World Religions

Mahayana Buddhism

"Great Vehicle" branch of Buddhism followed in China, Japan, and Central Asia. The focus is on reverence for Buddha and for bodhisattvas, enlightened persons who have postponed nirvana to help others attain enlightenment.

Enlightenment

A movement in the 18th century that advocated the use of reason in the reappraisal of accepted ideas and social institutions.

Rig Veda

Hinduism's oldest sacred text

Eightfold Path (Buddhism)

In Buddhism, the basic rules of behavior and belief leading to an end of suffering

Dharma (Hinduism)

In Hindu belief, a person's religious and moral duties

Zen Buddhism

a Japanese school of Mahayana Buddhism emphasizing the value of meditation and intuition.

Bhikshu

a monk or nun who renounces worldliness for the sake of following the path of liberation and whose simple physical needs are met by lay supporters

Bodhisattva

a person who has attained enlightenment but who has postponed nirvana in order to help others achieve enlightenment

yoga

a system of exercises practiced as part of the Hindu discipline to promote control of the body and mind

Samadhi

a trancelike state in which self-consciousness is lost and the mind is absorbed into the ultimate reality; the culmination of the eight steps of Yoga.

Reincarnation (Hinduism)

belief that the individual soul is reborn after death

Brahma

creator god

Samsara (Hinduism)

cycle of rebirth

Samsara (Buddhism)

cyclic existence; the continual round of birth, death, and rebirth

Shiva

destroyer

the mother goddess (hinduism)

devi

Bhakti

devotion to a deity or guru

Shakti

divine feminine creative power

Buddha

enlightened one

Atman

in Hindu belief, a person's essential self

Totemism

the belief that people are related to particular animals, plants, or natural objects by virtue of descent from common ancestral spirits

Meditation

the focusing of the mind on spiritual ideas

Monism

the presumption that mind and body are different aspects of the same thing

Dharma (Buddhism)

the teachings of the Buddha

Nirvana (Buddhism)

ultimate reality/goal, the end of suffering

Darsan

visual contact with the divine through encounters with Hindu images or gurus

Agnosticism

Belief that nothing can be known about whether God exists

Animism

Belief that objects, such as plants and stones, or natural events, like thunderstorms and earthquakes, have a discrete spirit and conscious life.

Trimurti

"Three forms" of the divine; the three gods Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva.

Karma

(Hinduism and Buddhism) the effects of a person's actions that determine his destiny in his next incarnation

Both Hinduism and Buddhism share several philosophical points. For full points, address the following: a) How do these two traditions understand the relationship between Samsara and karma? b) How do Hindus understand dharma? How does this differ from the Buddhist understanding? c) Describe the role of atman, Brahman, and anatman between these two traditions. d) What is the difference between moksha and nirvana? e) How does the caste system fit into this? What did the Buddha think about it?

(a) Both Hinduism and the later divergent Buddhist tradition incorporate Vedic understandings of samsara and karma into their philosophies. Samsara can be understood as the cycle of life, death, and rebirth that all beings are subject to; we can understand the role of karma in this model as that which influences one's rebirth - our actions have real and lasting consequences despite the fact that we may not always understand the interplay between the two. (b) In the Hindu understanding, one accumulates good karma (merit) by fulfilling their dharma which can be understood as one's duty and lifestyle - dharma for Hindus is personal as it considers one's caste, relationship obligations, and approach to yoga. For Buddhists, dharma is not a personal disposition, but instead used to denote the universal teachings of the Buddha; it is one of the three jewels. (c) The Upanishads describes one's true self as the eternal, unchanging atman; although we perceive ourselves as separate from all things, in reality this perception is the result of ignorance that we are one with Brahman, the world-soul (monism). While Hindus would argue that we are all one, Buddhists would say instead that we are none; anatman is the antithesis of atman, it is the lack of a self-essence in light of the three marks of existence (impermanence, dissatisfaction/suffering, no-self). (d) With this being acknowledged, we can move on to the soteriological (salvation) dimensions of Hinduism and Buddhism. For Hindus the goal is to attain moksha, that is reunion between the personal atman and the universal Brahman; this is achieved through yoga [although caste plays a major role]. Since Buddhists do not believe in the atman or the Brahman, moksha is out of the question; for Buddhists the goal is enlightenment or nirvana which, like moksha, is best understood as "non-samsara" and similar terms. (e) In the Hindu tradition, one must accumulate good karma by performing their dharma; this in turn allows one to have favorable rebirths as humans until reaching the pinnacle as a brahmin (priest) caste - it is at this threshold that one traditionally has the capacity to achieve moksha. As a kshatriya (warrior/ruler) the Buddha rejected the necessary caste prescriptions to attain salvation from samsara - the Buddha believed that caste was not a necessary factor to attain nirvana (but sex might have been depending on which school of Buddhism you listen to).

