an individual but as part of a greater living group. -were amateur lay dancers -emblem of nationalism -simple movements performed in unison, a design pattern § Essentially, a movement choir could recuperate a fragmented, damaged society 1936 Summer Olympic Games opening ceremony; torch relay and choreographies -to equate Germany with the ancient Greek empire § Originally, Laban was appointed as director of dance contributions for the opening ceremony § Responsible for conceiving and organizing all choreographies -§ All dances presented were to be created according to Laban's principles of the movement choir and nationalist community § Large movement choir consisting mostly of amateurs from various German cities - a deliberate choice to emphasize the Aryan agenda and Aryan beauty § After rehearsing for an entire year, Goebbels was invited to an informal performance only 5 weeks prior to the Olympics § Goebbels was disgusted, calling it a "free adaptation of Nietzsche, badly done and artificial work," at first making edits and then eliminating the entire piece as per Hitler's orders that the Olympic Games were "too important to include anything intellectual" § Explicit gendered roles that reflected National-Socialist ideals and discipline § Wigman's section signified the finale and was in the expressive tradition of Ausdruckstanz § Consisting mostly of arm movements and gestures as the women created geometric designs either standing, kneeling, or lying down § Section ended with dancers lying down to symbolize sacrifice Red Summer of 1919 Race and war recruitment (WWI versus WWII) -in WWI many African Americans enlisted -very segregated, discrimination -they hoped for elimination of discrimination after the war, to gain social and political legislation towards equality and equality after national service--greater patriotism with a larger social goal -Harlem Hellfighters, not segregated when fighting in France, celebrated in community upon return home American vaudeville, minstrelsy, and blackface; -entertainment derogatory towards African Americans -class act tuxedo costumes -a weapon against the new identity of the black patriot "Two Colored Rule" Deliberate war references in Stormy Weather (1943) -meaning black performers were forbidden to perform solo, and as a result, the majority of vaudeville acts featuring black performers were duets between dancers and/or musicians -Robinson was the first to break the two colored rule --Stormy Weather plot--Bill Williamson returns home from WWI and tries to make it as a performer, 1-dimensional characters -a misleading utopian depiction of African American life, no reference to white people, all black cast, white director and crew, no reference to current socio-political climate -propaganda to encourage nationalism among black audiences, to encourage black enlistment in WWII § Celebratory images of African Americans contributing to war efforts bookend the film -elements of minstrelsy in film -denial of injustices of segregation Bill "Bojangles" Robinson as "Bill Williamson" ("Sand Dance," "Drum Dance") "SAND DANCE" § Williamson is shown on a steamboat, dressed in rags and performing with a traveling show § Residual of minstrelsy; actors referred to as "minstrel boys" § Crude caricatures of all actors in scene § His spontaneous performance is reference to racial stereotypes of "innate musicality" and "innate talent" § Debate over Williamson's lines, in which he refers to his "educated feet" and "I practice all the time" § Is he self-deprecating or standing up for his craft? "DRUM DANCE" § Heavy-handed exploitation of performers as the "exotic" and/or "primitive" § Williamson is shirtless with war paint, amongst a chorus of black drummers costumed the same § Tap dances on top of drum cylinders § Curiously, his dance here is more upright and controlled in a raised-heel technique, as if to provide a contrast or social subversion of "cultural refinement" § Was his performance indicative of popular cultural imagery versus self-representation? § The NAACP condemned Stormy Weather with particular outrage for its primitive stereotyping in said scene

Marius Petipa (1818 - 1910)

Worked at Imperial Theatres, Imperial Ballet, created a Russian style § Born in Marseille, France to Victorine Grasseau (tragic actress and instructor of drama) and Jean Antoine Petipa (renowned ballet master and pedagogue) § Jean began training Marius at 7 years old § In 1827, Marius performed in his first ballet as a savoyard in Jean's staging of Pierre Gardel's La Dansomani at the Théâtre de la Monnaie in Brussels § Marius completed his ballet training under Auguste Vestris at the Grand Théâtre de Bordeaux § In 1838, he appointed a premier danseur to Ballet de Nantes in Nantes, France § There, he began to experiment with choreographing 1-act ballets and divertissements § In 1839, Marius accompanied his father on tour to the United States § First official ballet performance in New York City § Unsuccessful reception by unfamiliar American audiences § Petipa was uninterested in returning to Nantes, and seduced a fellow female passenger so that he could stow away in her cabin and reroute his travel to Paris § Participated in performances at the Paris Opéra where brother Lucien Petipa worked as Premier danseur § In 1841, he returned to Bordeaux as a premier danseur with the Grand Théâtre de Bordeaux § Performed principal roles, as well as staging his own original full-length ballets § In 1843 - 1846, Petipa took a position as premier danseur at the King's Theater in Madrid, Spain § Exposed to traditional Spanish dance, as well as Spanish folklore themes § In 1846, he engaged in an affair with the wife of the Marquis de Chateaubriand of the French Embassy § Upon learning of the affair, the Marquis challenged Petipa to a duel, prompting Petipa to quickly leave Spain § Returned to Paris for a short time, only to engage in a second affair and be met with yet another duel challenge § Lucien Petipa inquired upon positions available in Russia on behalf of his brother § In 1847, Petipa accepted the position of premier danseur to the Imperial Theaters at 29 years old § Seeking strong male lead to partner prima ballerina Yelena Andreyanova § For his debut, director of the Imperial Theatres assigned Petipa and Ballet Master Pierre-Frédéric Malevergne to create the first Russian production of Paquita § Starting in 1842, the departure of prima ballerina Marie Taglioni from the Imperial Ballet left the company in a decline of popularity § Paquita and Satanella successfully reinvigorated audiences § Petipa assisted Perrot in staging revival works, including Giselle (1850), Le Corsaire (1858) § Petipa anticipated succeeding his position, although it was given to Arthur Saint-Léon and instigated their professional rivalry § In 1855 - 1861, prima ballerina Carolina Rosati worked as a guest artist with the Imperial Theaters § Her contract stipulated that she would be given a benefit performance in a new production before retirement § Rosati requested this, but the theater initially refused claiming that there were not enough funds § Rosati persisted and enlisted Petipa, who reminded the theater of their contractual obligation § Petipa was propositioned: could he produce a new full-length grand ballet to feature Rosati before retirement - in 6 weeks? § La Fille de Pharaon (The Pharaoh's Daughter) (1862) § Petipa performed alongside Rosati; his final role as a dancer before being promoted to Second Ballet Master § Petipa served as First Ballet Master and principal choreographer of the Imperial Theaters from 1871 - 1903 § Choreographed over 50 ballets § Surviving works range to include original productions to inspired and/or reconstructed variations: The Pharaoh's Daughter (1862), Don Quixote (1869), La Bayadère (1877), The Sleeping Beauty (1890), The Nutcracker (1892), Raymonda (1898) § Petipa revived a series of celebrated works originally staged by predecessors, many of which would be celebrated as the definitive of editions of such productions: Le Corsaire (1850), Giselle (1858), La Esmeralda (1886), Coppélia (1884), La Fille Mal Gardée (1885), Swan Lake (1895) § Excerpted variations have survived as independent works § Successfully married the techniques, and what was considered to be of strong quality, of both French and Italian ballet traditions in the creation of a new definitive style: Russian § Met with the continuous challenge of responding to waves of nationalism versus social reform; at the mercy of the state § In 1882, repeal on the prohibition of private theaters § The first time, Imperial Theaters were left to compete for the audiences § Touring European companies as added competition

Ausdruckstanz

meaning "dance of expression" § Expressionist dance that dominated German concert stages and opera houses § Functioned in retaliation to the narrative, spectacular ballet of the 19th century § Large technical support, organization, and budget § Woman was choreographed § Challenged sex and gender roles previously maintained in the ballet tradition § Solo form that oftentimes involved to duel professional role as choreographed and/or manager § Minimalistic

"Danse Sauvage"

nlywearingafeatherskirt § In1926,shemodifiedhercostumeinarenditionofDanseSauvageinLaFolieduJouralsoatFoliesBergère § Costumeconsistedonlyofaskirtmadeof16artificialbananas § Comic-eroticperformanceestablishedalong-lastingandiconicperformancepersona § ContinuedrenditioninUnVentdeFolie(1927) § ImmediatesensationamongstmainstreamaudiencesinParis,aswellasEuropeanculturalfiguressuchasPabloPicasso,ErnestHemingway,andE.E.Cummings § Dubbedthe"BlackPearl,""BlackVenus,""BronzeVenus,"and"CreoleGoddess" § Itissaidthatshereceivedmorethan1,000marriageproposals § Baker'sperformancepersonacanberegardedassymbolicoftheJazzAgeanditsunderliningpoliticaltensions § Bakerwasportrayed,andembraced,primitivismonthetheatricalstage § For[primarilywhite]audiences,shewastheepitomeofthe"exotic;"non-white,non-Europeannoveltyand"innatetalent" § Exploitationandcapitalizationonblackfemaleothering § Symptomofcolonialist,masculinistsocialandpoliticalcontextoftheera § HercareercoincidedwiththeExpositiondesArtsDécoratifs(a.k.aArtDeco)movementandarenewedinterestinnon-Westernformsofart § Baker'spersonalauthorshipofherstagepersonawasfracturedbyscreenwriters,directors,media,andtheculturalmilieuthatshapedaudienceperception § W.E.B.DuBois'"double-consciousness,"orseeingoneselfthroughtheeyesofothers "In Baker's case, these eyes were contemptuous, envious, and fascinated...Baker was singular but she contained multitudes." (Francis, 202 - 203) § Herracialother-nessalsocontainedauniqueelementof"peerlessness"wherebyshewasneitherCaribbean,African,American,norParisian,butratheranambiguousamalgamation § Celebritywasbothhyperracializedandsexualized,boundariesoftentimesdisrespectedinthepress § ReceptionsimilartothehistoryofSarahBaartman,or"HottentotVenus" § Emphasisonheterosexualdesireofaudiencesdespitebeingopenlybisexual § DanyGérardoftheParisMusic-Hall(1933)isrememberedforaskingBaker,"Doyoupreferwhitemenorblackmenaslovers?" "Baker's reception history in France is characterized by two features: collapse of person and person as well as conflation of gossip and ethnography." (Francis, 204)

1936 Summer Olympic Games

torch relay was the very first of its kind § Idea organized and implemented by the Nazi Party under the guidance of Goebbels § Modern attempt at the historic relay of the flame to the Olympic venue; to equate Germany with the ancient Greek empire § Moreover, Hitler believed said event would illustrate classical Greece as an Aryan ancestor to the modern German Reich § Starting in 1933, Hitler had imposed an Aryan-only policy for all athletic clubs in Germany § Leni Riefenstahl filmed the relay for the 1938 award-winning and controversial Olympia § Event was ratified by the International Olympic Committee and has performed at all Olympic games since § On July 1936, the Olympic Flame was lit in Greece and then continued to travel through Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Hungary, Austria, Czechoslovakia, and finally Germany § All said countries would be dominated by the Nazi regime in WWII § The torch was carried via relay over 3,187 kilometers by 3,331 runner in a total of 12 days and 11 nights until arriving in Berlin § 2 urns with large swastika flags positioned in the center of Berlin were lit by the final runner, Siegfried Eifrig, on August 1, 1936 § Originally, Laban was appointed as director of dance contributions for the opening ceremony § Responsible for conceiving and organizing all choreographies § Initial plan centered on famous artists of the era § In an effort to make the event more internationally appealing, he even invited Martha Graham [though she declined realizing the implications of being involved with the Nazi party] § Refocused on German artists, selecting Mary Wigman, Gret Palucca, and Haralad Kreutzberg § All dances presented were to be created according to Laban's principles of the movement choir and nationalist community § Also, Laban choreographed a separate work for the opening ceremony, entitled Vom Tauwind undder neuen Freude (Of the warm wind and the new joy) § Large movement choir consisting mostly of amateurs from various German cities - a deliberate choice to emphasize the Aryan agenda and Aryan beauty § After rehearsing for an entire year, Goebbels was invited to an informal performance only 5 weeks prior to the Olympics § Goebbels was disgusted, calling it a "free adaptation of Nietzsche, badly done and artificial work," at first making edits and then eliminating the entire piece as per Hitler's orders that the Olympic Games were "too important to include anything intellectual" § The event presented the choreographies of the other enlisted artists and under the unifying title Olympic Youth § Event was wholly propagandist, incorporating symbols that referred to the Nazi Party § First section of the ceremony was referred to as Kindliches Spiel (Children at Play) in which the Olympic bell was carried into the stadium as if "summoning the youth of the world" § 1,600 boys and girls ranging from 10 to 12 years old entered the stadium through the marathon gate § The girls were dressed in white while the boys were dressed in the colors of the Olympic rings § The boys filled the center of the area while the girls created circular formations around them § Shortly after, an additional 1,500 dancers entered the arena to create a rectangle at their periphery § Explicit gendered roles that reflected National-Socialist ideals and discipline § The young girls engaged in skipping rope and games, while the young boys imitated military-like movements § Described as an "opening and closing of fresh flower-buds" by the Dortmund Newspaper § Final formation aimed to resemble the Olympic Flag § In its second section, the children exited the arena and 2,300 girls ranging from 14 to 18 years old, and dressed in salmon pink, entered on lighting cue § Moved in a collective spiraling line reminiscent of Ausdruckstanz and ancient Greek ritual § Separated and formed 3 small rings in the center of the arena to frame Palucca's solo performance § Single leader supported by the obedient masses § At the completion of Palucca's solo, the female choir exited to make room for 2,500 young boys serving as flag bearers § Lit small fires symbolic of military campfires, eventually corralling around them to sing hymns of the various countries § Followed by an additional 60 male dancers carrying weapons so as to engage in a choreographed battle § The fourth section was ushered in by an additional 80 female dancers to grieve the fallen soldiers § Wigman's section signified the finale and was in the expressive tradition of Ausdruckstanz § Consisting mostly of arm movements and gestures as the women created geometric designs either standing, kneeling, or lying down § Section ended with dancers lying down to symbolize sacrifice § To revive the energetic spirit of its audience, Beethoven's 9th Symphony was played on loudspeakers and all dancers -totaling almost 10,000 performers- reentered § Unison glorification of the Führer

