8. Research and Program Evaluation

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Epictetus said about thinking

"People are disturbed not by things, but by the views they take of them." - very REBT

Experimental hypothesis

"There will be differences between the control group and the experimental group.

Albert Ellis believes

"When you change your thinking, you change your life." (Ellis known for REBT and work in sexology.)

Insight

"aha, now I understand!" -equated with gestalt psychologist Wolfgang Kohler

Premack principle

'an efficient reinforcer is what the client himself likes to do.'

Cognitive Information Processing (CIP) > Pyramid of Information-Processing Domains (Base & Middle)

(Base) KNOWLEDGE DOMAINS > "Knowing about myself and knowing about my options" > Self-Knowledge (one's interests, abilities, values) > Occupational Knowledge (Middle) DECISION SKILLS DOMAIN >"Knowing how I make decisions" > General information processing skills (CASVE)

In a graph, the tail indicates whether a distribution of scores is positively or negatively skewed.

(Tail to left - negatively skewed. Tail to right - positively skewed.)

Cognitive Information Processing (CIP) > Pyramid of Information-Processing Domains (Top)

(Top) EXECUTIVE PROCESSING DOMAIN > "Thinking about my decision making." > Meta-Cognitions (skills initiating, coordinating, storing, and retrieving information. Used in problem solving: a) Self-Talk (creates expectations and reinforces behavior; alters task approach skills; positive required for effective problem solving) b) Self-Awareness (balance between individual goals and the goals of important others c) Control (ability to control impulsive actions in the career decision process; know when to move to next phase in CASVE cycle).

Type II error (beta error) occurs when a researcher accepts null even though it is false.

(memory: RA as in 'residence advisor'... R - signifies reject when true A - signifies accept when false

Trait-Oriented Theories > John Holland's Typology

- Career Choice is an expression of, or an extension of personality into the world of work. Individuals search for environments that will let them exercise their skills and abilities, express their attitudes and values, and take on agreeable problems and roles. Their are six kinds of occupational environments and six matching personal orientations. - Individuals are attracted to a particular role demand of an occupational environment that mets their personal needs and provides them with satisfaction.

Trait-Oriented Theories > Trait-and-Factor Theory Overview

- Frank Parsons (1909) & E.G. Williamson (1939) - KEY ASSUMPTION: Individuals have unique patterns of ability or traits that can be objectively measured and correlated with requirements of occupations (MATCHING). These can be profiled to represent an individual's potential. - Used assessment and test results and other data to reveal congruence between the individual and work environment. Individual strengths and weaknesses were evaluated, with the primary purpose of finding a job that matched measured abilities and achievements.

Trait-Oriented Theories > John Holland's Typology

- Holland stressed the importance of SELF-KNOWLEDGE in the search for vocational satisfaction. - Intelligence is considered less important than personality and interest. - People are products of their environment. - CONGRUENCE of one's view of self with occupational preference establishes a Modal Personal Style.

Trait-Oriented Theories > Person-Environment-Correspondence (PEC)

- OCCUPATIONAL REINFORCERS (achievement, advancement, authority, coworkers, activity, security, social service) are vital to an individual's work adjustment. - Achievement: related to experiences of accomplishments in the work situation - Social Service: related to the opportunities that a work situation offers for performing tasks that will help people - Job satisfaction is a significant indicator of work adjustment. - Job satisfaction is significant variable in determining productivity, job involvement, and career tenure. - Individual needs and values are significant components of job satisfaction

Trait-Oriented Theories > Trait-and-Factor Theory Overview

- Primary goal of using assessment data was to predict job satisfaction and success. - A major criticism of this theory has been a dependence on test results. Another criticism is that it doesn't account for how interests, values, aptitudes, achievements, and personalities grow and change. - Traits: refers to abilities and interests

Program Evaluation - The first step in program evaluation typically involves:

- RATIONALE - Before steps such as data collection, research design, and data analysis can proceed, the goals of the program must be known. It would be hard to know what the relevant parameters for data collection were without knowing the program's objectives.

Expectancy Tables

- RATIONALE - Expectancy tables allow a test user to interpret examinees' predictor scores in terms of potential scores on a criterion. They are a form of criterion-referenced interpretation.

