4. English Language Conventions

Pronouns

A pronoun names a person, place, thing, or abstraction by standing in for a specific noun. The specific noun that the pronoun replaces is called the antecedent. Pronoun Case Pronouns change form depending on how they are used in a sentence. Subjective Objective Possessive Reflexive Singular I me my, mine myself you you your, yours yourself she, he, it her, him, it her, hers, his, its herself, himself, itself Plural we us our, ours ourselves you you your, yours yourselves they them their, theirs themselves Use nominative (also called subjective) case pronouns for subjects and subject complements. Remember to use nominative case after a linking verb, when a pronoun is the predicate nominative. More on linking verbs later. I went to the roller rink. It was she who knew the secret code. The mysterious, black-clad man swept into the room and announced, "It is I." Nominative case pronouns get even more exciting when using them with compound nouns. Choose the pronoun based on its function in the sentence. Your own sixth-grade English teacher may have reminded you to cover up the extra noun and choose the pronoun that sounds right with the rest of the sentence. Becky and she flew to Alaska for the summer. It was Bruce and I who were knocking. The senator gave the bill to Grace and me to take to the printer. Use objective case pronouns for direct objects, indirect objects, or objects of prepositions. Pay attention to compound nouns here, too. The pterodactyl gave her a sarcastic look before flying away. The owner gave the extra zebra plant to him. Caroline took Jeremy and me to the natural history museum. Use the possessive pronoun to show ownership. Note that the possessive pronoun its does not have an apostrophe; it's with an apostrophe is reserved for the conjunction that stands for it is. That lemon tart has my name on it. It's the label on the wine bottle that identifies its region of origin. Use a reflexive pronoun when the subject and direct object are the same person or entity. Jason dressed himself. They marched themselves down to the courthouse. The company threw itself a giant anniversary party. Relative pronouns introduce subordinate clauses. Relative pronouns include: which, who, whom, whose, and that. The candy bar that looked like a car tasted good with milk.

When Not to Use Abbreviations

Abbreviation and Examples When not to use it: When to use it: Any abbreviation When your readers might not be familiar with the abbreviation. When readers would most likely be familiar with the abbreviation. To introduce readers to an unfamiliar abbreviation, write the word followed by the abbreviation in parentheses. States and Addresses IL, CA, FL st., cir., ave., . . . Formal writing. Informal writing, address labels. Days of the Week Mon., Tues., Wed., . . . Formal writing. Informal writing, chart labels. Months Jan., Feb., Mar., . . . Formal writing. Informal writing, chart labels. Instant Messaging Shorthand b4 (before), lol (lots of laughs). Formal writing or informal writing to audiences that might not understand these abbreviations. Instant messaging and informal e-mail. Written Citation Shorthand p., ch., vol., . . . In the text of formal writing. Written citations, such as footnotes and indexes.

Adjectives & Adverbs Adjectives

Adjectives modify nouns and pronouns. Note that adjectives can be possessive, indefinite, numerical, or compound, among other things. Articles also act as adjectives. serious student brilliant rainbow enchanted smile possessive: her time, their book deal indefinite: any day numerical: thirteenth floor, one doughnut compound: marinated duck quesadilla articles: a book, an egg, the clock Coordinate adjectives work together to modify a noun. Coordinate adjectives do not modify each other and are placed before the noun they modify. Use a comma to separate coordinate adjectives. The juicy, sweet watermelon cooled everyone off.

Adjectives & Adverbs Adverbs

Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, and they often end with -ly. modifying a verb : She walked quickly to school. modifying an adjective : He became an exceptionally quick learner. modifying another adverb : She ran unbelievably fast. Place adverbs such as almost, even, and only with care to avoid confusion. Instead of : The movie almost ended before the stroke of midnight. Use : The move ended almost before the stroke of midnight. Most adjectives and some adverbs can take several forms: the positive, comparative, and superlative forms. Positive Comparative Superlative calm calmer calmest quiet quieter quietest good better best obvious more obvious most obvious Use the comparative form to compare two things. Use the superlative form to compare three or more things. Comparative: The mockingbird sang louder than the sparrow. Superlative: Of all the birds in her yard, the mockingbird sang loudest.

A Note about Italics and Foreign Phrases

Although not exactly punctuation marks, italics help readers distinguish related words and phrases from the rest of the sentence. Italics set apart foreign terms that aren't considered part of standard English. Dia de los Muertos is my favorite day of the year. We could use a little more gemutlichkeit in the world. Do not use italics for foreign phrases that are considered standard English, such as "faux pas," "blitzkrieg," and "sushi."