The Bauhaus (1919 - 1933)

was a German art school that redefined fine and applied arts, as well as methods of creative process and arts education § Radial mission for its time: to reimagine the material world to reflect the unity of all the arts, or Gesamtkunstwerk § The Proclamation of the Bauhaus (1919) described a utopian craft guild that sought to combine architecture, sculpture, and painting into a single, unified medium of creative expression, and "to create a new guild of craftsmen, without the class distinctions which raise an arrogant barrier between craftsman and artist" § Slogan: "Art into Industry" § Importance of designing for mass production for mass society rather than the individual elite § Bauhaus style is known as International Style; harmony of function and design, utility and beauty § Aesthetics that emerged from the Bauhaus -its faculty and student body- were profoundly influential on the inception of modern design, architecture, and arts § Founded by German architect Walter Gropius in Weimar, Germany in April 1919 § Gropius' Bauhaus manifesto sought to establish a "cathedral of Socialism" § WWI and the fall of the German monarchy § Elimination of censorship under its new, liberal Weimar Republic § Cultural recovery in divided and impoverished postwar Germany § The Bauhaus embraced New Objectivity (matter of factness, functionality, and shift away from emotion) § Students attended Bauhaus to be "cured of Expressionism" § Students enrolled in an immersive, interdisciplinary curriculum § Student body drew from a diverse range of social and educational backgrounds; emphasis on access and equity § 6-month preliminary course focused on materials and color theory § Followed by 3 years of specialized workshops such as metalworking, cabinetmaking, weaving, pottery, typography, and wall painting § In 1925, Bauhaus moved from Weimar to Dessau, where Gropius designed a new school campus § His building design contained features that later became hallmarks of modernist architecture, including streel-frame construction, a glass curtain wall, and an asymmetrical pinwheel plan § Emphasis on functionality and transparency § No central view § Studio building also housed student body and junior faculty § In 1928, Gropius handed directorship over to architect Hannes Meyer § In 1930, Meyer was replaced by architect Ludwig van der Rohe, partially due to the pressures from an increasingly right-wing government § Bauhaus was relocated to Berlin, where it operated on a lesser scale and was ultimately closed by the Nazi regime; feared as a center and source of communist intellectualism § Many of its key artists and faculty emigrated to the United States during WWII § In 1972, the Dessau campus was restored and awarded UNESCO World Heritage status §Bauhaus Stage Workshop Originally under the direction of painter and dramatist Lothar Schreyer until reappointed to Oskar Schlemmer in 1923 Gropius recognized the similarities -and potential- of architectural design and stagecraft § Established a stage workshop that would deconstruct and illuminate methods of stage work § The course was intended to examine the "mechanical and organic body" within the context of space, movement, form, color, light, and sound § Students from all departments were encouraged to participate § Students were not required to have a background or other relative qualifications to enroll other than an interest in performance § Emphasis on collaborative theory and practice § The program advocated against "antiquated forms" No actual theater existed at the school during while located in Weimar § Schlemmer and students developed performances in the studio During the construction of the Bauhaus campus on Dessau, Gropius included a simple, elevated stage in a cube-like auditorium § Its design deliberately accommodated the use and possibility for avant-garde stage structures § It could be opened in two directions; toward the auditorium or the cafeteria § Reconsidered the spatial relationship between the stage and its audience § Considered simply efficient, and faculty and students began to draft designs of their own version of the ideal stage as based on the needs of the experimental work that was being produced Mechanical Stage (1925) by Joost Schmidt designed for Bauhaus § Multi-purpose structure including 3 stages that were arranged one behind the other: 12 x 12, 6 x 12, 12 x 8 meters, plus a stage flown above center stage § First stage protruded into the house permitting all action to be viewed from 3 sides § Second stage malleable in height, depth, and sides § Third "picture frame" § "Backstage activities" could be made visible to the audience § Presented a "new psychic, optical and acoustical relationship" in the theater §New use of color lighting projection and film as stage backdrop

Agrippina Vaganova (1879 - 1951)

§ After graduating from the Imperial School of Ballet in St. Petersburg in 1897, she danced with the school's affiliated professional company, the Imperial Russian Ballet § In 1916, she retired to pursue teaching and returned to the Imperial Ballet School in 1921 § During the following 30 years, she taught at the Imperial Ballet School and developed a ballet technique that fused elements of French, Italian, and Russian ballet techniques, as well as a training method to teach her ______ Technique § Her style led to further developments of lower back strength and mobility, upper body and arm strength, and an overall increase in flexibility and athletic endurance for its practitioners § In 1934, she wrote Fundamentals of the Classical Dance, followed by The Foundation for Dance in 1948 § Students must be at least 11 years old to audition: aptitude, anatomical potential, artistic talent § Established a new curriculum: 8-year program that included dance training, grammar school education, French language, and piano § If successful, students would be offered a contract with the Imperial Russian Ballet/Mariisnky Ballet § In 1957, the Imperial Ballet School was renamed the ______ Academy of Russian Ballet in honor of her

Triadisches Ballett (Triadic Ballet) (1922)

§ Emergence of the "mechanical ballet" not unlike 'Man and Machine' § Schlemmer emphasized the "object" quality of the dancers intending to show "mechanical effort" § Puppets and mechanically operated figures, masks, and costumes were frequently used in Bauhaus performances § Performed over a 10-year period including international touring across Europe becoming the most widely performed avant-garde dance of the era § Exemplary of Bauhaus ethos and "contained a virtual encyclopedia of Schlemmer's performance propositions" § Metaphysical dance production inspired in part by observations and personal experiences of WWI, layered with Arnold Schoenberg's Pierrot Lunaire (1912) § 3 groups of 7 poems: (1) love, sex, and religion; (2) violence, crime, and blasphemy; (3) return to home and confronting the past § Maintained thematic trinity: 3 dancers, 3 parts of the symphonic architectonic composition § All 3 dancers wore 18 costumes in 12 dances § Costumes were created first to fully compose each "figurine," followed by the music and finally the dance § Each act was demarcated by a different color and mood: (1) lemon yellow as comedic burlesque; (2) pink as ceremonial air; (3) black as mystical fantasy § In creation, Schlemmer worked with pedestrian-like movements first, and then made pragmatic attempts for virtuosic movements with costume § Statement on artifice; the human body could be so easily abstracted and stylized § Costume directly reflected in the creation of his "figurines" consisting of simple cylinder, sphere, cone, and spiral forms § Materials were intended to reflect the industrial and technological movement of the time, and even more explicitly, their artificial members composed of materials used in surgery and in military/war § The modern world was driven by (1) the mechanical (i.e. man as the machine and body as mechanism) and primordial impulse (creative and emotional urge) § Though originally lasting several hours, the work was abbreviated under the title Das triadische Ballett and produced as a 30-minute 35mm color film in 1970

Kurt Joos (1901 - 1979)

§ German ballet dancer and choreographer credited with the creation of Tanztheater § Student of Laban and Ausdruckstanz § Reintroduced narrative and character to modern dance, as well as employing Labanotation § "Sharply-observed social caricature" (Manning, 222) § Established Die Neue Tanzbühne, the company under which he produced his most notable works § The Green Table (1932) § In 1933, he went into exile after the Nazi Party demanded he dismiss the Jewish members of his company § He refused, seeking refuge in the Netherlands and finally in the United Kingdom

Imperial Russian Ballet (est. 1740)

§ Imperial Ballet School was dependent on the Ministry of the Imperial Court § The purpose of the school was to groom and develop Russia's first professional dance company, eventually to be named the Imperial Russian Ballet, predecessor of the Mariinsky Ballet § In an effort to compete with pre-existing European ballet companies, nearly all original faculty and ballet masters were hired out of Western Europe: Charles-Louis Didelot, Jules Perrot, Marius Petipa, Arthur Saint-Léon § Hired prominent European guest artists: Enrico Cecchetti, Carlotta Grisi, Marie Taglioni § Extremely well-paid employment for teachers and performers, alike § The Imperial Ballet School was dissolved by the Soviet government following the revolution, only to be re-established and briefly renamed the Leningrad State Choreographic School § At this time, the Imperial Russian Ballet was dissolved and renamed the Soviet Ballet § In 1938, the company was renamed the Kirov Ballet in honor of the assassinated Sergey Kirov § Following communist rule, original name was returned to the company, though still widely known as the Kirov Ballet by international audiences REACTIONARY PERIOD Starting in 1881, following the assassination of Alexandra II and the ascension of Alexandra III § Ivan Vsevolojsky, Director of the Imperial Theaters § Demanded an "emphasized pomp and diversion," oftentimes at the expense of the narrative plot: power of ceremony and decorum § Several surviving works still model the tsarist court, oftentimes showcasing courts of their own § Soloists ceremoniously presented to onstage and/or off-stage nobility as introduction to their dance, oftentimes reentering to make a formal bow to nobility upon completion § In 1801, Didelot was brought from Stockholm to direct the Imperial Russian Ballet as Ballet Master § Regarded as an immediate sensation amongst Russian audiences § The recent French Revolution of 1789 triggered anxiety amongst the Russian aristocracy, and Didelot was "reassuringly old-fashioned" § Student of Jean-Georges Noverre § Rigorous training regimen; purist § Classes elongated from 2-hour to 4-hour sessions § Imperial Ballet School grew rapidly, many students being former serfs § Depended upon his direction to create a new form of "national theater, " in collaboration with composer Catterino Cavos and playwright Prince Alexander Shakhovskoi § Impact of the War of 1812; violence and destruction, especially the burning of Moscow § State began to oppose previous Western idealism; rise of Russian nationalism § Shift in aristocratic fashion with attempts to "Russianize," reminiscent of old Muscovy § Didelot sought out Russian folk dances, imploring "I need Russian peasants" § Mounted ballet with Russian themes EX: The Fire-bird (1822), The Prisoner of the Caucasus (1823) § In December 1825, Russian army officers led approx. 3,000 soldiers in a protest against Nicholas I's assumption of the throne THE DECEMBRISTS § As a result, Nicholas I increased policy-making and pre-existing regulations, including censorship § Didelot was eventually arrested and resigned his position

The First Great Migration

§ Mass movement of African Americans from the southern regions of the U.S. to northern and western urban centers in response to the world wars, as well as in search of social and economic opportunities, and political protections § In 1863, the Emancipation Proclamation freed an estimated 3.1 million African American slaves § At the time of its enactment, less then 8% of the overall African American population lived in either northern or midwestern regions of the country § Until 1910, more than 90% of the overall African American population still lived in the South § In 1868, the 14th Amendment was ratified as a part of the Reconstruction § Addressing citizenship rights and equal protection of the law particularly for former slaves; granting citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the U.S. § The amendment aimed to limit the action of all state and local officials § However, many former confederate states enacted "blackcodes" which were repressive laws that strictly regulated black citizens § Many southern statesr equired African American citizens sign yearly labor contracts attached with penalties such as fines, arrest, and coercion into unpaid labor § Some states taxed African American citizens that held an occupation other than farmer and/or laborer; annual tax from $10-$100 § Said state and local restrictions and abuses inciting racial segregation took on the slang "Jim Crow" and persisted well into the 20th century § In 1870, the 15th Amendment guaranteed all male citizens the right to vote "regardless of race, color, or previous condition of servitude" § Rapid growth of African American communities in cities such as Baltimore,Chicago,Cleveland,Detroit,LosAngeles,Philadelphia,St.Louis,andNewYorkCity § Between1915-1920, approximately 500,000 African Americans left the South § Inthedecadetofollow,anadditional750,000-1,000,000AfricanAmericanslefttheSouth § Between1910-1930,theblackpopulationincreasedby600%inChicagoand2,000%inDetroit § DepressedcottonmarketcombinedwithaseriesofnaturaldisastersintheSouth § Military conscription and a lull in European immigration created massive labor shortages in northern cities § WWI created new industrial demands with opportunities in steel, shipbuilding, ammunition, railroad, and meatpacking factories § Private railroad, meatpacking, and stockyard companies would sometimes offer to pay transportation and relocation expenses § It is estimated that the number of African Americans in industrial work nearly doubled from 500,000 to 901,000 in 1910-1920 § After the Great Depression, labor unions emerged via The New Deal § Congress of Industrial Organizations as federation of unions that organized all industrial unions in the U.S. and Canada starting in 1935 § Supported by President Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal Coalition § Interracial organization [attempting] to end segregation in industrial work, opening up supervisory positions to black workers

Loie Fuller (1862 - 1928)

§ Originally from the suburbs of Chicago, where she began an early performance career as a professional child actress § Performed and choreographed skirt-dancing burlesque, vaudeville, and circus productions § A "free dance" practitioner, fostering her own natural movement aesthetic and improvisational techniques § Worked in stock companies that gave her the opportunity to become very knowledgeable in stagecraft and technical direction, including dioramas, steam curtain, and magic lantern projections § Theaters began converting from gas to electric lighting § By 1891, Fuller had begun to combine choreography with silk costuming and multi-colored stage lighting, all by her own design § Fuller's initial projects were inspired by natural forms (flowers, animals), and later involving into elements (fire, water, clouds) and natural phenomena (volcanoes, snowstorms, typhoons) § Later expanded her professional work to include playwriting and theater managing; managed the original European tours of Isadora Duncan, Maude Allen, and 2 Japanese acting companies § In 1892, Fuller toured to Europe, one of the very first American modern dancers to transplant for professional recognition and support § Objected to her first Parisian booking at Folies Bergère due to its scandalous reputation; wanted to be regarded as a "serious artist" § Many visual portraitures of Fuller depict her as hyper-feminine and scantily clad, which was not true of her persona nor costuming § Fuller rejected traditional dance costuming including the corset as she found it inhibiting and ideologically oppressive, revealing her natural curves by default § First performances in Paris included Serpentine Dance (1891), Lily (1892), and Butterfly (1892) § Well-received in Paris, oftentimes referred to as the physical embodiment of the Art Nouveau movement and Symbolism § Continued to develop her practice and stage techniques § Inspired by the birth of cinema, creating several short films including Serpentine Dance in 1896 § Collaborated with filmmakers Auguste and Louis Lumière § Fuller's work attracted and incited relationships with artists of various mediums, including Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Auguste Rodin, and Marie Curie, to name a few § Fuller was a member of the Société astronomique de France § Openly self-identified lesbian § In 1900, an Art Nouveau theater was built to specifically feature Fuller at the International Exposition in Paris § Equipped with electric lighting and colored gels "Instead of the 'Parisienne,' still as a dressmaker's dummy, an effigy of Loie Fuller swirling under the projectors should have crowned the Porte Binet." (Historian Philippe Jullian in Banes, 69) § She was the epitome of modernity, converging light, color, and movement into a single image and/or unit; the live performer was essential § Fuller continued to experiment with the technical components of her performance and film works § Extreme exaggeration in the size and proportion of her skirts and dresses § Incorporated rods as structural support for the weight of her fabrics, to creating a manual mobile and screen for light projections; illusory effects § Experimentation with carbon arc lights, hand-painted gels, and under-lighting § Frequent use of black curtains and rugs to obscure the stage space and to create the illusion of suspending her own body in space § Imported silk from China and Indian by Kahn & Kahn for gossamer thin, light layers to allow for more overall quantity and size; quality no longer available today § She held many patents related to stage lighting including the chemical compounds for creating colors gels and the use of chemical salts for luminescent lighting § Experimented with radium "[I]t took a small army of sweating electricians to engineer her magic - that was because each lamp required its own handler, fourteen men were necessary to create the eerie interplay of red and gold for her 'Fire Dance'" (Banes, 70) § Technical team could consist of up to 27 stagehands § She was adamant about the scientific and industrial underpinnings of her work § Rejected romantic themes of any kind; produced non-narrative works that did not "chart human relationships, but as an element of isolated, ungendered figure - either in nature or as an element of nature." (Banes, 73) § Attempted to attain a copyright for her Serpentine Dance to hold copycats accountable; submitted a written description o the United States Copyright Office but they denied her on that grounds that since there was no story, there was no need for protection § Federal Copyright Law did not extend to protect choreography until 1976 § Dual representation as both magic seductress, scientist, and magician; dehumanized § As Fuller grew older, she became increasingly overweight but did not shy away from performance § In 1908, she founded her own school and company § Both performance works and curriculum were structured to accommodate the idiosyncratic movement of the individual and the freedom of choice per artist § Encouraged individual interpretation amongst audiences § Emphasis on perception § Fuller became involved in World War I relief efforts § She performed up until 1925 § Suffered eye damage from experimentation in lighting; myopic § Though pioneer to American modern dance, she is also regarded as its first expatriate § Returned to the United States for occasional performances but never well-received