Four Noble Truths of Buddhism

1) All life is full of suffering, pain, and sorrow. 2) The cause of suffering is nonvirtue, or negative deeds and mindsets such as hated and desire. 3) The only cure for suffering is to overcome nonvirture. 4) The way to overcome nonvirtue is to follow the Eightfold Path

Vishnu

A Hindu god considered the preserver of the world

Caste System

A Hindu social class system that controlled every aspect of daily life

Upanishads

A major book in Hinduism that is often in the form of dialogues that explored the Vedas and the religious issues that they raised.

What is the Buddhist concept of anatman? How does this relate with the five aggregates [form, sensation, perception, formation, and cognitive awareness]? What gets reincarnated through Samsara? (3-4 sentences)

Anatman is the Buddhist anti-thesis to the concept of an eternal, unchanging atman found in Hinduism. Known as the concept of 'no-self' or 'emptiness,' anatman is one of the three marks of existence along with impermanence and suffering/unsatisfactoriness. Rather than a soul or a self, Buddhists state that what we confuse for a 'self' is little more than an amalgamation of five aggregates (or skandhas) that account for both experience and memory. Experience first comes into being as a 1form or matter (apple, rollercoaster, you); then comes the 2sensation of the experience as it comes into contact with our senses (pleasurable, painful, neutral); next is the 3perception of the experience as things are associated with other things (shoes are for feet because we've seen these things before); the fourth skandha is 4formation or volition as we act and react to experiences; the fifth skandha is 5consciousness and it acts as a storehouse of knowledge and a facilitator for skandhas 2,3,and 4. Since there is nothing essential to ourselves, we can understand that which gets reincarnated through samsara as our karmic baggage, the consequences for our actions. · No self · Aggregates (skandhas) get mistaken for an essential soul/self · Our karma is what gets reincarnated; there is nothing essential that connects us to our previous existences

Vedas

Ancient Sanskrit writings that are the earliest sacred texts of Hinduism.

Explain how one can understand Hinduism both as a polytheistic religion and as a monist religion. How do the Upanishads and the Epics clarify? (3-4 sentences)

At its philosophical core, according to the Upanishads, Hinduism holds that all things are Brahman, the world-soul. We humans have a portion of Brahman inside of us known as atman. As the texts developed over the centuries epics such as the Ramayana and Mahabarata immortalized characters like Krishna and Rama. The later Puranas and Tantras continued to inspire the devotion (bhakti) movement that saw practicioners devote themselves to a form (murti) of Brahman. Among these myriad forms, along with the bhakti practices, Hinduism has gained a reception in the West as a polytheistic religion filled with idol-worshippers. • Monism came from the Vedas and Upanishads • Polytheism arose from the bhakti movement, which came from Epics and Puranas • All of the gods and goddesses can be understood as forms (murti) of Brahman, the world-soul. • Followers of bhakti yoga show loving devotion to their personal god; attaching to a personal form of Brahman is easier than the totalitarity of Brahman. This looks like polytheism.