ESL Errors Adjectives and Adverbs

Avoid repeating an object or adverb in an adjective clause. Instead of: Damon repaired the bicycle that we delivered our cookies with it. Use : Damon repaired the bicycle that we used to deliver our cookies. Use the correct word order for cumulative adjectives. Of course, using every type of cumulative adjective in a single sentence would yield an unwieldy phrase. Here's the order of cumulative adjectives before the noun. Cumulative Adjectives Type of Word Examples Article , Possessive, Quantifier a, an, the, his, her, Kyle's, two, three Evaluative Word responsible, able, pretty, harsh Size big, little, gargantuan, petite Length or Shape short, long, oblong, round Age ancient, old, young Color eggplant, turquoise, chartreuse Nationality Japanese, Australian Religion Muslim, Catholic, Hindu, Jewish, Buddhist Material teak, gold, granite Avoid placing adverbs between the verb and direct object. Instead of: Roslyn presented dramatically the gift, amid the marching band and fireworks. Use : Roslyn presented the gift dramatically, amid the marching band and fireworks. or use: Roslyn dramatically presented the gift amid the marching band and fireworks. Avoid placing adverbs of frequency before the verb to be. Instead of: My mother always is saying yes to everyone. Use : My mother is always saying yes to everyone. Avoid placing adverbs of frequency after verbs that are not forms of to be. Instead of: My father talks never to himself. Use : My father never talks to himself.

ESL Errors Verbs

Be sure to include the main verb, especially the verb to be. Instead of: We to the store. Use : We went to the store. Instead of: Jamie a bright student. Use : Jamie is a bright student. Be sure to include the helping verb. Instead of: Bananas be in season then. Use : Bananas will be in season then. Be sure to include verb endings such as -s and -ed. Instead of: Jacob run five miles every day. Use : Jacob runs five miles every day. Instead of: Sharon deliver the purple package. Use : Sharon delivered the purple package. Be aware of phrasal verbs, which are also called two-word verbs. Phrasal verbs are made up by a verb followed by a preposition or adverb. Phrasal verbs often express meaning that cannot be understood by knowing the meaning of each individual word. These idiomatic phrases can cause confusion for ESL students. I want to find out how birds fly. Meredith takes after her mother. Some phrasal verbs are intransitive and do not require an object. She passed away peacefully. Other phrasal verbs are transitive, so they do take an object. Transitive phrasal verbs are either separable or inseparable. Separable phrasal verbs can take the object before or after the preposition or adverb. Glen called off the pool party due to rain. Glen called the pool party off due to rain. Inseparable phrasal verbs take the object after the preposition or adverb. The two words of the verb cannot be separated. Instead of : Kendra will grow soon enough up. Use : Kendra will grow up soon enough. For more information, check out this brief list of phrasal verbs.

The Gray Areas of Capitalization

Because the writing habits of people influence grammar conventions, these rules constantly change. You may have already noticed that rules of capitalization differ from one textbook to the next. Capitalization rules for titles and groups of people seem to be some of the most changeable rules. Capitalization varies at the beginning of an independent clause following a colon. You can begin the second independent clause with a lowercase or an uppercase letter. That's what I want to teach my children: Love yourself first, then you'll have plenty of love for the rest of the world. Listen carefully to my task list for today: mow the lawn, walk the Siberian Husky, and glaze the stained glass. In general, capitalize national, political, and ethnic group names. the Italian people Democrats and Republicans Mayans the Balinese Capitalize national, political, and ethnic group names in phrases that include these group names. my English class Japanese cars Typically, you should not capitalize racial, economic, and social group names. However, words such as Hispanic and Asian American are often capitalized. the upper echelons blue-collar workers churchgoers Capitalize titles that come before names. Less formal titles, such as aunt and uncle, may be capitalized or not capitalized when referring to a specific person. Ms. Daly Professor Quinoa my Cousin Gerald or my cousin Gerald Don't capitalize titles that stand alone when the title is very general. my cousin the jury foreman the police officer Capitalize academic or professional titles that follow a name. Carey Byron, Ph.D. Mason Moore, D.O.

Active and Passive Verb Voice

Besides being singular or plural, verbs can also be active or passive. An active verb emphasizes the subject, and the subject does the action of the verb. A passive verb emphasizes the direct object or the verb itself, and the subject receives the action of the verb. Notice that in some cases, passive sentences lack the clarity of their active counterparts. Active Voice Passive Voice Greg pulled the wagon. The wagon was pulled by Greg. The bulldog's walk painted a picture of grace and ease. A picture of grace and ease was painted by the bulldog's walk. She found her truest self. Her truest self was found by her.

Capitalization

Capitalization cues readers to pay attention to important things: the beginning of sentences and quotations, names, geographic places, dates, events, and perhaps the most important word for some readers: the singular personal pronoun. Capitalization and Sentences We'll jump right into the basics of capitalization. Capitalize the first word of a sentence. Time is our greatest friend and our most spiteful foe. Capitalize the first word of a quotation that is a complete sentence. Sara looked at the painting and said, "This is your most colorful work yet." Do not capitalize the first word of a quotation when the quotation is not a complete sentence. In the Tao Te Ching, the wise person can take action "without doing anything" and teach "without the use of speech." When quoting lines of poetry, use the same capitalization that the original poet used. Poet E. E. Cummings, for example, did not use standard capitalization. E. E. Cummings used unconventional spacing and capitalization. In "in Just—spring" he uses spaces to slow down the rhythm of the poem, and he combines words to speed up the rhythm: the queer old balloonman whistles far and wee and bettyandisbel come dancing