Vaslav Nijinsky (1890 - 1950)

§ Polish ballet dancer and choreographer hailed the greatest dancer of the early 20th century § Key figure in the reintroduction of male ballet in early 20th century Europe § Recognized for initiating and developing new representations of masculinity in ballet, and consequently, challenging the heteronormative gendered casting and staging that dominated the field § Despite the political charge distinctive of his career, he and his work appealed to a wide audience § Born in Kiev, Russian Empire (present-day Ukraine) as Wacław Niżyński to touring Polish dancers Tomasz Niżyński and Eleonora Bereda § Nijinsky identified as Polish despite spending most of his childhood in the interior of Russia § Siblings Stanislav and Bronislava (a.k.a. Bronia) Nijinska dancers § His many acknowledgements include skilled pointe-work, as well as extraordinary athletic jumping § In 1905, rumors of his performance of The Persian Market at the Imperial Ballet School annual student showcase triggered spontaneous applausewith his first jump § Parents employed as principal dancers with the Setov opera § In 1894, Setov opera disbanded, leaving the family to work as itinerant dancers for money § Nijinsky was accepted into the Imperial Ballet School at 9 years old § Eleonora persuaded a friend on the school faculty to admit her children § As a result, Enrico Cecchetti was arranged to sponsor Nijinsky's application to the program § Throughout his enrollment at the school, he was utilized in many professional productions that called for skilled children roles § Daily studio practice focused on strength and agility, exercising at levels and rhythms that superseded original material § Minimize preparation and landing for jumping § Only 5'4" but with incredible musculature of lower body; thought to have had unusual torso and upper body proportions in comparison § In 1907, Nijinsky graduated and was immediately enlisted as principal company member of the Imperial Ballet § He was offered company positions prior to graduation but decided to complete the program § In 1909, Nijinsky joined Les Ballet Russes under the direction of Sergei Diaghilev § Nijinsky quickly rose as its acclaimed star § Diaghilev and Nijinsky became lovers § Alongside their romantic relationship, Diaghilev provided Nijinsky with the opportunity to expand upon principal roles and to choreograph original ballets for the company § Championed his artistic experimentation § Les Ballets Russes company members noted Diaghilev having kept a particularly proprietorial eye on Nijinsky during rehearsals in Russia and following in Paris § However, Nijinsky was never provided an official contract nor wages with Diaghilev and Les Ballets Russes § Rather, all living expenses were paid on behalf of Diaghilev § Diaghilev provided Nijinsky's mother a monthly allowance of 500 francs § In 1908, Diaghilev and Nijinsky traveled to Paris ahead of the company for their touring engagement with the permission of the Imperial Russian Ballet § Nijinsky would soon move into the Hôtel de Hollande with Diaghilev and his live-in secretary, Alexis Mavrine § Mavrine was Diaghilev's prior lover, and left the tour only shortly after it began § Said event confirmed rumors of their relationship, and consequently, their homosexual relations being common knowledge henceforth § Nijinsky never returns to Russia; Diaghilev is remembered to have repeatedly reminded Nijinsky that he left without completing his state service § Chief choreographer Michel Fokine creates a series of ballets to feature Nijinsky and his talents: Schéhérazade (1910), Le Spectre de la rose (1911), Petrushka (1911) § Nijinsky choreographs 3 original ballets for the company: L'après-midi d'un faune (Afternoon of a Faune) (1912), Jeux (1913), Le Sacre du Printemps (The Rite of Spring) (1913) § In 1913, Nijinsky married Hungarian Romola de Pulzsky while touring with Les Ballets Russes in South America § Pulzsky was known to have "stalked" Nijinsky while on tour with Les Ballets Russes across Europe starting in 1912 § Pulzsky became a patron of the company, providing Diaghilev with little reason to take caution § Despite being told of his relationship with Diaghilev, she said prayed for his conversion to heterosexuality § The personal impact of their marriage on Diaghilev caused him to immediately dismiss Nijinsky from the company § Nijinsky and Pulzsky had two daughters: Kyra and Tamara Nijinska § Nijinsky attempted to form his own ballet company with little success § In World War I, Nijinsky was interned under house arrest in Budapest, Hungary until 1916 § Classified as a enemy Russian citizen § He was permitted to leave after the intervention of Diaghilev and President Wilson, as well as Alfonso XIII of Spain, Queen Alexandra of Denmark, Dowager Russian Empress Marie Feodorovna, Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria, Pope Benedict XV, all interceded on his behalf § Permission was at the request of his participation with Les Ballets Russes' tour to New York City, and under the parameters of a "prisoner of war exchange" § Upon arrival to the United States, company repertory failed to enchant American audiences as it had abroad; Faun too sexually explicit and Scheherazade too racially controversial § Pulzsky demanded that Nijinsky be compensated for his unpaid work with the company prior § The Metropolitan Opera extended tour with Nijinsky promoted to management whereas they disliked Diaghilev § Prepared 2 new ballets, including Till Eulenspiegel (1916) § It was during this time that Nijinsky began to exhibit symptoms of mental illness § In 1917, Nijinsky settled his family in St. Moritz, Switzerland § In 1919, Nijinsky was formally diagnosed with schizophrenia, committed to various institutions for the following 30 years § Engaged in years-long episodes of silence § Nijinsky never performed in public again § In 1950, he died of kidney failure in London § Nijinsky is buried at Montmartre Cemetery in Paris, alongside Théophile Gautier § Diary recording six weeks of personal writings from 1919, while in Switzerland and before being committed to an asylum in Zurich § In 1936, Pulzsky published said found notebooks plus personal letters § 40% of the actual writings were deleted, particularly those passages referring to bodily functions, sex, and sexuality, as well as unflattering references to her and their household § Pulzsky feared him being seen as an "involuntary homosexual" § In 1999, the first uncensored version of his diary was published as edited by then New Yorker dance critic Joan Acocella

Radha (1906)

§ Previously, St. Denis performed her solo works at high-society private parties predominately hosted and/or sponsored by women such as Mrs. Stuyvesant Fish, Rowland Hinton Perry, Mrs. Orlando Rouland § In 1906, Rouland sponsored a matinee performance at the Hudson Theater in New York City with the additional funding of 25 women from the local social elite, each of whom made their own invitations § Said performance launched St. Denis' career as an "artistic performer" § Radha was presented mostly in solo form, although it opened with a procession of male priests, or harem, that ultimately framed St. Denis § St. Denis' dance began with stillness; seated in a lotus position atop a pedestal § "The Dance of the Five Senses" § The senses were symbolized by objects: jewels for sight, bells for hearing, garlands for smell, wine for taste, her own kiss on her hands for touch § Each choreographed sense dance hovered at 1 minute, and was composed of simple movements, postures, and pantomime § Her mimic movements were intended to be reminiscent of kathak dance, referred to as nautch dancer § Circular and spinning movement, particularly with of the hips, accelerated until she reached exhaustion; thought to symbolize "the dead end" of sensual pleasure § The character of Radha was superior both its in narration and staging; the male cast remained seated on the ground, and never partnered nor made physical contact § 1941 film version captures St. Denis performing the role at 62 years old when arthritic § For a woman to formally exhibit said sensuality and pleasure of her own body [especially for an audience of other women] was a feminist coup § In her performance of Radha, female sexuality was not defined in relation to a man § Radha's lover Krishna is never present nor referred to in the work § Echoed liberal campaigns boasting for female sexuality outside of marriage and/or heteronormative construct § Woman is autonomous § Femininity is strong and portrayed with superiority RACIAL IMPLICATIONS AND INFLUENCE OF NEW IMPERIALISM § St. Denis wore brown makeup on her skin § She deliberately casted Hindu, Muslim, and Buddhist male actors and dancers to comprise her male harem § Similar to imperial attitudes of the time, she irresponsibly hybridized movement traditions of the Sufi dervishes, Egyptian belly dancing, Indian kathak, and Cambodian aspara dance with American vaudeville and social dances "In a way, being an 'American girl' gave her the license to invent herself as Other -but not in order to 'enhance the audience's right to look sexually at the respectable white middle-class woman on the stage." (Banes, 90) § St. Denis' sourcing of inspiration was in direct correlation to imperial and colonial opinions and activity in the era, including the emergence of cultural expositions such as the International Paris Exposition of 1900 and the development of New York City's Coney Island in (1880 - World War II) § Many artists leaving vaudeville sought a means of transcendental response to the wave of industrialization § Other celebrated works include Madame Butterfly (1900) and Egypta (1910) § Ruth St. Denis never publicly performed the roles of Salammbo nor Salome; served as perpetual inspiration in her choreographic process

The Reich Theater Chamber

§ RTC was the primary counterpart to the Gestapo § Gestapo conducted investigations and impromptu searches of theaters and their personnel § Its main publication, Das Schwarze Korps, included the arts and frequently interfered with both favorable or unfavorable criticism of artists and productions § Within the field of ballet, prominent ballet masters, choreographers, directors, and even soloists in state opera houses maintained close personal contacts with both politicians and power brokers involving Hitler and Goebbels § Contacts were frequently traded for both professional mobility and general survival • Goebbels was more lenient with dance; less censorship § Initial difficulty understanding the contextual underpinnings of the work translated into little concern § However, dancers were mandated to abide by state policies "State certification is required for all dancers...Candidates of Aryan origin are eligible to take the state examination upon reaching age 18. In addition to possessing a middle school certificate, they must present a certificate of good health signed by a state doctor, a certificate of good conduct issued by the police, a written biographical statement, and proof of a at least one year's study at a dance school certified for the Ministry for Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda." Ministry for Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda directive, July 29, 1934 § Prospective dancers were required to provide proof of Aryan origin § Publications of various articles and cartoons mocking non-Aryan dancers as degenerates, particularly against black and Jewish persons § Ministry established the Central Institute for Dance in Berlin, dictated a standardized curriculum that included ballet, folk dance, and "German dance" (i.e. Ausdruckstanz) § Never before had dance received such recognition or subsidy on a national level § Though the National Socialists branded most modernist art movements as degenerate, but they appropriated Ausdruckstanz § National Socialists sought a dance form that would be "racially 'true to type'" § A national dance required to have originated, as well as reflect, Germanic culture § Capable of glorifying the ideals, symbols, and deeds of the National-Socialist movement § At this time, the dance community was divided into 2 sections; (1) professional dancers that worked for state theaters, (2) "free" creative dancers, pedagogues, and directors of movement choirs § Dance reformers demanded a commitment in the "cause" from their student body and disciples § Kampfbund fur Deutsche Kultur or Militant League for German Culture established in 1928 by Alfred Rosenberg, later reorganized and rebranded as the National Socialist Culture Community § Nationalistic anti-Semitic political society that spanned the Weimar Republic and Nazi era § Membership dramatically increased from 300 (1929) to 38,000 by 1933 § Many dancers and choreographers voluntarily joined § It is undeniable that the most influential figures of German modern dance did promote Hitler and his ideas § It is uncertain if they were fully aware of the implications and extremities of his policies § Rudolf von Laban is a prime example of having turned a deaf ear to the politics of the time, claiming "[l]istening damaged careers and the 'cause'" § Within the league, Rudolf Bode and Franz Hilker, organized National-Socialist physical education programs to ensure "that a new German man emerges, who is fit to upload the regained unity of the German people and to carry it into the future" § Bode led a council of "Gymnastics and Dance" in the Reich Association of German Gymnastics, Sports, and Gymnastics Teachers, and was section leader for the League § Both published articles that declared "German gymnastics" as a necessary means for the "renewal of German culture" § Later articles streamlined the import of German physical fitness to (1) preparation for motherhood, (2) self-defense, (3) raising healthy citizens § Bode integrated all "Aryan members of the General Association of German Dance Teacher" and the Reich Society for the Encouragement of Social Dance into the league, as well as drawing thousands of lay and art dancers into various subdivision of the organization § Additional dancers were incorporated via the German Physical Education Association as led by Gustav Fischer-Klamt § Fischer-Klamt and wife Jutta Klamt were among the most enthusiastic champions of the National-Socialist physical education movement § They regarded their choreographic-gymnastic systems as an integral training device for the National-Socialist agenda and its festivals § In her Volk ans Gewehr (1931), Klamt was one of the first choreographers to profess allegiance to the movement and to Goebbels § In 1933, Mary Wigman soon followed when accepting the position of regional group leader in the Gymnastic and Dance Division of the National-Socialist Teachers' League § Also in 1933, Rudolf von Laban removed all non-Aryan children from ballet classes of the Prussian Staatstheater § Response to the Law for the Reformation of the Professional Civil Service which sought elimination of Jewish peoples in theater and opera

The Nicholas Brothers

§ Real-life brothers Fayard Antonio Nicholas (1914 - 2006) and Harold Llyod Nicholas (1921 - 2000) § Born in Winston-Salem, North Carolina, and spent childhood in Philadelphia as sons of educated musicians § Mother was a pianist, father a drummer § Consistently exposed to music and vaudeville throughout upbringing § Neither ever received any formal dance training § Fayard taught himself how to dance, sing, and perform by watching and imitatating the professional entertainers he watched firsthand § He taught his younger siblings, initially performing with his sister Dorothy as the Nicholas Kids, and later joined by Harold § When Dorothy opted out of their act, the Nicholas Kids became known as the Nicholas Brothers § Approach to tap dance was more full-bodied and athletic than predecessors, such as Bill "Bojangles" Robinson § Clear, refined quality of movement and of stature § Credited with the acrobatic technique called "flash dancing" § Achieved fast fame in their hometown Philadelphia § Performances at the Standard and Pearl drew the attention of New York City's Lafayette management, offering them opportunities to perform § By 1932, the Nicholas Brothers were a featured act the Cotton Club § At this time, Fayard was 18 years old and Harold was 11 years old § Oftentimes, they were the only entertainers allowed to mingle with white patrons of the club § Remained at the Cotton Club for 2 years, working with Lucky Millinder, Cab Calloway, Duke Ellington, and Jimmy Lunceford § During this time, they debuted their first film short, Pie Pie Blackbird with Eubie Blake in 1932 § Producer Samuel Goldwyn invited them to be a part of Kid Millions (1934), their first Hollywood feature film § Also performed on Broadway in the Ziegfeld Follies of 1936 and Babes in Arms (1937) § As choreographer of Babes in Arms, George Balanchine was impressed by their skill and also infused some classical influence