NCE - Group Which of the following is a product-oriented group counseling theory, rather than a process-oriented group counseling theory: A behavioral B cognitive-behavioral C Gestalt D psychoanalysis

- RATIONALE - Behavioral groups are more concerned with achieving a particular end goal or "product" - i.e., quitting smoking, becoming more extroverted, losing weight, dealing with anger, etc. Although such end results may be desirable for the other theories, those groups are more likely to be concerned with the impact of the therapy process itself.

NCE - Group According to research on organizational behavior, which of the following is the best method for lessening the tendency for group members to think alike: A- assign a clear decisive leader B- suggest that group members write down anonymous suggestions rather than discuss them out loud C- separate the group into two or three smaller groups D- ensure that the most vocal group members delay their decisions until later in the decision making process

- RATIONALE - D. The question describes the phenomenon of groupthink in which group members think alike. The most vocal group members tend to be leaders and their opinions are often mirrored by the followers. By delaying their decisions, they allow different opinions to emerge. The assignment of a leader (A) is not necessary - usually, leaders will emerge.

NCE - Group Depending upon the theoretical orientation of a group, the group meeting emphasis will vary, as will the goals of group members. Which of the following groups is most likely to focus on a specific goal to be attained: A T-group B behavioral group C existential group D Gestalt group

- RATIONALE - Although all of the groups listed may have specific goals, the other groups are "process-oriented" groups, while behavioral groups are clearly "goal-oriented." Behavioral group therapy is similar to other types of behavioral therapy, in which the goal is to identify a target behavior and change it.

Trait-Oriented Theories > Person-Environment-Correspondence (PEC)

- The process of achieving and maintaining correspondence with a work environment is referred to as WORK ADJUSTMENT. The principle indicator of work adjustment is TENURE. - PERSONALITY Structure: A stable characteristic made up of abilities and values. **** This theory emphasizes that both ABILITIES (work skills) and VALUES (work needs) are important components of optimal career selection.

Trait-Oriented Theories > Person-Environment-Correspondence (PEC)

- Used to be referred to as Theory of Work Adjustment - KEY ASSUMPTION: Individuals seeks to achieve and maintain a positive relationship with their work environments. Individuals bring their own requirements to a work environment, and the work environment makes its requirements of individuals. To survive, individuals and work environments must achieve some degree of CONGRUENCE (CORRESPONDENCE).

Consultation theories

-Caplan's psychodynamic mental health consult -Social learning theory assoc. with Bandura -Schein's process consultation model

If internal consistency is of concern, what reliability coefficient will most likely be used?

-RATIONALE- COEFFICIENT ALPHA is a type of internal consistency reliability coefficient. Determining a test's internal consistency reliability by the coefficient alpha involves giving a test once to a single group of examinees. A special formula is used to determine the degree of inter-item consistency.

Rogers' 3 key factors to being an effective counselor

-attitude must be genuine -unconditional positive regard -empathic understanding

Allen Ivey's 3 types of empathy

-basic: counselor's response is on same level as client -subtractive: counselor's behavior doesn't convey understanding -additive: adds to client's understanding and awareness

Daniel Paul Schreber

-ex mental patient who spent 9 years in hospital -wrote Memoirs of a Mental Patient (1903) -'most quoted case in modern Psychiatry'

Four bipolar scales of the MBTI

-extroversion/introversion -perception/intuition -thinking/feeling -judging/perceiving

A life script is actually a life drama or plot:

-never scripts (will never succeed) -always scripts (always be a certain way) -after scripts (will be after an event happens) -open ended scripts (no direction) -desirable scripts (what they want)

3 types of learning

-reinforcement (operant conditioning) -association (classical conditioning) -insight

Cycle of violence (3 phases)

-tension building (walking on eggshells) -acute incident (abuse takes place) -honeymoon phase (romance, making up) (by Dr. Lenore Walker)

Behavior MODIFICATION strategies are based heavily on INSTRUMENTAL conditioning (i.e., B. F. Skinner with the 'i'), while behavior THERAPY emphasizes CLASSICAL conditioning (Pavlov).