Capitalization and Nouns

Capitalize proper nouns, including specific names of people, places, buildings, time periods, businesses, and other organizations. James Manley Barbara Simmons Puerto Rico the Strait of Gibraltar the Eiffel Tower the Jurassic period the Enlightenment Mansfield Light and Electric the Bayville Volunteer Cleanup Squad Capitalize all words in the title of a major work except articles, prepositions, and coordinating conjunctions. Also capitalize the first and last words, regardless of part of speech. "Ode on a Grecian Urn" "We Are Seven" "Out, Out-" Pride and Prejudice Of Mice and Men Capitalize all letters in acronyms. NASA SAT MRI Capitalize days of the week, months, and holidays. Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, . . . January, February, March, . . . Fourth of July Thanksgiving Day Capitalize abstract nouns when they are discussed as concepts and you want to emphasize them. Also capitalize specific abstract nouns such as religious groups and artistic periods, if the name of the period comes up from a proper noun. The search for Truth had finally started. Cynicism Romanesque Judaism When Not to Capitalize Do not capitalize the first word of a phrase or sentence set apart by dashes. Instead of : I can't believe it—We won the blue ribbon! Use : I can't believe it—we won the blue ribbon! Do not capitalize the directions north, south, east, and west, unless these words are part of a proper noun. Capitalize : the North Pole, South Africa, East 7 th Street Don't capitalize : Turn north onto Meridian Street, go five blocks, and turn east. Do not capitalize the seasons of the year unless these words are part of a proper noun. Capitalize : the Spring Dance, Winter Solstice Don't capitalize : Because I live where it's quite hot, I love the coast of Maine in summer. As discussed previously, do not capitalize the first word of a quotation when the quotation is not a complete sentence.

Colons and Semicolons

Colons and Semicolons Unlike the comma, some find it more difficult to "hear" when it's appropriate to use a colon or semicolon. Use a colon to bring attention to a list. Notice that a colon must follow a complete independent clause. Remember to get everything on the grocery list: bananas, fizzy soda, eggs, and horseradish. Most microprocessor factories have basic raw materials such as these: silicon, copper, and the technology to work with the tiniest circuits. Use a colon between two independent clauses if the second sentence illustrates or summarizes the first. Note that a lowercase or uppercase word can follow a colon between two independent clauses. Life is a candle: it can be extinguished without warning. Many residents agree with this idea: All participants should contribute equally. Do not use colons immediately after a dependent clause ending with a linking verb. Instead of: My favorite colors are: indigo, navy, and midnight blue. Use : My favorite colors are deep and dark: indigo, navy, and midnight blue. Like colons, semicolons can be used to separate two independent clauses that are closely related. Notice that a coordinating conjunction could be substituted for the semicolon or colon. Everyone thinks he wants what he deserves before he gets it; few people agree upon delivery. In addition to separating independent clauses, semicolons can also separate other items from each other, such as phrases and list items. Learning to change a tire requires learning about collecting the proper tools; jacking up the tire; removing the lug nuts and tire; replacing the new tire and lug nuts; and jacking down the car. We confirmed the arrival of the bands Rock and Roll Kings; the Chili Cheese Dogs; and My Older Sister. Finally, remember to avoid using semicolons before lists or quotations.

Abbreviations

For proper nouns and measurements, the abbreviation's capitalization follows the word's capitalization. Proper Noun and Measurements Full Word Abbreviation University of Texas UT American Association of Accordion Players AAAP foot ft milliliters ml You can abbreviate titles, especially when followed by a specific name. Mr., Ms., and Mrs. are almost always abbreviated. Mr. Keith McCormick Prof. Jane Richardson Use certain Latin abbreviations when appropriate, especially in footnotes, bibliographies, and some parenthetical remarks. In most writing, use the English translations instead of the abbreviations. Latin Abbreviations Abbreviation: Stands for: Definition: i.e. id est that is e.g. exempli gratia for example et al. et alii and others etc. et cetera and so on cf. confer compare N.B. nota bene note well

Common Spelling Mistakes

Homophones or homonyms are words that sound alike but have different spellings and meanings. Here are just a few homophones to note. Notice that very common words, including pronouns, show up regularly on this list. accept, except anyone, any one capital, capitol its, it's straight, strait than, then their, there, they're to, too, two who's, whose your, you're Other spelling obstacles include the following: Double letters in words such as recommend and indeed Slightly different spellings for different versions of English, such as theater (American English) and theatre (British English) Two acceptable spellings for the same word. Check the dictionary if you have a question. Finally, here's a brief list of commonly misspelled words absence accommodate achievement acquaintance address aggravate attendance basically commitment committee conscience exaggerated fascinate guidance harass illiterate indispensable loneliness mischievous noticeable occasionally picnicking proceed regard rhythm seize vengeance writing