Ave Maria (a.k.a. Mother) (1914)

Choreographed by Isadora Duncan § In part with Scriabin Trilogy that included "Revolutionary" and "Crossing" § Created while grieving the death of her children § Single descending line with the dance gradually moving in a diagonal across the stage, eventually sinking to the floor § '[M]otherhood brings with it -by its nature- extra resources of strength for the purpose of protecting the child." § Echoed a call for revolution § Universal appeal catharsis, loss of her children, no explicit narrative

Juxtapose components of sexism, racism, and racial stereotyping in the character roles and performances of: 1) Ruth St. Denis in Radha (1906) 2) Josephine Baker in Danse Sauvage (starting in 1925)

Self-representation versus cultural appropriation -Ruth St. Denis makes orientalism her stage persona -She wore brown makeup Cultural stereotyping, primitivism, and othering -St. Denis had no understanding of the political history of Kathak, unaware of racial implications from makeup -An unaware collage of cultures -Baker- portrayed primitive other, hyper-sexualized capitalization on othering, "innate talent" Impact of Western and Eurocentric colonialism -St. Denis source of inspiration was the Paris Exposition of 1900, with all the cultures there Sexism, male gaze, and exploitation of Woman Modernity and the modern woman St. Denis- ROLE § Staged representations of woman were not only performed by women, but conceived and directed by women -Baker's authorship of her persona was fractured by directors, screenwriters, the media, and things that influenced audience perception Movement motifs -St. Denis- no research into meaning of mudras Baker- the charleston- allowed for solo improv without a partner, was accessible to her audiences, symbolic of female emancipation, charleston as social response to end of WWI -both moved their hips Costuming -St. Denis- Cultural appropriation -Baker- feather skirt, then phallic banana skirt, not very covered Staging (i.e. the soloists' relationship to other dancers onstage) -St. Denis- female sexuality outside a relation to man, men sat on stage, the lover of Radha, Krishna is not present, she displayed her sexuality freely, pleasure of her own body, dance of the 5 senses, woman as autonomous -danced solo, other people on stage, cheetah also went with the exoticism Audience reaction -St Denis- instigated a new, predominately female audience § Patronized by American women of the middle and upper classes as opposed to the working class, male audiences that dominated vaudeville § Shift in gaze that consequently caused a shift in spectatorship; attending dance and/or theater was no longer a courtship activity but could be attended by the individual woman -Baker seen as an ambiguous amalgamation of cultures, the heterosexual desire of the audience, gossip about sexual preferences -France was less hostile than US, she had more opportunities there Impact on artists' careers, power, and agency -St Denis- INDEPENDENCE § Content and characters, as well as costuming and emergent movement vocabularies, reflected social reform policies regarding marriage, gender, and sexuality § Newfound sense of dignity in the spectacle of the female dancer outgrowing older traditions of censorship and/or societal guilt -Baker- used platform for political engagement: worked for red cross, entertained troops, smuggled messages, collected intelligence on German troops, refused to perform for segregated audiences, active in Civil Rights Movement- attended protests and boycotts, she was allowed to own property from her fame -She embodied the modern liberal woman and stereotypes of primitivism -Freedom of movement and bold costuming = agency BUT direction, staging, and reception reinforced the white male gaze, prejudice, exoticism, tokenism, sexism

The Charleston

§ "TheCharleston"dancewasnamedafterthecityofCharleston,SouthCarolina,andwaslaterpopularizedbyJamesP.Johnson's"TheCharleston"fromtheBroadwayproductionof Runnin' Wild (1923) at New York City's Colonial Theater § Somescholarsbelievetheformisderivativeofacouples'dancethatallowedforseparate,improvisationalmovement § OthersemphasizeitssimilaritytotheAfricanAmerican"Juba"whichwasa"challengedance" § Originally,theformwasfoundedonasimpletwistingofthefeet § AsitgainedattentionandpopularityinHarlemnightclubs,fastkickingstepsbothbackwardsandforwardsbecamedistinctivecharacteristics § "TheCharleston"and"BlackBottom"dancesfamousfor"kickingupyourheels" § As a social dance form, it became symbolic of female emancipation in the early - mid-20th century § Ratification of the 19th Amendment (1920) § Newfashion[andlifestyle]of"TheRoaringTwenties,"particularlyshorteneddresses,pairedwellwithmovement;"theflapper" § AlsoregardedasasocialresponsetotheendofWWI,itsvictoryandtheconceptionof"norestraints" § Asitevolvedinthe1930sand1940s,itbecameassociatedwithLindyHop,andtherefore,"hotjazz"andswingjazzmusic § Jazzmusicwithasyncopated4/4meterprovidedperfectaccompaniment § JosephineBakerfrequentlyincorporated"TheCharleston"intoherdancingacttheFoliesBergères § Severalavant-gardefilmmakerstooknotice,makingreferencetoBaker[andherperformancepersona]alongside"TheCharleston"intheirfilms § Bakerwasthedualembodimentof(1)themodern,liberalwomanand(2)thepersistenceofracial,colonialstereotypesparticularlyemphasizingprimitivism § Thefreedomofhermovementandself-assuredperformanceofboldcostumingespousedasenseofpersonalandartisticagency § Herperformanceof"TheCharleston"encouragedherfemaleaudiencestoembracetheformwithanequalsenseoffreedomandagency § However,itsdirection,staging,andreceptionreinforcedculturalprejudicesandthe[white]malegaze § Exoticism,tokenism,sexism § Despiteallofthis,Baker'sperformancestranscendedthecolorbarrierandinfluencedbothblackandwhiteaudiences,andtheirrelationshipto"TheCharleston"asasocial dance form

Gladys Alberta Bentley (1907 - 1960)

§ African American blues singer, pianist, and entertainer during the Harlem Renaissance § Lesbian performer that would frequently cross-dress in her acts at Harry Hansberry's Clam House in New York City during the 1920s § Attire included men's tuxedo and top hat § Headlined at Harlem's Ubangi Club with along with her own chorus line of drag queens § Known to flirt with female audience members as a part of her shtick § She wrote and sang parodied, raunchy lyrics to popular songs of the time § Due to the decline of speakeasies in New York City under the repeal of Prohibition, she moved to pursue work in California § Billed as "America's Greatest Sepia Piano Player" and" Brown Bomber of Sophisticated Songs" § Harassed for cross-dressing § Though openly gay during the start of her performance career, she claimed to have been "cured" with female hormones, married, and transitioned to traditional dresses as a means of self-preservation during the McCarthy Era

Martha Graham (1894 - 1991)

§ Born into a strict Presbyterian family in Pittsburgh § In 1908, the family relocated to Santa Barbara, California § In 1911, she watched Ruth St. Denis in performance at the Mason Opera House in Los Angeles, inciting her to enroll in the Denishawn School of Dancing and Related Arts § In 1923, Graham graduated from the Denishawn program and sought to create original work that was focused on "human experience" § In 1926, the Martha Graham Center of Contemporary Dance was established § Also in 1926, Graham debuted her first independent show featuring 18 short solos and trios at the 48th Street Theatre in New York City § Graham's choreography proposed an America that strived to incorporate all races and creeds of its past, present, and future [though often tone deaf] § Though her narratives sometimes enforced traditional gender roles, she depicted Woman as sturdy, resilient, and influential § Woman can stand alone; solo series § Woman has community; large female ensemble § Reflective of the vast majority of women in the professional field, as well as its choreographers and directors § The modern dancer tended to be female, "...a bony, barefoot woman whose long, severely cut dress made the high kicks of ballet infrequent and molded her body into a single fervent gesture, thrusting in dynamics, angular in design." (Jowitt, 151) "[T]he female body was recast as an instrument of force and power - muscles, joins, and sinews at the ready." (Graff, 21) § Dance vocabulary was not gender coded § However, ideological the Graham dancer to taught to move with and from the power of her womb [pelvis] as it connects to the earth § Modern dancer-choreographer never looked helpless § Ballet world attacked modern dance for "violating beauty" and resisting traditional [ballet] training § "Ugly girl makes ugly movements onstage while ugly mother tells ugly brother to make ugly sounds on drum." (Fokine with Walter Terry in Jowitt, 151)

The Table of Ranks

14 civil ranks (based on German titles) with specific uniforms and etiquette § Aristocratic children were expected to be enrolled in dance lessons [starting young] as taught by French and Italian dancing masters hired by the government § Courtiers were required to learn specific dances for state balls and ceremonial events § Published The Honorable Mirror of Youth (1717) § Compilation of Western courtesy books to educate courtiers in etiquette, including dance § Fascination with European [predominately French] culture and comportment mirrored in the import of its dramatic arts § Cross-over with military training

The Green Table (1932)

Choreographed by Kurt Joos § Anti-war ballet created and presented the year prior to Hitler being appointed chancellor of Germany § Portrayal of peace negotiations amongst a group of abstract diplomats § Emphasized hypocrisy and mistrust of politicians § Negotiations fail with a declaration of war § 6 scenes portraying different aspects of wartime: (1) The Farewells, (2) The Battle, (3) The Partisan, (4) The Refugees, (5) The Brothel, (6) The Aftermath § "Dance of Death" as the partner to every character; skeleton figure moving around its victims § First dance work to be completely notation via Labanotation explicitly opposed to the Nazi party had narrative and characters the risk of participating in negotiations figures in masks

Scheherazade (1910)

Choreographed by Michel Fokine featuring Nijinsky as The Golden Slave § Choreographic drama in 1 scene § Adaptation of the prelude to Arabian Nights (1706) in which a sultan tests the fidelity of his favorite wife, ending in a mass slaughter of lovers and faithless wives § When the sultan returns, he orders to have the queen's favorite lover, The Golden Slave, killed § Orgy scene with violent finale § Combined mime and dance into expressive movement § Iconic role blending together a unprecedented approach to staged hyper-sexuality with androgyny; masculine athleticism combined with keen sensuality and extreme submission § Equally homoerotic and heteroerotic, and thusly, the violence in its final scene is equally homophobic, and anti-promiscuity and anti-queer § Atypically sensual and eroticized male image though presented within a context in which transgression is punished § Said erotic spectacle is also made acceptable whereby framed as "foreign behavior" by non-Europeans; exploitation of orientalism § Painted in brown and gold body paint § Nijinsky's final dance involved his signature leap into a series of somersaults followed by spinning and a second leap off of the back of his neck; physical representation of oppressed freedom § Costumed in an abbreviated skirt with a demarcated waist, exposed collarbones and shoulders § Intricate, bejeweled male brassiere § Strings of pearls staged hyper-sexuality, the final scene is homophobic--the transgressor is punished, which is why this story was able to be displayed, orientalism

Agon (1957)

Choreography by George Balanchine Ballet for 12 dancers § Created in direct collaboration with Stravinsky § Stravinsky's music was in duodecimal form with 4 large sections, each consisting of 3 dances § A series of movements based on 17th century French court dances, including the saraband, gailliard, and bransle § Intended to present in purely abstract form, independent of a particular period and/or style § Described as involving few steps, "rather, the dances are composed almost entirely of transitions" (530) § Created during personal crises: 1) Stravinsky suffered a stroke, 2) Balanchine's wife and muse, Tanaquil Le Clercq, was stricken with polio § Primary pas de deux was originally performed by Arthur Mitchell and Diana Adams § Mitchell was one of few African American dancers in the classical ballet field at that tine § Deliberate political and aesthetic agenda § The work was created and premiered a year after the Montgomery bus boycott and less than 3 months after the Little Rock riots § During this era, black and white performers rarely shared the same stage § The duet was very intimate, as well as displayed postures inferring power play between the two bodies deconstruction of 17th century court dances

Heretic (1929)

Choreography by Martha Graham § Woman portrayed as a "serious characters" § Simple economy of gesture and design § Tension between individual destiny versus the will of society § Each dancer martyrs herself for humanity § Freudian theory encouraged self-exploration and a "moving from the inside out" § Nietzsche and a curiosity in the ritualistic § Ballet sought to conceal effort whereas modern dancers revealed and enhanced its presence in their dance § Graham's "contraction and release" built on essential breath and conflict; inhaling and exhaling with distortion § Strength, action 5-minute ballet with an all-female ensemble § One of the first dances Graham choreographed on her company § Set to 10-bar Breton folk song as arranged by Louis Horst, played 7 times on the piano § 12 female dancers form a semicircle to construct a "living wall" that confines a soloist § Company of dancers are costumed in long, dark dresses hair pulled back in hairnets § Soloist wears a contradictory white dress with her hair free § Soloist repeatedly confronts the conformist group that surrounds her § When she is finished with her movement, the company slowly rises onto their toes and then drops their weight into their heels, stiff-legged; stamping § The original lyrics to the music narrate a dialogue between a medieval church and heretical sect; tradition versus obstinacy of tradition

Jeux (1913)

Choreography by Vaslav Nijinsky § First modern ballet to have wholly modern theme and approach, utilizing a modern set and costume design § Set within the context of a tennis game in a garden at dusk in which a ball is lost and 3 players go in search of it § Results in a threesome; sexual encounter in modern time § There is speculation as to whether Diaghilev conceived it be an encounter by 3 men but Nijinsky objected, resulting in its 1 male and 2 female casting, or vice versa § Jeux was the last orchestral work by Debussy § Written specifically for the ballet, despite Debussy initially objecting to the narrative until Diaghilev doubled his commission fee § Nijinsky was highly influenced by Gaugin, who also rejected the sophistication of social mores of 19th century Europe; innocent freedom of social and sexual relations in Tahiti, reflecting the European notion of the "primitive" § Nijinsky thwarts and echoes said notions in a modern, European context § No corps de ballet, no variations nor pas de deux § Classical lexicon but predominately performed in internal, or parallel, rotation; arms in bent up half circles with fingers tightly clenched, wrists flexed § Athletic force and ruggedness by all dancers, regardless of sex § Studied the movements of players at local courts "The Faune is me, and Jeux is the life of which Diaghilev dreamed. He wanted to have two boys as lovers. He often told me so, but I refused. Diaghilev wanted to make love to two boys at the same time, and wanted these boys to make love to him. In the ballet, the two girls represent the two boys and the young man is Diaghilev. I changed the characters, as love between three men could not be represented on the stage. I wanted people to feel as disgusted with the idea of evil as love as I did, but I could not finish the ballet." (Nijinsky, diary entry) § Fantasy of seduction and voyeuristic foreplay § Dancers paired off, changed partners, performed for one another/observed, and implied to have masturbated § Ambiguity of gendered movements, whereas the women performed of equal strength and sentiment § Staged representation of the "third sex" § Suggestion that sex could be divorced from feeling with the presence of an averted gaze

Imperial Ballet School (est. 1738)

Students were generally serfs or the children of serfs, as well as orphans/wards of the court § Believed to be bred "civilized" (i.e. European) at the state's expense § Enrollment included clothing, food, and lodging, alongside a thorough academic education § Morning ballet and music lessons, followed by afternoons devoted to mathematics, history, geography, French [the language of ballet], dance theory, choreography, and etiquette § Boys and girls were trained separately, except for lessons in social dancing and later in advanced level partnering § Young students were oftentimes incorporated into the ballets whose narratives mentioned the presence of children § Transported from school to the theater, and then returned § Students ranked and uniformed according to merit; perfect obedience expected § Required to pass annual exams § Provided 3-month holiday, after which students were weighed, measured, and given medical physicals upon return § Visits from friends and family were strictly regulated § Graduates owed 10 years of service to the state upon completion of the program § Highly trained dancers could be assigned and/or transferred to another profession against his/her will § Arbitrary incarceration § Sexual exploitation § Required permission to leave the city and to marry § Conversely, favored professional dancers were pampered and oftentimes granted state loans § During the reign of Nicolas I (r. 1825 - 1855), students were considered to be a part of the Tsar's household

Discuss the social significance of workers' dance groups [predominately in New York City], and compare said platform to Martha Graham's Heretic (1929).