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College Entrance Examination Board (also known as Educational Testing Services [ETS]) scores range from 200 to 800 with a mean of 500.

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Counselors who work as consultants generally do not adhere to one single theory.

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Frankl felt that suffering would be transformed into achievement and creativity.

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Gestalt can imply that the integrated whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

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Most counselors see themselves as practitioners, not researchers.

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Research is a necessary factor for professionalism in counseling.

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SIGI (System of Interactive Guidance and Information) - primarily used for college students that helps the user assess interests, values and abilities, and explore occupational alternatives.

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Surveys should include at least 100 people.

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Sympathy often implies pity, while accurate empathy is the ability to experience another person's subjective experience.

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The APA's Journal of Psychology publishes more counseling research articles than any other periodical in the field.

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The benefit of standard scores such as percentiles, t-scores, z-scores,stanines, or standard deviations over raw scores, is that a standard score allows you to analyze the data in relation to the properties of the normal bell shaped curve.*

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The most important concept in Freud's theory is the unconscious mind.

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A study that would best rule out chance factors would have a significance level of P=___.

.001 The smaller the value for P, the more stringent the level of significance.

A study that would best rule out chance factors would have a significance level of P=___.

.001The smaller the value for P, the more stringent the level of significance.

Traditionally, PROBABILITY in social science research is set at _____ or lower (i.e., 01, .001).

.05 (.05 indicates differences would occur via chance only 5 times in 100.

Traditionally, PROBABILITY in social science research is set at _____ or lower (i.e., 01, .001).

.05 (.05 indicates differences would occur via chance only 5 times in 100.

The most effective time interval (temporal relation) between the CS and the US is ____.

.5 seconds

Carkhuff's 'scale for measurement' levels for counseling skills

1 - not attending 2 - subtracts noticeable affect from communication 3 - feelings expressed are interchangeable with client's meaning 4 - Counselor adds to client's affect 5 - Counselor adds to client's feelings, meanings

Ethics

1 - subjects informed of any risks 2 - negative after effects are removed 3 - allow subjects to withdrawal at any time 4 - confidentiality of subjects will be protected 5 - research report results will be presented in accurate format that is not misleading 6 - you will only use techniques that you are trained in

Developmental Theories > Super's 5 DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS

1- CRYSTALLIZATION (14-18) - forming a preferred career plan and how to implement it 2- SPECIFICATION (18 -21) - narrowing choices to specific preferences 3- IMPLEMENTATION (21 - 24) - completing training and entering career 4- STABILIZATION (24 -35) - confirming career choice, feeling of security 5- CONSOLIDATION (35+) - period of establishment, advancement, status, and seniority.

Inferential Statistics > 4 Assumptions

1- NORMALITY: A set of scores does not significantly differ from the normal curve.

Power of a statistical test

1- beta (Power connotes a statistical test's ability to correctly reject a false null hypothesis.)

Power of a statistical test

1- beta(Power connotes a statistical test's ability to correctly reject a false null hypothesis.)

Trait-and-Factor Theory > Williamson's 6 Stages of Career Guidance

1. ANALYSIS: data gathering attitudes, interests, ect. 2. SYNTHESIS: strengths & weaknesses 3. DIAGNOSIS: I.D. the problem; discover its causes; 4 categories for diagnosing: No Choice, Uncertain Choice, Discrepancy between interest and aptitudes/abilities and field, Unwise Choice 4. PROGNOSIS: how successful will the client be? 5. COUNSELING: if poor prognosis, client should receive additional counseling, which is likely to involve a recycling through the previous steps 6. FOLLOW-UP: was course of action correct?

Cognitive Information Processing (CIP) > 10 Assumptions

1. Career choice results from an interaction of cognitive and affective processes 2. Making career choices is a problem-solving activity 3. The capabilities of career problem solvers depend on the ability of cognitive operations as well as knowledge. 4. Career problem solving is a high-memory-load task 5. Motivation 6. Career development involves continual growth and change in knowledge structures. 7. Career identity depends on self-knowledge. 8. Career maturity depends on one's ability to solve career problems 9. The ultimate goal of career counseling is achieved by facilitating the growth of information-processing skills. 10. The ultimate aim of career counseling is to enhance the client's capabilities as a career problem solver and a decision maker.