Parts of Speech and Grammar

In their famously slim writing guide, The Elements of Style, Strunk and White admonished writers to "write with nouns and verbs." That's where we'll begin our review. We'll also review pronouns, verbals, adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions, and we'll cover word order and identifying incorrect grammar. You may remember that a noun names a person, place, thing, or abstraction. The girl grabbed her backpack. When the student is ready, the teacher appears. Nobody knows the troubles I've seen. Independence formed the foundation of her personality. There are several different types of nouns. For example, concrete nouns and abstract nouns distinguish between physical objects and concepts, but both types can also be proper nouns. Here are some of the most common types of nouns. This type of noun . . . does this. Examples include: Compound Nouns use more than one word to name a person, place, thing, or abstraction. tree house, bookcase, street lamp, football Concrete Nouns name a physical object. piano, dime, picture frame, candlestick Abstract Nouns (also called Abstractions) name a concept or idea. freedom, acceptance, happiness Collective Nouns name a group of things or people. herd, gaggle, team, bouquet, audience, bunch Proper Nouns name a specific person, place, thing, or abstraction. Queen Victoria, Fiji, the Hope Diamond, Einstein's Theory of Relativity Pronouns take the place of a noun. More on pronouns later. he, she, it, we, us, they

Spelling Rules

Like capitalization rules, spelling rules have plenty of exceptions and gray areas. Here are a few of the rules that you and your students may have learned. Rules and memory devices aside, spelling is usually right or wrong, so check the dictionary for the final ruling. I before e except after c or when it sounds like a as in neighbor or weigh. I Before E Spelling Rule i before e except after c except when it sounds like a pier perceive eight grief ceiling freight piece receive surveillance convenient deceive veil Exceptions to the "i before e" rule include the following words: science seize weird U follows q, except in some abbreviations (such as qt. for quart), a few proper nouns, and some foreign words. quarter quiet quaint equator acquaintance daiquiri

Punctuation Dashes

Like colons and semicolons, dashes separate parts of a sentence. Important note: on the keyboard, a dash is made with two hyphens side-by-side, like this: -- . Many word processing programs will convert those to an em-dash. There should be no spaces before or after the dash. Use dashes to set apart emphatic parenthetical information. Notice that dashes can be used to set apart appositives that contain commas. Everything we were trying to achieve—whether you called it saving the rain forest or saving the planet—depended on this one decision. Since the beginning of this project—a project that required more time, money, and experience than any other project attempted by this company—we've communicated clearly with each other. Use dashes to add emphasis and to show interruptions. Greg missed Carol's smile—not to mention the $40,000 she owed him. Mandy said, "The test results came back—are you listening to this? —and we're all clear!" As a final note, avoid overusing dashes. Don't use: But—why can't we—we deserve it—and we want to go to the movies!

Parentheses and Brackets

Like dashes, parentheses and brackets should not be overused. Parentheses and brackets set apart comments and detailed information from the rest of a sentence. Use parentheses to separate side comments and detailed information. Notice that parenthetical remarks are punctuated as if they were part of the words they modify. During Stella's life (1888-1954), she helped repair over two hundred barns. Please call me (555-1234) if you have any questions. Use parentheses to set apart labels in a list. Jack surmised that he had several options: (1) wait for Jill to come down the hill; (2) begin searching for her right away; or (3) eat his lunch and then make a decision. Brackets are used in only a few specific cases. Brackets Use brackets to . . . Examples: insert necessary information into direct quotations. "[George Elliot] was indeed a woman." annotate accidental or purposeful errors in quoted materials. The sign read: "No Childrens [sic] Allowed." Apostrophes Apostrophes are used with possessive nouns and contractions. Use an apostrophe to make most nouns possessive. Possessive Nouns To make these words possessive: do this: Example: Singular nouns that don't end in -s add -'s We went to Rachel's house immediately. Singular nouns that end in -s add either -'s or just -' Dubois' theory started the conversation. Plural nouns that end in -s add -' Both girls' clarinets needed repair. Compound nouns make the last word possessive Everyone recognized Millie and Kris's grace. Indefinite pronouns add -'s This is everyone's mess to untangle. Use apostrophes to highlight contractions and omissions in numbers. We can't say no again. Remember the class of '99? Do not use an apostrophe to pluralize a noun or with possessive pronouns. Instead of . . . Use . . . Many client's leave satisfied. Many clients leave satisfied. Give the customer the last two lamp's. Give the customer the last two lamps. Time has it's way of healing. Time has its way of healing. That land has always been our's. That land has always been ours. Quotation Marks Use quotation marks around direct quotations. Notice that direct quotations can be introduced with a colon or a comma. My grandmother said, "You can do anything, not everything." Use these words to tell me how you feel: "I love you." Use quotation marks to set apart the titles of short works, such as songs, essays, book chapters, and short poems. Emily Dickinson's poem "There's a Certain Slant of Light" Langston Hughes's poem "A Dream Deferred" When Not to use Quotation Marks Do not use quotation marks . . . Example: around indirect quotations. Jonathon insists that he always looks for the best in people. around quotations longer than four lines. Instead, indent the selection. Gwendolyn Brooks used poetic line breaks to capture the rhythm of an American English dialect and to emphasize the peril that its speakers faced. Her poem "We Real Cool" reads: We real cool. We Left school. We Lurk late. We Strike straight. We Sing sin. We Thin gin. We Jazz June. We Die soon. around the title of long works such as books, albums, and long poems. Use italics for these titles. Shakespeare's play Hamlet Homer's epic poem The Iliad