The New Deal organized by President Franklin D. Roosevelt § Federal programs, public work projects, financial reforms and regulations enacted by the federal government in response to the Great Depression Radical leftism and the rise of communism in New York City, most especially amongst intellectuals and working artists Workers' Dance League- New Dance Group; services and curriculum -social change through dance -allowed young choreographers to show work -cheap classes -communist ideologies Henry Street Settlement -recreational classes -open to immigrants, sense of communitym Race, gender, and class of participating artists and students in 1) workers' dance groups- immigrants, lower class 2) Martha Graham Dance Company Martha Graham's overall treatment of Woman via technique and performance -Though her narratives sometimes enforced traditional gender roles, she depicted Woman as sturdy, resilient, and influential § Dance vocabulary was not gender coded § However, ideological the Graham dancer to taught to move with and from the power of her womb [pelvis] as it connects to the earth costumes were restrictive, response to leftism, the mass inhibiting her movements, the contraction, she still maintained her privilege--all white women Choreography and movement motif of Heretic (1929) -the exhaustion of having to stand up to originality -emphasis on breath -confrontation of conformity

The Kingdom of the Shades (1900)

Was extracted from the full-length work La Bayadere to be performed as an independent ballet, and continues to be performed in said format today § In its 1900 restaging, Petipa increased the corps de ballet performing The Kingdom of Shades from 32 to 48 § Individual entrances onto a long, winding ramp from upstage right: arabesque with arms in 5th position, cambré, 2 steps forward § Procession culminating in 8 rows of 4 dancers § Power and impact of unison masses § Unanimity: No room for error, individual frailty § In 1903, The Kingdom of Shades was independently performed at a gala in honor of a state visit from Kaiser Wilhelm II at Peterhof Palace. This is the first-known occasion that featured the scene as an independent work. § Its 1902 re-staging, Anna Pavlova was casted as Nikiya, this role accredited with propelling her career § In 1914, Pavlova performed in La Bayadère as her swan song, before leaving Russia § Nearly all contemporary performances of La Bayadère are founded on the 1941 version of the Kirov Ballet repertory, staged by Vakhtang Chabukiani and Vladminir Ponomarev in Leningrad

serfdom

meaning "unfree peasant" § Feudal exploitation tracing back to the 11th century and predominantly in practice during 17th century Russia § Nobility granted nearly unlimited ownership over serfs affiliated to estates § Landowners could transfer a serf to another property/property owner while keeping said serf's property and family § Flight was regarded a criminal offense § Mostly prevalent in central and southern regions of Imperial Russia § Until 1723, slavery was legal in Russia § Peter the Great abolished slavery, yet consequently converted household slaves to serfs § In 1762, Peter the III (r. 1762) ended mandatory military service for nobles § In 1861, Alexander II (r. 1855 - 1881) abolished serfdom in the Emancipation Reform of 1861 § The state feared revolt and its military was in dire need of soldiers § After emancipation, many serfs migrated to urban areas for industrial work in factories and enlisted in military service § Serfdom fed the Imperial Theaters of Moscow and St. Petersburg § In 1762, Catherine the Great (r. 1762 - 1796) abolished mandate on nobility to serve the state as enacted by Peter the Great, essentially allowing noblemen to leave St. Petersburg and return to their own estates § Additionally, Catherine awarded her most loyal nobility with land estates complete with serfs § During her reign alone, is estimated that nearly 800,000 peasants were transferred from state service into serfdom § Noble estates functioned as microcosmic autocracies, still reflective of European traditions and etiquette § Many noblemen built and staffed imitation court theaters to entertain themselves and the local communities § Productions modeled off of French and Italian operas and ballets; extravagant § Frequently attending serfs would be trained in etiquette, language, and dancing in order to participate § Imported ballet masters from Europe to train serfs for performances; contradictory existence EX: Count Nikolai P. Sheremetev, one of Russia's wealthiest noblemen of the 18th century, is estimated to have owned nearly 1,000,000 serfs and 8 serf theaters § Many female serfs treated akin to concubines EX: Prince Nikolai Yusupov, Director of the Imperial Theaters [in 1790s] required female serfs to undress onstage at the end of performances § Economic hardships of the mid-19th century caused many estates to fold, with many serf dancers sold off to the state

hoofing

tap dance that is stylistically "close to the floor," and consequently, focused the performance, sound, and rhythm of its footwork § Sometimes referred to as "jazz tap" or "rhythm tap" § Upper body movements is a natural reaction to what is happening in the the lower body § Matched and/or doubled the temp of jazz music

minstrelsy

was an early 19th century American form of variety entertainment consisting of comic skits, dancing, and musical performances that specifically centered around the mockery of African Americans § Performed by white actors in blackface makeup § There were some African American performers and all-black minstrel groups, but they were under the management of white directors and producers § Grotesque and derogatory stereotypes that portrayed African Americans as unintelligent, lazy, and/or happy-go-lucky § Several stock characters such as the slave, dandy, mammy (and her counterpart "old darky"), mulatto wench, and the black soldier § The term "Jim Crow" originated from 19th century blackface performer Thomas Dartmouth Rice and his "Jump, Jim Crow" act § Minstrelsy emerged as comic interim acts in northeastern burlesque companies and theaters § Ironically, its rise coincided with the abolitionist movement § Vaudeville theater companies began to adopt minstrel acts and performers in the late 19th - early 20th century § As theatrical minstrel shows declined, tap dance was also adopted into acts § African American dancers finally gained access to vaudeville stages after the Emancipation Proclamation § However, vaudeville imposed a "Two Colored Rule," meaning black performers were forbidden to perform solo, and as a result, the majority of vaudeville acts featuring black performers were duets between dancers and/or musicians § William Henry Lane (1825 - 1852 or 1853), a.k.a. "Master Juba" or "Boz's Juba" § One of few black minstrel performers in an otherwise white minstrel troupe § Regarded as one of the most famous and influential forbearers of tap dance § John "Bubbles" Sublett (tap dancer) and Ford "Buck" Washington (pianist) of "Buck and Bubbles" § Considered a "class act," and this was emphasized in the performers' chosen attire: tuxedos, which became prevalent amongst other black artists that followed both on stage and screen § Resisted older minstrel show traditions of portraying the tap dancer as a "grinning-and-dancing clown" § John Sublett is credited with the start of rhythm tap on stage, using percussive heel drops and complex lower body

Eurhythmics

was developed by Émile Jaques-Dalcroze as a system for learning and experiencing music through movement § Women particularly drawn to his method for physical and psychological wellness § In 1910, Dalcroze founded the Institute for Applied Rhythm in Hellerau-Dresden where he trained several modern German gymnasts and dancers that joined the Nazi cause, including Mary Wigman § Influenced the development of Ausdruckstanz responsive movement, was about experience, the unison mass

"Jumpin' Jive"

with Cab Calloway and his orchestra) featured Fayard and Harold Nicholas in Stormy Weather (1943) § The brothers ascended and descended a staircase in a series of leapfrogs into the splits, rising out of the splits without the use of their hands § The act is still regarded by many professionals and scholars as the most virtuosic dance performance of all time § Fred Astaire went on record as proclaiming Jumpin' Jive as the greatest movie musical sequence he had ever seen § Likewise, Mikhail Baryshnikov regarded the Nicholas Brothers as genius § Gregory Hines claimed that Jumpin' Jive would need to be altered with computer generation if ever a bio-pic were to be shot, whereas there were no tap professionals known to have such athletic prowess § Highlight musical act of the Stormy Weather § 28-year old Fayard and 22-year old Harold performed in contrast to 65-year old Robinson § Gained "flash" label; tap dancing was most exciting in a flash § More traditional performers ridiculed their flash dance as trickery § Distinct career influenced the development of Broadway Tap, particularly dancers such as Bob Fosse and Fred Astaire § In later years, Joseph Jackson hired the duo to train the Jackson 5 and Janet Jackson

Lily (1892)

§ 500 yards of silk with a periphery that reached 10' from her body in every direction, and could be thrown upwards to 20' § Nearly 100 yards of hem "I make that lily by sheer will force...[By the end of the dance] I'm so exhausted that I've no physical strength left." (Loie Fuller in Banes, 73)

"The Harlem Hellfighters"

§ African Americans that enlisted to serve in WWI were hopeful of eliminating discrimination upon return from the war § To gain social and political legislation towards equality and equity after national service § Emergence of a new African American patriotism with a larger social goal § The 369th Infantry Regiment, formerly known as the 15th New York National Guard Regiment, was an infantry regiment of the New York Army National Guard during WWI and WWII § Composed almost entirely of African American men [later including Puerto Rican Americans in WWII] § FirstAfricanAmericanregimenttoservewiththeAmericanExpeditionaryForcesduringWWI § Nicknamedthe"HarlemHellfighters,""BlackRattlers,"and"MenofBronze" § The"Hellfighters"aliaswasactuallygiventothetroopsbytheGermansduetothefactthattheyneverlostamancaptiveorlostofatrench § In1918,theregimentwasdeployedtoFrance § Initiallyregulatedtolaborservicesasopposedtocombat § Laterthatsameyear,theregimentwasreassignedtotheFrenchArmyfortheremainderofU.S.participation § ManywhiteU.S.soldiersrefusedtoperformcombatdutywithblacksoldiers § TheunitwasissuedFrenchweaponrythoughcontinuedtowearU.S.uniform § TheFrenchtreatedtheregimentwiththesamerespectandregulationasanyotherFrenchunit,andmostimportantly,didnotraciallysegregate § Assignedtocombatandcompleteda6-monthtour,whichwasthelongestdeploymentofanyU.S.unitinWWI § UponreturntotheU.S.,2MedalsofHonorandseveralDistinguishedServiceCrosseswereawardedtomembersoftheregiment § Mostcelebrated,PrivateHenryJohnsonnicknamed"BlackDeath,"honoredforhisactionsincombat § JohnsonalsoreceivedFrance'sCroixdeGuerre;firstAmericantoreceivesuchdistinction § Following, the French government issued 170 Croix de Guerre awards to members of the 369th Infantry Regiment, and a unit citation was awarded to the entire regiment § The 369th Infantry Regiment was the first New York unit to return to the U.S. § OnFebruary17,1919,aparadewasheldintheirhonoralongFifthAvenue,startingfromtheWashingtonSquareParkArchtotheHarlemarmory § ManyschoolchildrenweredismissedfromschoolsinHarlem § FirstWWImilitaryparadeintheNewYorkCity § AcknowledgementandcelebrationofAfricanAmericanservicetothenation § Following the war, the 369th Infantry Regiment became a regular presence in Harlem, annually marching through the neighborhood with new recruits for training and again upon their return from training § The369thRegimentBand,underthedirectionofJamesReeseEurope,becameoneofthemostcelebratedofmilitarybandsinEuropeduringWWI § IntroducedwhatwouldlaterbeknownasjazzmusictoEuropeanaudiences

Bill "Bojangles" Robinson (1878 - 1949)