Polytheism

Belief in many gods

Monotheism

Belief in one God

Atheism

Belief that God does not exist

Three Jewels of Buddhism

Buddha, Dharma, Sangha

Sangha (Buddhism)

Buddhist communities of monks, nuns, novices and laity; Monasticism

Bhikshuni

Buddhist nun

Sutras

Buddhist sacred writings

Theravada Buddhism

Buddhist sect that focuses on the wisdom of the Buddha

what do Jains believe?

Jains believe in an eternal soul, but not necessarily in a personal god. Like Hindus, Jains believe in samsara; it is one's collective karma that makes them subjected to eternal rebirths. By shedding off that karma and participating in the five precepts for Jains (no harm, no theft, no lying, no sexual misconduct, no possessions) one can achieve moksha, the destruction of karmic bonds thus liberating oneself from samsara and attaining bliss in liberation.

Describe the four types of yoga (karma, raja, jnana, and bhakti). Which is the most popular yoga for Hindus? Which is the best for achieving moksha? (3-4) sentences

Karma yoga is the practice of selfless action - by acting without attachment for the benefits or punishments associated with an action, one is instead able to dedicate that karma to Brahman and in turn reach moksha. Raja yoga is the practice of mindful concentration - through the development of meditative practices that channel energy through chakra points, one can achieve a single-mindedness that allows the practitioner to achieve moksha. Jnana yoga is the practice of rational inquiry - by repeatedly asking the question "who am I?"one can gradually peel away the layers of ignorance and realize Brahman, thus attaining moksha. Bhakti yoga is the most popular for many Hindus, it involves loving devotion to a form (murti) of Brahman whether it is Vishnu, Shiva, or the Mother Goddess; by treating the icon as the deity itself, one can experience darsan to directly connect with Brahman and attain moksha. All of these yoga practices are suitable for different kinds of folk - one is not objectively better than another! • Karma - selfless action • Raja - meditative concentration • Jnana - rational inquiry • Bhakti - deity devotion • Bhakti yoga is the most popular; each yoga works best depending on the practitioner

Untouchables

LOWEST LEVEL OF INDIAN SOCIETY; not considered a real part of the caste system; often given degrading jobs; their life was extremely difficult

Vajrayana Buddhism

Literally "Diamond Vehicle," it is the prominent branch of Buddhism in Tibet.

Arhat

One who has become enlightened; the ideal type for Theravada Buddhism

What is the difference between Shruti and Smriti texts in the Hindu tradition? Which are more authoritative? Which are most popular? Give an example of each. (3-4 sentences)

Shruti texts are those that were heard, texts that the ancient rishi sages heard while wandering in the forest for years; these texts include the Vedas, Upanishads, Aranyaka, and Brahmanas. Smriti texts are those that were remembered, particularly by humans, they include historical and mythical accounts of people and deities in such texts as the Ramayana, Mahabarata, Puranas, and Tantras. Although the Vedic shruti texts are considered to be more authoritative, the smriti texts are more popular and beloved - these texts are credited with the rise of bhakti yoga and our understanding of contemporary Hinduism.

What are the Four Noble Truths? What is the purpose of the Eightfold Path? (3-4 sentences)

The Four Noble Truths were taught by the Buddha to his students directly following his enlightenment. The first truth is the reality that is suffering or unsatisfactoriness (dukkha); the second truth is the acknowledgement that dukkha has a source, we can understand this as grasping or craving; the third truth recognizes that there is a way to end dukkha; the final noble truth concerns the Buddha's prescription for the extinction of dukkha, the Eightfold Path. The Eightfold Path is a transformative road intended to guide adherents towards nirvana: this starts with wisdom [1right view & 2right intention], morality [3right speech, 4right action, & 5right livelihood], and meditation [6right effort, 7right mindfulness, & 8right concentration]. · 1. There is suffering · 2. There is a cause for suffering · 3. There is an end to suffering · 4. The Eightfold Path - wisdom, morality, and meditation

Moksha

The Hindu concept of the spirit's 'liberation' from the endless cycle of rebirths.

Animatism

The belief that nature is enlivened or energized by an impersonal spiritual force or supernatural energy, which may make itself manifest in any special place, thing, or living creature.