ESL Errors Nouns

Nouns Avoid omitting subjects. Only imperative sentences, which use the understood subject you, may omit out the subject. Instead of: Want the first prize. Use : I want the first prize. For passive sentences, remember to use there are or it is when needed. Instead of: Is a unicycle race on Saturday. Use : There is a unicycle race on Saturday. Instead of: Is going to rain cats and dogs. Use : It is going to rain cats and dogs. Do not repeat the subject in a sentence. Instead of: Jan she strapped on her parachute. Use : Jan strapped on her parachute. Instead of: The dog that knew the high kick it was tired. Use : The dog that knew the high kick was tired.

Nouns and Functions

Nouns and Function The same noun, whether collective, proper, or any other type, can wear many different hats in a sentence. The subject of a sentence indicates who or what is doing the action. It's often placed at the beginning of a sentence before the verb. A giant coast redwood can grow to heights exceeding 350 feet. A direct object identifies to whom or to what the action was done. Direct objects are usually placed after the verb in a sentence. He climbed the redwood quietly, listening to the creaks of the old tree. An indirect object answers the question For what did the action occur? or For whom did the action occur? She gave all the love she had to the venerable redwood. A noun can also function as the object of a preposition. The upper branches of a healthy redwood can even contain soil, which can support plants from Douglas firs to huckleberry bushes. An appositive provides more information about a noun. Her favorite tree, the coast redwood, was known for living 2,000 to 3,000 to years. A subject complement comes after a linking verb to explain or identify the subject. Subject complements that are nouns are called predicate nouns. subject complement that's an adjective : The redwood was mighty. subject complement and predicate noun : It was her redwood.

Singular and Plural Nouns

Nouns can be singular or plural. To make most nouns plural, simply add an -s. Singular Plural gem gems kiwi kiwis doctor doctors New Yorker New Yorkers Add -es to pluralize nouns ending in -s, -sh, -ch, and -x. If the word ends in -e, just add -s. Singular Plural bass basses marsh marshes match matches toolbox toolboxes Great Dane Great Danes Nouns that end in -y follow their own rule. When a noun ends in -y and follows a vowel, just add an -s. When a noun ends in -y and follows a consonant, change the y to ie and then add the -s. Note: For proper nouns, just add -s without changing the -y. Singular Plural attorney attorneys family families Sally Sallys Nouns that end in -o have their own rule, too. When a noun ends in -o and follows a vowel, just add -s. When a noun ends in -o and follows a consonant, add -es. Singular Plural video videos tomato tomatoes Nouns derived from other languages form the plural as they would in the original language. Singular Plural medium (Latin) media panino (Italian) panini Some nouns are just unpredictable! Use the dictionary if you have a question about how to pluralize a particular noun. If the noun is indeed irregular, the dictionary will list how to pluralize it. Singular Plural elf elves child children die dice shrimp shrimp or shrimps Finally, pluralize the last word in most compound nouns. In hyphenated nouns, pluralize the main word even if it's not at the end. Singular Plural tablecloth tablecloths tree house tree houses brother-in-law brothers-in-law

ESL Errors Prepositions

Prepositions Use prepositions correctly. Prepositions do not translate directly, so they can pose a challenge for ESL students. Here's a list of three particularly confusing prepositions. Prepositions Preposition Describes Indicates . . . Examples at time at a specific time at 10:00 at the break of day at lunch at place at a location at home at the corner of 5 th and Lamar at the goal on time on a specific day or date on May 1 on Friday on Labor Day on place on a surface on the chair on the wall on 10 th Street in time in a period of time in the morning in 2004 in an hour EXCEPTION: at night in place in a space or location in the bowl in the house in Port Aransas

Prepositions

Prepositions include words such as above, around, between, for, into, on, toward, until, and without. Pronouns and nouns accompany prepositions to form prepositional phrases. into the woods without a chance between a rock and a hard place toward him Remember to use the objective case of pronouns in prepositional phrases.

Using Other Punctuation Marks with Quotation Marks

Punctuation marks follow certain rules when they're used with quotation marks. If the quotation ends a sentence, put the period inside the final quotation mark. Note that if a page number or other reference is needed after the end of the quotation, the end punctuation is placed after the closing quotation mark and the parenthetical reference. I could only quietly whisper, "Goodbye." Wilfred Owen opens his poem "Dulce Et Decorum Est" with "Bent double, like old beggars under sacks,/Knock-kneed, coughing like hags, we cursed through sludge" (72). Place exclamation points and question marks inside quotation marks when they apply to the quotation; place them outside the quotation marks if they apply to the entire sentence. Julie forced herself out of the plane with a loud command to herself, "Jump!" Did Shakespeare really write that "the woods are lovely, dark, and deep"? Place colons and semicolons outside quotation marks. She penned a note to her sister that read "Remember to feed the cat"; however, the cat had been gone for over twenty years. Use ellipses to indicate omitted material from direction quotations. The MLA standard, commonly used in high school and college English and liberal arts classes, has very specific requirements for ellipses and brackets.