Types of Validity

1. Construct Validity a. Convergent b. Discriminant 2. Criterion Validity a. Predictive b. Concurrent 3. Content Validity 4. Face Validity

Developmental Theories > Super's 5 LIFE STAGES and 3 Substages

1. GROWTH (birth-14) - Curiosity, Fantasy, Interest - development of capacity, attitudes, interests, and needs associated with self concepts. 2. EXPLORATION (15-24) - Crystallizing, Specifying, Implementing - a tentative phase in which choices are narrowed but not finalized; "trying it out" through classes, work experience, hobbies; The crystallization of traits occurs when there is progress toward forming a stable self-concept. 3. ESTABLISHMENT (25-44)- Stabilizing, Consolidating, Advancing - characterized by trail and stabilization through work experiences 4. MAINTENANCE (45-64)- Holding, Updating, Innovating - characterized by a continual adjustment process to improve working position and situation. 5. DISENGAGEMENT (65+)- Decelerating, Retirement Planning, Retirement Living - characterized by preretirement considerations, reduced work output, and eventual retirement.

Gould's (1978) six stages of adult development?

1. Leaving the Parent's World (16-22) 2. Getting into the adult world (22-28) 3. Questioning and Reexamination (28-34) 4. Midlife Decade (35-45) 5. Reconciliation and Mellowing (43-50) 6.Stability and Acceptance (50 and over)

4 ways to measure Reliability

1. Test-retest reliability: same test 2 times 2. Equivalent forms reliability: 2 forms of same test 3. Internal consistency reliability: Split-half reliability and Coefficient alpha (will be high when the items on a test are correlated with each other); Kuder-richardson 4. Inter-scorer reliability: the consistency or degree of agreement between two or more scorers.

Surveys should include at least------ people

100

William of Occam

14th century philosopher and theologian. (Occam's Razor, aka 'parsimony' named for)

William of Occam

14th century philosopher and theologian.(Occam's Razor, aka 'parsimony' named for)

The peak period of competition between therapies was during the late

1960s

Forces of psychology

1st - psychoanalysis 2nd - behaviorism 3rd - humanism 4th - multiculturalism

If a distribution is bimodal, there is a good chance that the researcher is working with ____ distinct ______.

2, populations.

Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) (1996) > The Big 3 (2-3)

2. OUTCOME EXPECTATIONS- Imagined consequences of engaging in particular behaviors - Beliefs about: Extrinsic reinforcement (tangible rewards) Intrinsic reinforcement (pride in achievement) Outcomes derived from task process (absorption) Values, defined as preferences for particular reinforcers or work conditions (money, status, autonomy, etc.) are incorporated into outcome expectations. That is, we expect to receive these things when we engage in certain activities. 3. PERSONAL GOALS- Seen as playing a primary role in behavior. A goal is defined as the decisions to begin a particular activity or future plan. Behavior is organized or sustained based on these previously set goals

Z-scores (aka standard scores) are the same as standard deviations, thus a Z-score of -2.5 means

2.5 SD below the mean

You completed instruction and administers a test for a career learning unit. You derived a group mean of 32 and s.d of 4 from the individual test score. The range of the scores for +-3 standard deviations is?

20-44 3 s.d equals 4x3 or +- 12 of 32 32-12 = 20 and 32+12 = 44

RESEARCH - Two different tests are administered to 50 students. When the scores on the tests are correlated, a coefficient of .49 is obtained. This means that approximately ___% of the variability in the two tests is shared in common.

25% The square of .49 ( .49 X .49, or, rounding off, about .5 X .5) is about equal to .25. To find percentage of shared variance between 2 variables, simply square the correlation coefficient.

Trait-Oriented Theories > John Holland's Typology

3) IDENTITY - Describes individuals who identify with their work environment and have a clear and stable picture of their goals, interests, and talents. Client who have many occupational goals have low identity. 4) CONGRUENCE- Concerned with relationship between an individual's personality type and the work environment. Congruence between the 2 leads to job satisfaction. **The most important aspect of Holland's theory is the match between personality and work environment in which similar personalities choose certain careers and respond to problems in similar ways.