§ American tap dancer and actor regarded as the most widely known and highly paid African American entertainer of the early to mid-20th century, earning more than $2 million § Long, prolific career echoed change and tensions in American society and entertainment § One of first minstrel and vaudeville performers to perform a black character role without blackface makeup § One of the first African American performers to endeavor a solo act, overcoming vaudeville's "Two Colored Rule" § First African American to appear in Hollywood film via an interracial act (i.e. with Shirley Temple in The Little Colonel, 1935) § First African American performer to headline an interracial Broadway production (i.e. Blackbirds, 1928) § Born in Richmond, Virginia, and raised in its Jackson Ward neighborhood by his grandmother after both parents died young § Starting at age 5, Robinson began street dancing for small change § Skilled Irish step and buck-and-wing dancer § Busk or "hoof" outside of local theaters and bars § He was noticed outside of Richmond's Globe Theater by a promoter offering him a job as a "pick" in a nearby minstrel show § At that time, minstrel shows were exclusively staged by white performers in blackface § Picks or pickaninnies were black children that were incorporated as a singing, dancing, and comic chorus for blackface performers § In 1890, Robinson ran away from home and headed to Washington, D.C. § There, he teamed up with blackface performer Al Jolson who sang alongside Robinson's dancing § In 1891, Robinson was hired by Whallen and Martel to tour in The South Before the War, again as a pick despite his older age § In 1898, he returned to Richmond and enlisted in the U.S. army in response to the Spanish-American War § Robinson's biographer claims he served as a rifleman and drum major in New York's 15th Infantry Regiment, later renamed the 369th Infantry and "Harlem Hellfighters" during WWI, as well § On March 30, 1900, Robinson entered a buck-and-wing contest at the Bijou Theater in New York City § Won the first place, defeating Harry Swinton who was the star of In Old Kentucky and regarded as the best dancer of his day § Robinson's win triggered publicity that led to touring opportunities § In 1912, Robinson was booked as a part of a tap dancing act with Keith and Orpheum Circuits § By 1914, Rae Samuels convinced Robinson to meet with her manager Marty Forkins who helped foster Robinson's solo act § Forkins promoted Robinson as having already having a strong solo career § Presenters bit, Robinson delivered, and his earnings rapidly increased § It was not long before Robinson was one of the first vaudeville performers to find success whilst breaking the "Two Colored Rule" § During WWI, the U.S. War Department set up a series of Liberty Theaters in training camps § There, Robinson performed for black and white units of the Expeditionary Forces § Throughout the early 1920s, Robinson continued as a touring solo vaudeville act oftentimes booked for 50 - 52 weeks per year, multiple shows per night § In 1928, and at 50-years old, Robinson made his debut on Broadway in Blackbirds § White impresario Lew Leslie produced Blackbirds as a black review for white audiences § Starred alongside Adelaide Hall, Aida Ward, Tim Moore, and Robinson § Robinson was "discovered" and proclaimed the "King of Tap Dancers" § In 1940, Robinson returned to Broadway in All in Fun in which he starred -headlined-- alongside an all-white cast § In 1930, Robinson made his film debut in the RKO Pictures musical Dixiana § RKO was a merger of Keith and Orpheum theater circuits § Robinson was cast in a standalone scene whereas it was customary for Southern theaters to remove scenes that contained black performers § In 1932, Robinson received his first leading film role in Harlem Is Heaven § First film that was predominately all-black with the exception of one white actor with a speaking role and a few white extras § In 1934, Robinson was signed with 20th Century Fox to appear alongside Shirley Temple in The Little Colonel (1935) § The studio stipulated that he would perform his signature stair dance with Temple § Robinson was well-known for tapping up and down a set of stairs in a rhythmically complex sequence § He did attempt to patent his act but he was not approved § Robinson was weary of the responsibility of teaching his complex choreography to a 7-year old and within tight time constraints § In an effort to make it work [and meet expectations], he taught Temple to kick the face of each stair step with her toe, and after watching her practice his choreography, he made modifications to mimic her dancing so as to make it appear as though she was imitating him § The stair dance was a huge success, cited as the highlight of the film § Robinson and Temple were the first interracial dance partners in the history of Hollywood film § The stair dance in The Little Colonel was considered controversial for the time and frequently cut out of screenings in southern theaters, along with other scenes that revealed the duo making physical contact § Robinson and Temple appeared in 3 more films together: The Littlest Rebel, Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm, and Just Around the Corner § Robinson appeared in 14 feature films, most notably including In Old Kentucky (1935) and Stormy Weather (1943) § From 1936 until his death in 1949, Robinson made several radio and television appearances § His tap dance had a distinct sound, though he also sang, as well as made sound effects, jokes, and stories reminiscent of his vaudeville background § He was known to address the audience directly which was very unique -and daring- for a black performer of the era § Robinson made recordings that demonstrated each of his step steps and their corresponding sounds § Robinson was appointed honorary mayor of Harlem by political figures and celebrities, alike § He was also a lifetime member of the local policemen's associations and fraternal orders § Robinson was the mascot of the New York Giants major league baseball team § In 1936, Robinson co-founded the New York Black Yankees basketball team in Harlem § The team was a successful member of the Negro National League until being disbanded in 1948 § In 1908, Robinson was arrested for armed robbery in New York City § Robinson was convicted of 11 - 15 years of hard labor at Sing Sing prison for a dispute with a tailor over a suit § Robinson produced several alibi and hired a new attorney to provide evidence that he was falsely accused § Though he was exonerated, Robinson made a point of registering his pistol at the local police station of every town where he performed moving forward § It is also said that his second wife, Fanny, sent letters of introduction with complimentary tickets to local police chiefs' wives in each town where he performed § Robinson was married 3 times and never had children § In 1949, Robinson died from heart failure at age 71 § His body was in response at the 369th Infantry Regiment Armory in Harlem where an estimated that 32,000 people paid their respects § The public schools in Harlem were closed for a half-day so that children could attend and/or listen to the radio broadcast of the funeral § New York City Mayor William O'Dwyer gave his eulogy § Despite being the highest-paid African American performer of the era, Robinson died penniless and his funeral was paid for by longtime friend Ed Sullivan § At that time, his funeral was the largest on record for New York City § He was buried at the Cemetery of the Evergreens in Brooklyn § In 1989, U.S. Congress declared May 25 -Robinson's birthday- as National Tap Dance Day § Robinson was -and remains- under heavy criticism for his participation and tacit acceptance of racial stereotypes particularly damaging for that the era § His character roles were inhibited to subservient, 1-dimensional characterizations and social caricatures, or dehumanized "minstrel iconography" § Critics oftentimes referred to him as an Uncle Tom figure or a "grinning black mask" § Exoticized and commodified for predominantly white profit § However, the Hollywood roles provided were a rare occurrence for African American presence in mainstream film in the 1930s and 1940s § Yet, he was oftentimes segregated from his fellow white performers § Robinson resented said criticism, whereas he felt he had achieved the near impossible - breaking the color barrier in Hollywood § Robinson's performance in Stormy Weather (1943) was under particular scrutiny by black intellectuals and political leaders at that time § His character roles in the 4 films he participated alongside Shirley Temple also reinforced stereotypes with the re-staging of black slaves and household servants § Even more so, despite working with Temple during the later years of his career -as a seasoned professional- he was portrayed as subservient to a [white] child

Harlem Renaissance (1918 - 1930s)

§ Anintellectual,social,andartistic"explosion"emergentoftheAfricanAmericancommunityinHarlem,NewYork,particularlyspanningthe1920s § Atthattime,itwasreferredtoasthe"NewNegroMovement,"namedafterAlainLocke's1925anthologyofpoetryandessaysonAfricanAmericanartandliterature § Originally,HarlemwasestablishedasaDutchoutpostandlaterdevelopedintoanexclusivesuburbforwhitemiddleandupperclasses § Saidaffluenceledtothedevelopmentofstatelyrowhousesandarchitecture,grandavenues,and"world-classamenities"suchasthePoloGrounds(3stadiumsinupperManhattan primarily used for professional baseball and football from 1880 - 1963; original home to the New York Metropolitans and New York Giants) and the Harlem Opera House § Delayinsubwayconstructionledtosteadyfallinrealestateprices,attractingmanyEasternEuropeanandItalianimmigrants,andAfricanAmericanmigrants § EasternEuropean,particularlyJewish,presenceinHarlemwanedby1930.However,EastHarlemremainedinhabitedbyPuertoRicanandItalianimmigrantsthroughthe mid-20th century, staying predominately east of Lexington Avenue between 96th and 125th Streets. § In1904,acontinueddeclineinrealestatecombinedwiththeconstructionofnewtenementsdrewAfricanAmericanmigrants § In 1910, the large block sitting between 135th Street and Fifth Avenue was purchased by various African American realtors and a church group § PhilipPayton,Jr.,blackrealestateentrepreneurandheadofAfro-AmericanRealtyCompanydrewblackresidentsfromotherneighborhoodssuchastheTenderloin(Midtown),SanJuan Hill (Lincoln Center), Greenwich Village, and Hell's Kitchen § By1914,40%ofHarlem'sprivatehousesand10%ofitstenementswereownedbyAfricanAmericans § RelocationofseverallargeblackchurchcongregationstoHarlem § Anti-blackriotsemergedinmidtownanddowntownManhattan § By1910,NationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople(NACCP)wasanactiveestablishmentinHarlem § The neighborhood became a center for entertainment with 125th Street as a "commercial corridor" for musical theater, vaudeville, and motion pictures § HarlemadaptedtotheProhibition,itstheaters,nightclubs,andspeakeasiesbeingmajorentertainmentandnightlifedestinationsforallNewYorkers § ClaudeMcKaywroteHarlemhadbecome"anallwhitepicnicground" § Someblacktenantswouldevenoperatealternativevenuesoutoftheirhomes,including"rentparties"whichwereinformalgatheringswithbootlegalcoholandmusic § Neighborspaidtoattend,thusenablingthehosttomaketheirrent § InfluxofAfricanAmericanmigrantstoHarlemduringWWI § JamesWeldonJohnsonandAlainLockeissuedacallforyoungartistsandintellectualstocometoHarlem § Variousmediumsadaptedfolktraditionsinthere-imaginationofwhatwasregardedas"highart" § Anew-founded,modernblackidentityandconsciousnessonanationalscale § W.E.B.DuBois(1868-1963) § In1909,co-foundedtheNAACP § Focusedadvocateforanti-lynchinglegislation • Between 1901 - 1929, more than 1,200 African Americans were lynched in the South • NAACP composed a report, Thirty Years of Lynching in the United States, 1889 - 1919, to stir congressional action • As NAACP Secretary, it was James Weldon Johnson that shaped the NACCP's anti-lynching campaign § MarcusGarvey(1887-1940) § Regardedasthe"firstBlackNationalist" § DefinedPan-AfricanismandrantheweeklyTheNegroWorldthatregularlypublishedmajorwritersofthemovement § In1914,heestablishedtheUniversalNegroImprovementAssociation(UNIA),thelargestsecular,blacknationalistorganizationprovidingmanysocialandeconomicbenefitsformembers § In1917,theemergenceofHubertHarrison'sLibertyLeagueandTheVoice,thefirstorganizationandnewspaperpublicationoftheNewNegroMovement § In1923-1942,Opportunity:JournalofNegroLifewasaquarterlyacademicjournalthatservedasaforumforemergingAfricanAmericanstudies § Increasedopportunityforpublicationbymainstreampublishinghouses § ProminentwritersofthemovementincludedJeanToomer,JessieFauset,ClaudeMcKay,ZoraNealeHurston,JamesWeldonJohnson,AlainLocke,OmarAlAmiri,ErucD.Walrond,and Langston Hughes, to name a few § ThreePlaysforaNegroTheatre(1917)byRidgelyTorrence § Thoughwrittenbyawhiteplaywright,theproductionfeaturedAfricanAmericanactorsandrejectedstereotypesofblackfaceandminstrelshowtraditions § Inresponsetoitspremiere,JamesWeldonJohnsonwrotethatTorrence'splayswere"themostimportantsingleeventintheentirehistoryoftheNegrointheAmericanTheater" § IfWeMustDie(1919)byClaudeMcKay § SonnetaddressingthemesofAfricanculturalinheritanceandthemodernurbanexperience § InfluencedanewAfricanAmericanculturalidentityandartisticmovementinotherU.S.cities § ManyfrancophonewritersandartistsfromAfricanandCaribbeancolonieslivinginPariswereinfluencedbythewritingsandactionsoftheHarlemRenaissance,aswell "The arts would be used as a means of securing economic, social, and cultural equality with white citizens; and once black artists made their mark, equality would emerge on all fronts." (Hill, 17 - 18)

The International Paris Exposition of 1900

§ April 14 - November 12, 1900 to celebrate the achievements of the past century to and accelerate technological and "cultural" developments into the next § Presented in the style of Art Nouveau § Nearly 50 million Parisians and foreign attendees § Height of the Second Industrial Revolution, a.k.a. Technological Revolution § Various inventions and architectural innovations displayed, including the ferris wheel, diesel engines, talking films, escalators, and the telegraphone (first magnetic audio recorder) § Echoed Era of New Imperialism regarding colonial expansion by European powers, the United States, and Japan § Exhibition planning claimed that its invitation for an international "program" intended to foster cultural tolerance but it was entrenched in ethnocentric colonialism § For example, pavilions were dedicated to various colonies that featured indigenous peoples suppressed by imperial powers § Paid admission which made it difficult for the general public to attend and participate; catered to elite § The exposition was so expensive to organize and run that the cost per visitor ended up being 600 francs more than the price of admission, and it lost a grand total of 82,000 francs after 6 months in operation § Rental rates for concessionaries increased, leading to a strike that ultimately resulted in a closure for a large portion of the fair § An original plan submitted for the presentation of the fair in Paris had been to transform the Eiffel Tower into a woman; Woman at 150 meters tall and with eyes of § La Parisienne sculpture atop the Porte Binet gateway at the fair ground entrance § 3X in height compared to average person § Sculpted by Paul Moreau-Vautier with clothes by Jeanne Paquin electricity § Many misunderstood and/or believed the monument symbolic of "the triumph of prostitution" "Perhaps her waist was too tightly corseted, her breasts too uplifted, the palms of her welcoming hands too open, her mien altogether too assertive. Like Manet's Olympia, hers was inappropriately direct, contemporary, and realistic." (Banes, 68) § Loie Fuller, Isadora Duncan, and Ruth St. Denis attended the exposition THE FAIRY OF ELECTRICITY § New industrial force with the power to generate sound, light, and motion § Compared to its predecessor, steam, electricity was 10X more powerful and more lightweight § Invisible, intangible but extraordinarily powerful § The exposition utilized electricity in its grand presentation with a series of light projections "The Seine was violent, dove-colored, blood-red. Electricity was accumulated, condensed, transformed, put in jars, stretched along wires, rolled around coils, and then discharged into the water, over the fountains over the roofs and into the trees. It was the scourge, the religion, of 1900." (Modernist Writer Paul Morand in Banes, 69)

Sergei Diaghilev (1872 - 1929)

§ Art critic, patron, impresario of art and ballet; predecessor to the present-day art curator and/producer § Responsible for interdisciplinary collaborations across mediums and genres § Born into a wealthy and cultured family Russia, heir to vodka distilleries § Student at the St. Petersburg Conservatory of Music, where he was introduced to circles of artists, particularly The Nevsky Pickwickians via his cousin Dmitry Filosofov: Alexandre Benois, Walter Nouvel, Konstanin Somov, Léon Bakst § Not immediately embraced by the group, but encouraged from Benois to increase his knowledge of Russian and Western art, alike § Developed obsession with the arts, consequently becoming one of the most learned and respected of the group within 2 years of his involvement § Galvanized patronage from both wealthy elite and Russian royalty to found journal Mir iskusstva (World of Art) § In 1899, appointed special assistant to Prince Volkonsky, director of all Imperial Theaters at that time § Recruited network of artistic allies to participate in productions § Starting in 1905, Diaghilev began a longstanding relationship with Parisian venues for the exhibition and performance of Russian artists § In 1909, he was invited to present ballet and opera, consequently leading to his formation of Les Ballets Russes § Appealed to a broader audience; sought out the general public, as well as progressive upper class patrons § Diaghilev was openly homosexual and public with his romantic relationships § Vaslav Nijinsky, Léonide Massine, Anton Dolin, Serge Lifar, Boris Kochno, Igor Marketvitch § Many were company members and staff of Les Ballet Russes

Isadora Duncan (1878 - 1927)