Punctuation

Punctuation marks tell us when to close a sentence (end punctuation), pause (commas), or use emphasis (dashes). In addition to these punctuation marks, we'll also review colons, semicolons, hyphens, parentheses, brackets, apostrophes, and quotation marks. End Punctuation We'll just dive into the review about end punctuation. It's short and sweet. End Punctuation Use . . . at the end of . . . Example: Periods all sentences except exclamations and questions Periods are the most common end-punctuation mark. Exclamation Points sentences that express strong feeling or emphatic commands On your marks. Get set. Go! Question Marks direct questions What's for dinner? Avoid using multiple end-punctuation marks. Instead of: Did you really go to the South Pacific??? Use: Did you really go to the South Pacific? Commas Unlike the predictable end-punctuation marks, commas pop up everywhere in sentences. Commas help readers know when to pause and help clarify the meaning of a sentence. Without them, unfortunate sentences like this one occur: While we cooked Uncle Albert prepared a chocolate torte. Use a comma after a long introductory phrase, including a subordinate clause functioning as an adverb. Instead of going to Dallas this year, we went to Albuquerque. Because Cindi loved to study, she spent hours and hours in the library. Ready to run, Daniel laced up his tennis shoes. If meaning is not compromised, a comma is not needed after shorter introductory phrases. If meaning could be misconstrued, keep the comma. Next week Marcus will begin the great American novel. Use a comma before a closing subordinate clause that follows the main clause. We climbed the summit at dawn, proving it could be done in a single day. Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction between independent clauses. This comma is not necessary if the two clauses are short and the meaning remains clear. Use a comma : Passion flowers can bloom at any time during the growing season, but they predictably fill the hot months of July and August with color. No comma needed : I recognized him and he walked away. A comma is not needed between parts of a compound predicate, even when coordinating conjunctions are used. Ryan went to the store and came back quickly. Use a comma between short independent clauses. We came, we ate, we saw. Use a comma between items in a series. Never underestimate the power of a light, a rope, and a bundle of sticks. Chicken and dumplings, mashed potatoes and gravy, and pork and beans were the standards of my grandmother's kitchen. Use commas to set apart direct addresses. Thank you, Albert, for the tomatoes from your garden. Use a comma to set apart mild interjections and the words yes and no. Well, who knew it would explode? No, do not cross the street. Use a comma after introductory conjunctive adverbs. No one understands why Atlantis has never been found. Rather, it remains a mystery. Use a comma to set apart the year in full dates. Notice that commas are not needed if the date is given in day/month/year format or if only the month and year are provided. Jesse was born on May 20, 1981, the day before the family moved to Oregon. After renovations were complete, Town Hall reopened on 21 March 1991. Esther and George set off for California in January 1900. Use a comma to separate parts of a full address or a place name. Note that commas are not used before zip codes. I still remember the address I memorized in kindergarten; it was 701 Glenway Drive, Houston, Texas 77070. Use a comma to set apart a title following a name. Thanks go to Michelle Mayberry, D.D.S., for sponsoring our 10K run. (Please note, though, that while this is true for the above examples, commas are no longer required after Jr., Sr., and the like.) Use a comma after greetings and closures in formal letters. Dear Mr. Richardson, Sincerely,

Syntax Clauses

Recall that a clause is a group of related words. We'll begin our review of syntax with independent and dependent clauses. An independent clause is a complete sentence that can stand on its own. Unless it is an imperative sentence, an independent clause has a subject (also called the noun) and a predicate (which contains the verb and related objects). We walked. The pendulum swung. Time marched on. A dependent clause (also called a subordinate clause) cannot stand on its own. Dependent clauses work with independent clauses to enhance the meaning of the sentence and can act as adjectives, adverbs, or even nouns. Dependent clauses that act as adjectives are called adjective clauses or relative clauses. Notice that adjective clauses begin with relative pronouns (that, which, who, whom, whomever, whose) and are appositives. Mark, who knew the area better than anyone else, was enlisted to help with the search. The double summersault, which is the most complicated dive possible on our diving board, became my trademark. Dependent clauses that act as adverbs are called adverb clauses. Adverb clauses begin with a subordinating conjunction (after, although, as, before, if, since, though, until, when, while). Cassie knew she was almost home when she saw the sign for the bookstore. Dynamite was the primary tool for railroad construction until "the machine" was invented. Before Don signed the contract, he always liked to look it over one last time. Dependent clauses that act as nouns are called noun clauses. Why the disaster happened will never be understood. I've always wanted to know how roads are constructed.