Developmental Theories > Gottfredson's Circumscription, Compromise, and Self-Creation: A Developmental Theory of Occupational Aspirations > 4 Stages (3-4)

3. Orientation to social valuation (ages 9-13) - Development of concepts of social class contributes to the awareness of self-in-situation. Preferences for level of work develop. They will begin to designate some jobs as unacceptable because they fall below a minimum status level (tolerable level boundary) and some higher status jobs as unacceptable because they represent too much effort or risk of failure (tolerable effort boundary). 4. Orientation to the internal unique self (ages 14+) - Introspective thinking promotes greater self-awareness and perceptions of others. Individual achieves greater perception of vocational aspirations in the context of self, sex role, and social class. Until this point circumscription has been mainly an unconscious process.

Developmental Theories > Gottfredson's Circumscription, Compromise, and Self-Creation: A Developmental Theory of Occupational Aspirations > 4 Stages (1-2)

4 Stages of Cognitive Development / Stages of Circumscription 1. Orientation to size and power (ages 3-5) - Thought process is concrete; children develop some sense through sex roles of what it means to be an adult. 2. Orientation to sex roles (ages 6-8) - Self-concept is influenced by gender development. Begin to assign job roles to certain sexes.

Counseling Process- 4 Steps of the counseling process

4 Steps of the counseling process (each step has to occur in order for counseling process to be effective)

In a normally-shaped distribution, the percentile rank equivalent off a z-score of +1 is approximately:

84% A percentile rank is a transformed score that indicates the percentage of scores falling below the corresponding raw test score. The mean represents the 50th percentile. A z-score of +1 will correspond to one standard deviation (about 34%) above the mean, or the 84th percentile.

Stanine

9 divisions of the normal curve. Range=1-9; Mean= 5 ; s.d.= 2 The term stanine is a contraction of "standard nines." Stanines provide a single-digit scoring metric with a range from 1 to 9, a mean of 5, and a standard deviation of 2. Each stanine score represents a specific range of percentile scores in the normal curve. Stanines are useful when a researcher is interested in providing a "band" interpretation rather than a single score cutoff.

Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT)

>>Lent, Brown, & Hackett (1996) Major goals: Find methods of defining specific mediators from which learning experiences shape and influence career behavior. Explain how variables (interest, abilities, values) interrelate and influence career outcomes In SCCT, career interests are regulated by self-efficacy and an outcome expectation, which means people, will form lasting interests in activities when they experience personal competency and positive outcomes. On the contrary, a belief of low personal competency will lead people to avoid activities. Perceived barriers such as those related to gender, ethnicity, age, socioeconomic status, or family constraints may create negative outcome expectations, even when people have had previous success in the given area.

ABA model of research (also known as 'withdrawal design')

A - baseline secured B - intervention implemented A - outcome is examined via a new baseline

Kleinfelter's Syndrome

A 16 year old boy, who is a client of yours, shows no masculinity at puberty. What is the name of this syndrome?

Formative Evaluation Summative Evaluation Assessment

A FORMATIVE EVALUATION: It is conducted while a program is being formed. The purpose of a formative evaluation is to obtain the information needed to revise a program as it is being developed in order to ensure that the program's goals are met. A SUMMATIVE EVALUATION, which is the systematic evaluation of a program after it has been administered to determine if the program's objectives have been met. An ASSESSMENT is conducted prior to the implementation of a program or an intervention to obtain the information needed to formulate the goals and objectives of the proposed program.

Formative Evaluation Summative Evaluation Assessment

A FORMATIVE EVALUATION: It is conducted while a program is being formed. The purpose of a formative evaluation is to obtain the information needed to revise a program as it is being developed in order to ensure that the program's goals are met. Continuous information used to modify a program to improve effectiveness (4 exams during semester).

NCE - Group REBT Group

A Rational Emotive Therapy group leader would teach the A-B-C-D-E- method and how people create and resolve their own problems. Disputing irrational beliefs and underlying feelings and actions require a highly didactic and active approach.