Code of Manu

The codification of early Indian law that lays down family, caste, and commercial law

Guru

a Hindu or Buddhist religious leader and spiritual teacher

How did the caste system come about? Was it always so strict? Where does the idea of an "untouchable caste" come from? What are the status of "untouchables" in India today? (3-4 sentences)

The concept of castes came about from the Vedas; since ritual actions like fire sacrifice (yagna) and prayer to the Vedic Gods (like Indra, Agni, Soma, and Ushas) required ritual purity at all times, the Brahmin caste was created so not to threaten the efficacy of such ritual acts via pollution. Prior to English governance in the 1800s, the caste system was fluid and reinforced only locally; the English used the caste system as a means of enforcing social control through already integrated, native infrastructure. The concept of "untouchables" or Dalits comes from a text that emerged during the first three centuries of the common era: the Manusmriti or "Code of Manu." The Manusmriti reinforced prescriptive roles for all the castes before introducing a casteless group who were suitable for the most polluting jobs (those that involve waste, death, or blood) and who were prescribed to live outside of villages, eat off of broken plates, and only wear clothing gleaned from the dead. Although the Indian government officially illegalized the practice of "untouchability," many Dalit are treated with prejudice in the form of limited access to education, healthcare, and housing - some are even subjected to violent acts of intolerance sadly. • Vedas • No, British used it as a tool for control • The Manusmriti (Code of Manu) • Prescriptively, the practice was abolished; descriptively, many still are discriminated against

The five aggregates (skandhas)

The constantly changing parts which make up a person - form, sensation, perception, mental formation and consciousness

Brahman

The term for The Univeral Soul in Hinduism.

Tripitaka

The three "baskets," or collections, of Buddhist texts.

What is the difference between Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism? What is the difference between the arhat path and the bodhisattva path? (3-4 sentences)

Theravada Buddhism (teachings of the elders) makes its claim as the most authentic form of Buddhism, the school that directly follows the teachings of the Buddha. As such, Theravada believes that the discipline required to attain nirvana demands that adherents commit themselves to the dharma by becoming bhikshu; this means that only male monks can reach enlightenment. By achieving nirvana in the Theravada tradition, one becomes an arhat ("worthy one") and transcends the cycle of samsara. Mahayana Buddhism (greater vehicle) believes itself to be the true teachings of the Buddha. In contrast to Theravada, the Mahayana believes that every sentient being has "buddha-nature" (tathagatagarbha) and therefore the capacity to reach enlightenment in their current lifetimes. Rather than becoming an arhat, Mahayana Buddhists instead emphasize compassion for all sentient beings; this manifests in the bodhisattva path which includes vows to first help all beings achieve nirvana before the bodhisattva may transcend nirvana. · Theravada - teachings of the elders, monks reach nirvana only, follows arhat path · Mahayana - greater vehicle, every being has "buddha nature," bodhisattva path · Arhats achieve personal salvation, bodhisattvas liberate all beings first

In "How to Cook Your Life," what do you think Chef Edward Espe Brown means when he says that we "cook ourselves?" (Opinion)

This is an opinion question. I personally believe that it means attentiveness. In the cooking process each ingredient must be chosen and prepared thoughtfully; every component must contribute to the end dish. We seldom think of ourselves in such a way. To cook ourselves means to be mindful of what 'ingredients' you use and to be present in the moment so you don't burn anything!

Buddhism is often thought of as a religion without gods. How can you explain Buddhist devotion to bodhisattvas, cosmic buddhas, and deities from other religions in light of this fact? Is Buddhism a religion or a philosophy?

This is at the heart of the prescriptive/descriptive dichotomy. Essentially this question is an exercise in recognizing the difference between religious dogma, tradition, and philosophy verses religious practice, customs, and emotions. While both of these elements are "religious" in nature, the very asking of the question unveils both the difficulty with and the problem of categorization regarding religion. This is a question to make students think!

is kumare a guru?

You decide

Anatman

no self

Brahmin

priests

Rishi

sage, wise man