Regular and Irregular Verbs

Regular and Irregular Verbs Regular verbs do just what you'd expect them to do. Most verbs follow these rules. Recall that the past participle is the form a verb takes to show a more complicated verb tense. Examples include: will have walked, have sauntered, has galloped. Present Past Past Participle walk walked walked saunter sauntered sauntered gallop galloped galloped Irregular verbs do not follow the rules for verb tense. Here are a few of them. Present Past Past Participle become became become choose chose chosen do did done eat ate eaten go went gone get got gotten, got ride rode ridden see saw seen swing swung swung take took taken write write written

Types of Sentences

Sentences can be categorized by purpose (see Interrogative Sentences in the previous section) or by structure. Here, we'll review the four types of sentence structures. Simple sentences are comprised of a single independent clause. Dogs howled. The panda bear clapped wildly. Compound sentences consist of two independent clauses. Audiences cheered and children shouted. The cat left for a week and the dog rejoiced. Complex sentences are made up of one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses. Because of our trip to Milan, we had to postpone the reunion. Only our forks know how much we ate for dinner. Compound-complex sentences are made up of two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clause. If we'd known she was in Massachusetts, we could have visited her and she could have driven back with us.

Spelling

Stories abound about people who, at the wrong place and time, misspelled a word with dramatic results. Sometimes, an important person looks silly, and sometimes, a comical misunderstanding takes place. Perhaps because spelling is relatively straightforward when compared to other writing conventions, readers and onlookers love to point out spelling mistakes. Spell Check and the Dictionary Perhaps the most useful spelling rule is the reminder to use spell check on your word processing software. Although it won't catch misplaced words (such as baked instead of biked), spell-check programs will find many obvious misspellings. Also, explore the spelling and grammar check options for your word processing software. Many programs allow you to make various choices about how they work: automatically correcting misspelled words, automatically capitalizing the first word in a sentence, and overlooking words containing numbers are three choices that many programs allow you to make. In addition to word processing spell checkers, remember the old fashioned spell checker: the dictionary.

Verbs

While nouns describe the who and what of the sentence, verbs describe the action. The Chihuahua sauntered down the lane. The chef simmers the succotash. He gave her his all. Verbs can be singular or plural, so we choose the verb that goes with the subject's number. Note that collective nouns in the subject (such as money below) are usually treated as if they were singular nouns and are given singular verbs. Singular Noun and Verb The tiger shark jumps. She eats a banana every morning. Money makes the world go around. The murder of crows caws portentously. Plural Noun and Verb Sara and Tony contemplate which mango would taste best. Cynics wonder. They munch their way through a wonderful picnic. Collective nouns may be treated as plurals when the individuals behave independently rather than as a group. My family live in different towns near Vermillionville. The jury are deadlocked.

Types of Verbs

Types of Verbs An intransitive verb does not need a direct object. The lightning flashed. She spoke. A transitive verb requires a direct object to complete its meaning. He caught the first flight to Kenya. Her imagination took her away. A linking verb links subject and subject complement. She was tired. The musician turned white. The music became his obsession. A helping verb helps a verb form a certain tense or distinction and is placed before the verb it helps. Helping verbs include be, can, do, have, and will and are also called auxiliary verbs. I could eat another chocolate truffle, if you insist. They'll never know how lucky they were. I am knitting your present right now.

Consistent Verb Tense

Use a consistent verb tense in the same sentence and in related paragraphs. Don't change tenses (sometimes called shifting), unless helpful to the meaning of the sentence Instead of : The painter completed the mural and was taking a nap. Use : The painter completed the mural and took a nap.

Verb Tense

Verb Tense As you can see, active voice and passive voice contribute to verb form. Besides depending on verb voice, verb tense depends on time, continuation, and when the action happened in relation to other events. Past tense verbs describe a specific time in the past. Active : I walked the dog. Passive: The dog was walked by me. Past perfect verbs describe an action that occurred in the past before another event in the past. Active : That day, I had walked the dog before I fed the cat. Passive : That day, the dog had been walked by me before I fed the cat. Past progressive verbs describe an action occurring and continuing to occur in the past, often at the same time something else happened. Active : I was walking the dog when I remembered the delight of learning grammar. Passive : The dog was being walked by me when I remembered the delight of learning grammar. Past perfect progressive tense verbs describe a continuing action in the past that occurred before another event in the past. Notice that the definition for past perfect progressive looks a bit like the definitions for past perfect and past progressive combined. Active : I had been walking the dog when I had a bright idea. Passive voice is not usually used with perfect progressive tenses, and here's why if you feel curious. Present tense verbs take place now or could take place now. Active : I walk the dog. Passive: The dog is walked by me. Present perfect verbs describe actions that have happened one or more times before now. Watch out for this verb tense. The perfect tenses describe actions taking place in relation to a specific time or event; in present perfect tense, that specific time is now (the present). It gets tricky because the time before now is the past! Active : I have walked the dog once a week since January. Passive : The dog has been walked by me once a week since January. Present progressive verbs describe what is happening and continuing to happen now. Active : I am walking the dog right now. Passive: The dog is being walked by me now. Present perfect progressive verbs describe actions that have happened one or more times before now and are continuing to happen. Active : Since January, I have been walking the dog. Future tense verbs describe what could happen in the future. Active : I will walk the dog. Passive : The dog will be walked by me tomorrow. Future perfect verbs describe what will happen by a specific time in the future. Active : I will have walked the dog twice before the day is over. Passive : The dog will have been walked by me twice before the day is over. Future progressive verbs describe something that will continue to occur in the future. Active : I will be walking the dog every day. Future perfect progressive verbs describe an action that will continue to occur before a specific time in the future. Active : This October, I will have been walking the dog for 13 years. It's your turn! Just relax about verb tense. If you'd like a little extra help, here's a trick.