§ Born in San Francisco to a banker and mining engineer, Joseph Charles Duncan, and a connoisseur of the arts, Mary Isadora Duncan § Parents divorced when she was an infant and her mother moved the family to Oakland § There, Duncan dropped out of school at 10 years old, thinking it too constricting § Family was extremely poor, and as a result, she and her 3 siblings earned money by teaching dance to local children § In 1896, Duncan joined Augustin Daly's theater troupe in New York City, but soon left the company disillusioned by the work § In 1898, she transplanted to London, where she began to perform for upper-class social teas and social gatherings, noting that she drew inspiration from ancient Greek art and bas-reliefs at the British Museum § In 1911, French fashion designer Paul Poiret rented a mansion and threw lavish parties on site, hiring Duncan and live performers § On June 20, 1912, he attempted to re-create Louis XIV's Bacchanalia at Versailles § Wearing a Greek-inspired gown designed by Poiret, Duncan danced atop tables for 300 guests § It's rumored that 900 bottles of champagne were consumed § Earned a reasonable income that allowed her to rent her own studio for the development of her own practice and choreographies § While in London, she visited the International Exposition in Paris of 1900 § In 1902, Fuller invited Duncan to tour alongside her; exposed to much of Europe § Though deeming it necessary for the sustainability of her work, she disliked touring and public performances because she felt is distracted from her real mission: the "creation of beauty" and educating youth § In 1904, Duncan established a dance training center in Berlin, Germany; the first in a series of dance schools § Her student body, and eventual protégés, were referred to as the "Isadorables" § In 1914, Duncan returned to the United States and reopened her school in New York City § A townhouse on Gramercy Park was provided for the school's use, as well as a studio on the northeast corner of 23rd Street and Fourth Avenue § Otto Kahn provided Duncan with the Century Theater on West 60th Street and Central Park West for her productions § In 1919, Duncan legally adopted 6 girls [and all took her last name] § In 1921, she chose to relocate to the Soviet Union and founded a dance school in Moscow § Duncan was very public with her communist sympathies; waved a red scarf when performing in Boston during her 1922-23 tour to the United States, shouting "This is red! So am I!" § Openly bisexual and atheist § Birthed 2 children out of wedlock by 2 different men § Both children drowned while in the care of their nanny § In 1921, briefly married poet Sergei Yesenin who was 18 years her junior § In 1927, Duncan died of accidental strangulation and a broken neck due to her scarf getting caught in the open-spoked wheels and rear axle of a car § At her death, Duncan was a Soviet citizen, making her will the first of a Soviet citizen to be probated in the United States § She was cremated and her ashes placed alongside her children in Paris § Her headstone is inscribed with "École du Ballet de l'Opéra de Paris" ("Ballet School of the Opera of Paris") which is misleading Duncan rebelled against the tradition the dancer's corset, tights, and satin slippers; against all things ornamental and signature to romantic ballet § She danced barefooted in loose, non-descript clothing § Costuming was less modest than most dance and theater performers of the era, oftentimes performing nude and/or near-nude § "The noblest in art is the nude." (Duncan, 127) § Admired the form and symmetry of the human body § She was inspired Greek art and dance, as well as nature § Dances oftentimes emphasized the ground or floor, demonstrating a person's natural bond to Mother Earth § Use of postures depicted in Greek art because they were understood as "earth positions" § Ballet thought to oppose her ideas regarding the laws of gravitation and natural will "The movement of the universe concentrating in an individual becomes what is termed the will...The dance should simply be, then, the natural gravitation of this will of the individual, which in the end is no more nor less than a human translation of the gravitation of the universe." (Duncan, 124) § Sought out a means to which she could express a full range of emotion in movement § Her movement vocabulary drew from pedestrian movements (i.e. walking, running) as well as pantomimic gesture § Unprecedented use of stillness § Frequent symphonic music accompaniment, adding dramatic layer § Deconstructed previous notions of the stage, including outdoor performances and practice "Only the movements of the naked body can be perfectly natural. Man, arrived at the end of civilization, will have to return to nakedness, not to the unconscious nakedness of the savage, but to the conscious and acknowledged nakedness of the mature Man, whose body will be the harmonious expression of his spiritual being. And the movements of this Man will be natural and beautiful like those of the free animals." (Duncan, 124) § Duncan was a synthesis of the "dancer of the future" and classicist ideals § She was oftentimes seen as female personification of socio-political ideologies and movements § La Liberté (1830) § "Daughter of Prometheus," enduring symbol of spiritual, physical, and sexual liberation § Advocated that biological destiny was not defined by Man but rather through the natural ability to reproduce § Modernist, multi-faceted example of nature, revolution, and political liberation while still acting in the traditional maternal role § The female body is vital

Ruth St. Denis (1879 - 1968)

§ Born to an inventor, Thomas Laban Denis, and a physician by education, Ruth Emma Hull Denis, in Newark, New Jersey § As a child, she was trained in exercises founded on Delsarte's Society Gymnastics and Voice Culture § In 1894, she debuted as a skirt dancer for Worth's Family Theater and Museum, soon catching the attention of producer and director, David Belasco, who was responsible for providing her with the stage name "St. Denis" § In 1904, she claims that her life was forever changed when she saw an advertisement for Egyptian Deities cigarettes at a drugstore in New York City § Said advertisement featured the Egyptian goddess Isis § She became obsessed with representations of ancient Egyptian culture and icons, as well as "oriental" philosophies § In 1905, St. Denis left Belasco's company to launch her career as a solo artist § In 1906, she premiered her first work, Radha § In 1911, young dancer Ted Shawn witnessed St. Denis' tour in Denver and became enamored § In 1914, Shawn applied to be a student, only to soon become her artistic partner and husband § The creative pair founded Denishawn and its affiliated dance school in Los Angeles § Denishawn has been cited as "the cradle of American modern dance," rivaling the Graham School § The curriculum included ballet-inspired technique classes practiced in bare feet, as well as "ethnic" and "folk dances," Dalcroze Eurhythmics, and Delsarte Gymnastics § Notable students included Martha Graham, Doris Humphrey, Lillian Powell, and Charles Weidman § In the 1910s - 1920s, Denishawn toured their works in the American vaudeville circuit § In 1916, their company premiered a dance series inspired by Egypt, including an exclusive duet, Tillers of the Soil, and an all-male ensemble work, Pyrrhic Dance § In 1923, St. Denis performed Ishtar of the Seven Gates in which she portrayed a Babylonian goddess § Starting in 1931, Denishawn essentially established the National Historic Landmark, Jacob's Pillow and The Jacob's Pillow Dance Festival in the Berkshires of Massachusetts § In the 1930s, St. Denis redirected the thematic content of her [solo]work to exhibit a synthesis of orientalism and Christianity, oftentimes portraying herself as the Madonna

George Balanchine (1904 - 1983)

§ Co-founder of the New York City Ballet and School of the American Ballet; regarded as the father of American ballet § Born Giorgi Melitonovitch Balanchivadze in St. Petersburg to an opera singer and composer, Meliton Balanchivadze; little is known of his mother § His paternal lineage consisted mainly of artists and military servants § Began his pre-professional training at the Imperial School of Ballet starting at 9 years of age; enrolled until 1921 § Also studied music theory, composition, and advanced piano at the Petrograd Conservatory, graduating in 1923 § During this time, he danced as a member of the corps de ballet at the Mariinsky Theater § In 1924, he and his first wife, ballerina Tamara Geva, fled to Paris while on tour with the Soviet State Dancers § Diaghilev invited Balanchine to join Les Ballets Russes as a choreographer, eventually promoted to Ballet Master § Due to a serious knee injury, his dancing was limited and prematurely ended his performance career § Best known for his musicality, acclaimed for expressing music through dance and worked closely with musical collaborators such as Igor Stravinsky § In 1933, Balanchine was invited to America by young arts patron Lincoln Kirstein § Together, they founded the School of the American Ballet (SAB) and the New York City Ballet (NYCB) (1934) § Remained as Artistic Director of the NYCB for more than 35 years § Also in 1934, he premiered his first work in the United States on the students of SAB, entitled Serenade with music by Pyotr Illyich Tchaikovsky § Said to have choreographed over 465 ballets § Worked extensively on Broadway and in Hollywood film § Balanchine is celebrated for his contributions to dance pedagogy as derivative of the Imperial Ballet School § He revolutionized ballet technique, and therefore, the technical faculties of his students and company members § Reimagined the potential of the traditional pas de deux § Through his creative work, he gave rise to a neoclassical genre that permitted the absence of narrative, and instead an emphasis on spatial and rhythmic design § Sentiment was reserved for audience response § Idolized and prophesized by the American and international ballet communities, alike § NYCB continues to perform his acclaimed choreographies During the Cold War he was not blacklisted

Henry Street Settlement (1893)

§ Development of "new" dance in America incorporated a generation of immigrant children enrolled in settlement houses § Emergence of working-class arts programs in settlement houses and union recreation groups versus privileged dance centers, such as Denishawn § Settlement houses also provided a space and a means for immigrant children to express socio-political hardships of that time § Students were encouraged to perform folk music and dance to celebrate their cultural heritage § Community versus urban alienation § Annexation of Abrons Arts Center and Neighborhood Playhouse (1915) § Interpretive dance classes § Helen Tamiris studied dance at Henry Street Settlement § Offered housing, social services, youth programs, workforce development, health and wellness services § By 1907, the United States was populated by 3X as many new immigrants as old § American Federation of Labor lobbied for immigration restrictions and quotas § The majority of children involved in the revolutionary dance movement in New York City were children of poor Russian Jewish immigrant families § Americanization Movement pushing for homogenization of the immigrant population via assimilation § As a result, the nation witnessed a resurgence of prejudice and discrimination against non-Anglo European immigrants § With a dissolving interest in communism (late 1930s) combined with The New Deal, a newfound American identity began to emerge as a new and different means § Some pre-existing dance companies absorbed the students of union and recreational dance program and facilities, ultimately uniting the revolutionary and the bourgeois dancer onto one stage

New Dance Group (1932)

§ Established by a group of local dancers and choreographers dedicated to social change through dance and performance § Founders Fanya Geltman, Miriam Blecher, Edith Lambert, Edna Ocko, Rebecca Rosenberg, Pauline Schrifman, and Grace Wylie, students of Hanya Holm's studio § Offered affordable dance classes for working-class amateurs and professionals, alike § For 10 cents, students could take an hour-long dance class, an hour of guided improvisation [based on a social theme], and an hour of discussion regarding said social themes and issues § Members that wished to choreograph were expected to abide 2 rules: 1) dance about something that is important to you, 2) create and present work so that the general public will understand the impact of dance § Emphasis on working class-causes § Marxist ideologies created a safe space for immigrants and a new American identity, without shunning their heritage § Expanded to include Sophie Maslow, Anna Sokolow, Jean Erdman, and Jane Dudley of Martha Graham Dance Company; Bill Bales and Joe Gifford of Humphrey-Weidman group; and Eve Gentry and Mary Anthony with Hanya Holm § Various techniques and ethnic dance forms offered; encouraged diversity during a time of intense racial, religious, and cultural discrimination

Josephine Baker (1906 - 1975)

§ Expatriateentertainer,activist,andFrenchresistanceagentwithherprofessionalsuccesspredominatelyinheradoptedFrance § Firstpersonofcolortohaveinternationalacclaimintheentertainmentindustry,onstageandonfilm § Firstpersonofcolortostarinamajormotionpicture § BorninSt.Louis,MI,laterrenouncingherU.S.citizenshipafterbecomingaFrenchnationalwithhermarriagetoFrenchindustrialistJeanLionin1937 § AdoptedbyformerslavesofAfricanAmericanandNativeAmericandescentthatperformedinavaudevillesong-and-danceact § Byage13,BakerdroppedoutofschoolandwaitressedattheOldChauffer'sClub,livingonthestreetandmakingextraincomewithstreet-cornerdancing § ShewasamemberofthestreetperformancegroupcalledtheJonesFamilyBand § Baker'sstreet-cornerdancingattractedattentionandeventuallyledtoherrecruitmentfortheSt.LouisChorusvaudevilleshowin1921 § Soonfollowing,sherelocatedtoNewYorkCityperformingatthePlantationClubandinthechoruslinesofBroadwayrevues § ShuffleAlong(1921),andAdelaideHallandTheChocolateDandies(1924) § Shefrequentlyperformedasthelastdancerontheendofthechorusline,meaningshehadtoperformcomicallyasifshewereunabletorememberthechoreography until the encore, at which point she would perform perfectly § Billedasthehighest-paidchorusgirlinvaudeville § Herearlycareeralsoinvolvedblackfacecomedy § Thoughherfamilystronglydisapproved,itwassaidperformancesthatultimatelylandedhertheopportunitytotourtoParis § In1925,BakeropenedinLaRevueNègreattheThéâtredesChampsElysées § Shewasaninstantsuccessandsensation,primarilydrawingaudiencesforhereroticdancingperformingwithlittlecostuming § AfteritssuccessfultourthroughEurope,shebrokerhercontractandreturnedtoFrancetostarattheFoliesBergère § She was also the first person of color to star in a major motion picture: § Siren of the Tropics (1927), followed by Zouzou (1934) and Princesse Tam Tam (1935) § Sang professionally for the first time in Zouzou, requiring private vocal coaching § In 1936, Baker returned to the U.S. to perform in the Ziegfeld Follies with the hope of re-establishing herself in her home country § She was met with a hostile, racist reaction and decidedly returned to France § Baker used her platform as an artist with access to be politically active and engaged § During WWII, she worked for the Red Cross during the occupation of France § As a member of the Free French forces, she entertained troops in Africa and the Middle East § Recruited by the Deuxième Bureau to aid the French Resistance as an "honorable correspondent" § Smuggled messages and materials hidden in her sheet music and undergarments § Collected intelligence regarding German troop locations via casual interactions she would seek out at parties and entertainment § When the Germans invaded France, she housed French citizens that were eager to help the Free French effort and supplied them with visas § Awarded the Croix de Guerre by the French military and named a Chevalier of the Légion d'honnoeur by Charles de Gaulle § Baker refused to perform for segregated audiences in the United States § She was refused reservations at 36 hotels due to racial discrimination when she traveled back to the U.S. in the 1950s - 1960s § Published several articles addressing segregation in the U.S. § Received dangerous backlash from KKK, venues, and prejudiced theatergoers, alike § Highly active in the Civil Rights Movement, returning to the United States to participate in demonstrations and boycotts during in the 1950s § In 1968, she was offered "unofficial leadership" by Coretta Scott King following Martin Luther King's assassination § Declined out of concern for her children § NAACP declared May 20, 1951 "Josephine Baker Day"

Joseph Goebbels (1897 - 1945)

§ German Nazi politician and Reich Minister for Public Enlightenment and Propaganda (1933 - 1945) § One of Adolf Hitler's most loyal and trusted associates § In 1921, Goebbels graduated with a doctorate degree in philosophy from the University of Heidelberg § In 1924, he joined the Nazi Party § In 1926, he was appointed Gauleiter, or district leader, for Berlin and began to focus his work on methods and deployment of propaganda to promote the party's agenda § After the Nazi Seizure of Power in 1933, Goebbels rose to status within the Propaganda Ministry, given absolute supervision over press and news media, literature, arts, and all relative forms of informative content in Germany § Extreme supervision from start to finish, exercising absolute censorship § Controlled Germany's largest film company, UFA film studio (Universum Film Aktiengesellschaft) § It was at his suggestion that Nazi rallies and party-affiliated events be filmed and televised for the general public § Mandated book burning demonstrations to destroy [and instill fear in] all publications that failed to align with the National-Socialist agenda § Several writers, journalists, and editors under Goebbels' supervision were either exiled and/or detained in concentration camps § Commissioned the construction of large architectural edifices to "symbolize the durability of the Thousand Year Reich" § Catalogued contemporary theater works as either acceptable or unacceptable for production, meanwhile classic theater works were either banned and/or edited (i.e. threatening scenes or monologues eliminated) § All Jewish and non-Aryan musical composers were stricken from repertory of prominent institutions; dismissed from performance and/or teaching posts § Condemned the work of socialist and communist artists across all disciplines § Avant-garde works were branded as "cultural bolshevism" and strictly prohibited § Several museum curators were replaced by Nazi Party members § "Beaux arts" such as painting and sculpture were obligated to accommodate the Nazi agenda § Deliberately provoked public brawls and other violent attacks on the Communist Party of Germany, and used as exploitative publicity § He reduced Nazi Party membership by 40% to its most active and "promising" members adding a socio-economic elitism § His official position gave him full control over the paramilitary Sturmabteilung (SA) and Schutzstaffel (SS), and he only answered to Hitler

Oskar Schlemmer (1888 - 1943)