Verbals

Verbals are formed from verbs and can function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs in a sentence. We'll briefly review three types of verbals here. Infinitives usually consist of to followed by the verb base. Infinitives can act as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. Noun : To run is the greatest freedom. Adjective : The freedom to run made her feel relaxed. Adverb : He lived to run. Gerunds consist of the verb base followed by -ing. Gerunds function as nouns. Running brought her great joy. He enjoyed running even when he was alone. A participle, when used as a verbal, functions as an adjective. Participles can come before or after the nouns or pronouns they modify. She crossed the finish line first, running with verve. Surprised , he gasped.

ESL Errors

We'll begin with the intricate world of articles. After that, we'll briefly review ESL challenges for other parts of speech, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Using Articles For many native English speakers, choosing the correct article has become second nature. However, for nonnative speakers, understanding the rules for choosing articles can be complicated. Before we delve into the intricacies of articles, recall that a is used for nouns beginning with a consonant or consonant sound. The other indefinite article, an, is used for nouns beginning with a vowel or vowel sound. Although grammarians disagree on the finer points of when to use a and an, remember the purpose of having two indefinite articles: to avoid the confusion that comes from blurring a with a beginning vowel sound. A apple or a etymology could be misheard. First, determine whether a noun is a count noun or a noncount noun. A count noun can be counted or divided. A noncount noun can't be counted or divided. Many abstract nouns are noncount nouns. count nouns : one cat, two cats one room, two rooms one person, two people noncount nouns : air water independence For noncount nouns, determine whether the word is general or specific. For a general noncount noun, do not use an article. For a specific noncount noun, use the definite article the. Note that the same word can be general or specific, depending on how it is used in the sentence. general noncount : We need clean air. specific noncount : We need to clean the air that we breathe. For count nouns, you must ask two questions: Is the noun singular or plural? Is the noun being used for the first time? For plural count nouns, use the definite article the. For singular count nouns that are being used for the first time, use a or an. For singular count nouns that have already been introduced, use the: plural count: the tents, the orangutans singular count (first use): a tent, an orangutan singular count (subsequent use): the tent, the orangutan For further clarification about singular count nouns, here's an example. I took a backpack with me when I went camping. The backpack could hold up to eighty pounds of gear. Besides determining whether nouns are count or noncount, general or specific, singular or plural, and first use or subsequent use, there are a few exceptions to review. You may also choose to review quantifiers and how to match them with different types of nouns. Use the definite article the when only one of that noun exists. The North Sea is a cold place. Use the when the noun is modified by a superlative adjective. My dog is the best student in his obedience class. Use the when the noun refers to a specific instance of that noun. The building that I helped to design opened today. The time for a new election has come. Note that noncount nouns do not take a or an. Instead of : a plutonium, a sugar Use : plutonium, sugar Noncount nouns are not usually pluralized. Instead of: documentations, stillnesses Use : documentation, stillness

Logical Sequence

You may have noticed that certain words dictate the structure and logic of a sentence. Because introduces a specific cause using a dependent clause. The effect is usually in an independent clause in the same sentence. Note that because is often used in complex sentences. Because the world is round, we have seasons. I'm saving my pennies because I want to go to Maui next year. If-then also helps describe a cause-and-effect relationship. However, if-then is used to describe a conditional relationship that has not occurred yet. Notice that the if-then construction and other correlatives are used in compound sentences. If I save enough money, then I'll go to Maui for a month. Including connects an independent clause with a dependent clause. The dependent clause contains an item or items that fit into the category described in the independent clause. Note the complex sentence structure. We traveled to all of the Hawaiian Islands, including Kauai and Oahu. Mollie loved the beach, including the sand and the sound of the waves on the shore. But and and are conjunctions that can connect two independent clauses (forming a compound sentence) or an independent clause and a dependent clause (forming a complex sentence). But precedes a clause that contradicts or further defines a previous clause. And precedes a clause that continues the thought of a previous clause. We always wanted to go to Maui, but we never intended to stay forever. Chasing rainbows doesn't get you anywhere, and nowhere is a nice place to be. Only can act as an adjective or adverb to indicate "this one and no other." I gave her my only map of downtown Paris. Her teammates only wanted to win.