§ German painter, sculptor, design, and newfound choreographer affiliated with the Bauhaus school and movement § Schlemmer was not a trained dancer nor were most of his students at Bauhaus § "Master of Form" at the Bauhaus stage workshop § Satirical, absurd approach in which he frequently transfigured performers into geometrical shapes and/or living sculptures § This approach was adapted and inspired by Schreyer's prior work § Recorded various manifestos in the development of his curriculum with a particular concern for the disconnect between theory and practice § Intellectual and/or conceptual components of the theater (i.e. set design, staging in painting, construction, etc.) versus the emotional (i.e. performance) § Regarded space and its use as the common denominator between the various mediums taught at Bauhaus § Raumempfindung or "felt volume" § Space can be sensed by animation via the dancing body § Said theory emerged as the conceptual foundation of Schlemmer's dance works at Bauhaus § Implemented classroom exercises in which students would dance according to axes, divisions, and shapings of the floor, later evolving into a 3-dimensional understanding of volume whereby setting taut wires that dissected vertical space § Dancers were guided to move within the "spatial linear web" § Followed by the integration of costumes that deliberately emphasized various body parts and movements § Costumes ranged from soft down-filled to concentric hoops § Followed by the integration of light and set design § Important to note that Schlemmer was enlisted in WWI and fought on Western Front until wounded § Schlemmer's curriculum focused on the intersectional nature of the (1) formal, (2) biological, (3) philosophical body in performance § Challenged ideas of "artifice" § Mechanics versus kinetics

"The Rainbow Tribe"

§ Her financial success allowed her to purchase an estate in Castelnaud-Fayrac in southwest France § She named the estate Les Milandes and paid for her family remaining St. Louis to move to the estate § Baker adopted 12 children from around the world, from Finland to Venezuela, creating what she referred to as her _______ and "experiment in brotherhood" § She was known to invite guests and arrange tours to showcase her ________ her intent founded on racial and religious harmony and equality § In later shows in Paris, she was frequently accompanied onto the stage by her pet cheetah, Chiquita, who was typically costumed in a diamond collar § The cheetah was known to escape into the orchestra pit, where it was feared by the musicians, adding another element of risk and excitement for audiences § In 1973, she returned to New York City for a performance at Carnegie Hall where she was met with a standing ovation § On April 12, 1975, Baker died in her sleep due to a cerebral hemorrhage at age 68 § More than 20,000 people lined the streets of Paris to witness her funeral procession § The French government honored Baker with a 21-gun salute, making her the first American woman in history to be buried in France with military honors

movement choirs

§ In 1910, Laban opened a dance school in Munich at the same time that Dalcroze founded his school Hellerau § Laban gave theoretical understanding to Ausdruckstanz § He believed that modern industrial society divided man against himself, and that dance would restore man and the natural bonds of community § To facilitate this process of recovery, Laban created a new dance form to accommodate large groups of amateurs lay dancers called the "movement choir" § Essentially, a movement choir could recuperate a fragmented, damaged society § Many argue that it is Laban that established the foundation of Austruckstanz with his concept of "free dance" § Emphasis on spatial exploration § Free dance could be performed with or without music § Laban formulated many of his theoretical ideas and practices while working in the artist colony Monte Verita in the Swiss Alps, which included dancer Mary Wigman § Wigman, a student of Dalcroze, would follow as Laban's closest colleague and collaborator during WWI § Laban founded more than 25 schools across Germany § Meanwhile, Wigman established a Central Institute in Dresden and branch schools § Ausdruckstanz referred to the styles and forms of dance propagated by their students and followers § Laban advocated for egalitarianism, making dance accessible and integral to the everyday whereas Wigman elitism § "Their aesthetics defined the end points of the ausdruckstanz continuum." (Manning, 221) § Laban's work on the movement choir drew from his own spiritual beliefs and research in Sufism, Victorian theosophy, and Hermeticism § For the Third Reich, the movement choir provided a new means of mass propaganda

Black and White Ballets

§ In addition to demands regarding physique, Balanchine frequently stripped away costuming to make his androgynous aesthetic fully visible § Known as the "black and white ballet," in which dancers were costumed in simple black and/or white leotards, and tights § 12 modernist works § Intending to remove narrative or social affectations; to emphasize spatial designs as inspired by the structure of its musical accompaniment § The body was the focal point and the synthesis of all contributing compositional elements § Though the choreography (particularly in partnering) was complex, athletic, and revolutionary in patterning, the female dancer was frequently at the mercy of heavy-handed manipulation § Fans of Balanchine argue that he "glorified the female body" in a sense; his opponents bring attention to her dehumanization and loss of agency § His defense is said to be rooted in a code of chivalry

Les Ballets Russes (1909 - 1929)

§ Les Ballets Russes was a touring company based in Paris, performing throughout Europe, North and South Americas between 1909 - 1929 § Despite its name, the company never performed in Russia; though founded by Russian artists, the company steered away from the country and its revolution § After its initial season in Paris, the company no longer had ties to Russia and took residence in Paris, later in Monte Carlo § Considered the most influential ballet company of the 20th century § Conceived by impresario Sergei Diaghilev, with its founding cast made of 13 company dancers of the Imperial Russian Ballet § Hired to work and perform during their state summer holidays § Ground-breaking artistic collaborations between choreographers, composers, designers, and dancers, many young and at the forefront of their careers § Diaghilev commissioned composers Igor Stravinsky, Claude Debussy, and Sergei Prokofiev; artists Vasily Kandinsky, Pablo Picasso, and Henri Matisse; costume designers Léon Bakst and Coco Chanel § Dancers included George Balanchine, Michel Fokine, Alicia Markova, Bronislava Nijinska, Vaslav Nijinsky, and Anna Pavlova, to name a few § The company featured and premiered works by choreographers (oftentimes active dancers in the company) such as Marius Petipa, Michel Fokine, Vaslav Nijinsky, Bronislava Nijinska, Léonide Massine, and George Balanchine NEOCLASSICAL BALLET: ballet genre that emerged in the 1920s and continue to evolve into the 20th century in rebellion of the dramatic style of the Romantic Era § More simplistic and clean in aesthetic style, reminiscent of the Classical Period, except more bold and assertive § Les Ballets Russes produced what was referred to as "new ballets," first under the choreography and direction of Michel Fokine § Its initial touring was intended to profit from its roots in imperial Russia; presenting lavish productions characteristic of the Imperial Russian Ballet § Though Diaghilev commissioned several works founded on Russian folk tradition, much of the company repertory echoed the European imperialism, and consequently, an exploitative trend of exoticizing the "other" and orientalism

Bronislava Nijinska (1891 - 1972)

§ One of few female choreographers to be provided artistic and financial resources of a major institution in the early to mid-20th century § Described as unfeminine, strong, and oftentimes in reference to her brother's faculties § Les Noces (1923) descendent of Le Sacre § Utilized choreography en pointe divergent from Romanticism § Les Facheux (1924), choreographed solo en pointe for Anton Dolin § In 1922 and 1924, she danced the role of the Faun in revival performances § Demonstrated a detached attitude toward gender on behalf of herself, Diaghilev, and the company § Although, Diaghilev would usually supervise her rehearsals and give notes § On record for attributing her talents to being a part of the Nijinsky lineage, and at times too feminine

Workers Dance League (1929)

§ Workers' dance groups emerged [predominately in New York City] as 1) unions, 2) platforms for emerging dancer-choreographers, 3) recreational groups affiliated to the city's unions and cultural organizations § Anti-academy, anti-elitist basis of modern dance § Reflected proletarian culture, and similarly, the proletarian worker was an enthusiastic student and audience for the modern dancer § Edith Segal, staging dances for Communist Party rallies and helped found the ______ § "Dance Is a Weapon in the Revolutionary Class Struggle" as its official slogan § Umbrella organization established to develop and organize efforts of various workers' dance groups at that time § Chapters in Philadelphia, Boston, and Chicago, with New York City as its epicenter § Sponsored concerts and contests between workers' dance groups called "Spartakiades" § New Theatre, a workers' theater and dance journal for the exchange of ideas

Rudof von Laban (1879 - 1958)

§ Outspoken with regards to his opinion of non-Aryan peoples being a lesser developed species, upholding National-Socialist agenda § Expected his student body to serve as as devoted followers and/or prophets of the "cause" § In 1930 - 1934, Laban was appointed director of the Allied State Theaters in Berlin § In 1934, he was promoted to director of the Deutsche Tanzbühne in Nazi Germany § In 1934 - 1936, Laban directed major dance festivals with the funding and sponsorship of Joseph Goebbels and his propaganda ministry § In 1936, Laban was appointed chairman of the association of "German workshops for dance," receiving a substantial salary from the state § Though he served and spoke on behalf of the National-Socialists agenda, some scholars suggest said actions might have been deemed necessary for survival as he was not a German citizen (Hungarian) nor Nazi Party member § In 1936, Goebbels banned Laban's Vom Tauwind und der Neuen Freunde (Of the Spring Wind and the New Joy), intended for the 1936 Olympics on the basis of being (1) too intellectual, (2) not satisfying nor furthering the Nazi agenda § In 1937, he fled to Paris and then later joined the Jooss-Leeder Dance School in the United Kingdom § Developed Laban Movement Analysis and Labanotation, reminiscent of Schlemmer's spatial theories § Laban Dance Centre in Manchester relocated to London after his death, evolved to present-day Trinity Laban Conservatoire of Music and Dance; European equivalent to Juilliard

La Bayadere (1877)

§ Partially created to feature the talents of Russian prima ballerina Ekaterina Vazem, performing the principal role of Nikiya § Lev Ivanov performed the dual role of Solor § The 1900 revival productions featured Matilda Kschessinskaya and Pavel Gerdt, with soloists Varvara Rykhilakova, Agrippina Vaganova, and Anna Pavlova § Created in 6 months of rehearsal and staging § Petipa feared the reception of the production, especially since the Imperial Theater had increased ticket prices exceeding that of Italian Opera at the time § Its debut was unequivocally hailed a masterpiece by critics, with particular praise for Petipa and his work in the scene The Kingdom of the Shades § The Kingdom of the Shades was extracted from the full-length work to be performed as an independent ballet, and continues to be performed in said format today PLOT: Tale of a temple dancer, Nikiya , and a warrior, Solor, who have sworn eternal fidelity to one another. However, the High Brahmin of the temple loves Nikiya, but learns of her relationship with Solor. Additionally, the Rajah Dugmanta of Golconda has arranged Solor to marry his daughter Gamzatti. Unaware of this arrangement, Nikiya agrees to dance at the marriage celebrations of Solor and Gamzatti. Out of jealousy and greed, the High Brahmin informs the Rajah of their love vows in hopes of having Solor killed. Instead, the Rajah decides it is Nikiya that must die. In the meantime, Gamzatti learns of Nikiya and Solor, and attempts to bribe Nikiya into abandoning Solor. In a rage, the two women fight and Nikiya attempts to kill Gamzatti. At the engagement celebration, Nikiya performs as agreed upon. She is given a basket of flowers which she believes are a gift from Solor. However, the basket is from Gamzatti and hides a venomous snake. As she dancers, the snake bites her on the neck. Though the High Brahmin offers to save her, Nikiya chooses death over a life without Solor. In the scene following Nikiya's death, Solor is depressed and smoking opium. In his dream-like state, he begins to have visions of Nikiya's shade (or spirit) in the Himalayas, known as The Kingdom of Shades. It is here, in his nirvana, that the two lovers reconcile. However, Solor awakes to the preparations for his wedding to Gamzatti. The shade of Nikiya haunts Solor as he dances with Gamzatti in temple. As the High Brahmin officiates the marriage of Solor and Gamzatti, the gods take revenge for Nikiya's murder by destroying the temple and its occupants. As a result, the shades of Nikiya and Solor are reunited in their afterlife and eternal love.

Red Summer of 1919

§ Since the Emancipation Proclamation, racism against African Americans in the U.S. was at its worst between WWI and WWII § Industrial work in American urban centers attracted, and overlapped, a new wave of European immigration § Extreme tensions between Irish and Italian immigrants and African Americans § In the late summer and fall of 1919, said racial tensions erupted into what is known as the "Red Summer" § Also resultant of postwar social tensions related to the demobilization of WWI veterans, both black and white § Competition for work and housing amongst returning soldiers and/or recent migrants § When the war ended, many white soldiers returned home to find their previous labor jobs occupied by a new black work force that was favored by employers as they were able to unfairly pay black laborers far less § In 1934, the National Housing Act limited the availability of housing loans in urban areas, particularly to African Americans § Immigrants and migrants competed for affordable housing in lower income neighborhoods in urban centers § Mortgage discrimination and redlining in inner city areas, limiting African American migrants' ability to determine their own housing § Violent, prolonged rioting targeting African Americans in over 3 dozen U.S. cities, most notably Chicago and Washington, D.C. § The highest fatality took place in the region of Elaine, Arkansas, with an estimated 100 - 240 African Americans and 5 Caucasians killed § An estimated 1,000 people were killed in total, not including injury § Civil Rights activist James Weldon Johnson coined the moment "Red Summer" § Field secretary of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) § Attempted to organize peaceful protests against the racial violence § Race riots continued into the 1920s

Mariinsky Theater

§ The ballet was not performed exclusively for the aristocratic elite, despite common assumption § However, ballet remained property of the Tsar § As a result, ballet productions did not reflect the populist sentiments nor reality of the time § Catered aristocracy and upper classes § Spectacular fantasy and exoticism served a purpose of escapist entertainment § Political references contained as "tributes to enlightened power" § Royalty portrayed as benevolent and fair EX: Daughter of the Pharaoh (1862), La Bayadère (1877) § In 1860, _______ was established as the preeminent theater in Russia was the only of said theaters that regularly presented ballet § Approximately 50 performances per year, only 10 of said performances were non-subscription § Wednesdays and Sundays § Maximum capacity of 2,500 people § Seated according to rank and prestige § Seating followed strict social hierarchy: Front orchestra: high officials, officers, Imperial Guards Tiers: lesser officials Loges: ladies, families Galleries: clerks, lackeys, servants girls, valets, artisans § The organization of the stage world reflected its house; the prima ballerina and premier danseur were framed by an elite company of soloists, followed by demi soloists, and finally by a further stratified corps de ballet § This was not dissimilar from the tsar and tsarina in the immediate company of grand dukes and duchesses, followed by court officials and aristocracy

Mary Wigman (1886 - 1973)

§ Wigman was inspired to dance as an adult after seeing students of Dalcroze § Enrolled as one of his students § In 1913, she was introduced to Laban and studied his techniques regarding space and quality for movement generation § Served as Laban's assistant in Leipzig through WWI § In 1920, she was offered the position of Ballet Mistress at the Dresden State Opera § After relocating, she learned that the offered had been retracted and she instead established her own school known as the Dresden Central School for expressionist dance § It is said that her pupils were expected to "enter a communion of faith with her in soul and spirit" § Dance vocabulary derivative of pedestrian movements § The school continued to operate under the Nazi Party § She obeyed mandate to remove as Jewish dancers from her school and company § In 1937, Reich officials accused her of being antiestablishment and a "decadent artist," and proceeded to close her operations