Trait VS State

A TRAIT is a relatively enduring (i.e., long lasting) characteristic on which people differ

Traits and States

A TRAIT is a relatively enduring (i.e., long lasting) characteristic on which people differ; A STATE is a less enduring or more transient characteristic on which people differ. Traits and states are actually social constructions, but they are real in the sense that they are useful for classifying and organizing the world, they can be used to understand and predict behavior, and they refer to something in the world that we can measure. \

Histogram

A distribution with class intervals graphically displayed on a bar graph.

Histogram

A distribution with class intervals graphically displayed on a bar graph.(horizontal axis plots the independent variable [IV])

Physical Addiction

A drug produced condition characterized by both tolerance and dependence

Turner's Syndrome

A female client of yours has no gonads or sex hormones. What do you think is the problem with her?

Mesomorphy

A friend of yours has a good, developed, stocky, muscular body. How would you describe this body type?

Ectomorphy

A friend of yours has a long, stringy, skinny body. How would you categorize this body type?

Endomorphy

A friend of yours has a round, plump, soft, heavy body having a heavy trunk. How would you describe this body type?

Alogia

A friend of yours, who is suffering from some mental disorder, has diminished thinking ability. What is he suffering from?

Occupation

A group of jobs so similar in nature that a person successful in one could move to another without difficulty

Ann Roe (1956) > Needs Theory

A job satisfies an UNCONSCIOUS NEED. Early childhood experiences and parental style affect the needs hierarchy and the relationship of those needs to adult lifestyle. Original theory posits that warm and accepting parents created people who enjoy working with people but has since suggested that more important factors are involved in determine career choice. Roe's theory of career development uses the hierarchy of needs developed by Maslow.

Developmental Theories >Life-Span Life-Space (Donald Super; 1957)

A major point of Super's theory is that work / life satisfaction is depended upon the extent of adequate outlets for abilities, interests, personality, and values. Major Points: 1) Career development is a life long process and self-concept is constantly being shaped 2) Career pattern is determined by parent's socioeconomic level, mental ability, personality, and opportunities 3) Work / life satisfaction is depended upon extent of adequate outlets for abilities, interests, personality, and values 4) Super / Kidd suggested that "career adaptability" depends on a person's ability to face, pursue, or accept career change.

Variance

A measure of dispersion of scores around some measure of central tendency; it is also the standard deviation squared.

Counter-Conditioning

A negative conditioned stimulus is paired with a pleasant stimulus that elicits a response that is incompatible with the unwanted conditioned response

Percentile or Percentile Rank

A percentile indicates the percentage of people in the reference group who performed at or below the examinee's score. This score type is easily confused and unfortunately is widely misused, despite its popularity. Percentiles are an ordinal or rank-order scale of measurement, rather than an equal-interval scale. That means one cannot subtract or average percentile scores in order to represent growth or change.

Correlations range from 0.00 (no relationship) to 1.0 or -1.0 (perfect relationship).

A positive relationship is not stronger than a negative relationship of the same numerical value. (i.e., .70 and -.70 are the same significance)

Correlations range from 0.00 (no relationship) to 1.0 or -1.0 (perfect relationship).

A positive relationship is not stronger than a negative relationship of the same numerical value.(i.e., .70 and -.70 are the same significance)

Matching

A procedure used to select participants for comparison groups based on participant characteristics that are related to the dependent variable. Matching is frequently used in quasi-experimental studies when random assignment to groups is not feasible.

Between-subjects design

A research study uses different subjects for each condition. (Each subject receives only one value of the IV)

Between-subjects design

A research study uses different subjects for each condition.(Each subject receives only one value of the IV)

Covariate

A source of variation that affects the response variable, but was not controlled for during study design (often observational studies).

Statistic VS Parameter

A statistic is a numerical characteristic of a sample.

Statistic vs Parameter

A statistic is a numerical characteristic of a sample. A parameter is a numerical characteristic of a population.

Correlation coefficient

A statistic that indicates the degree or magnitude of relationship between two variables, often abbreviated using the lower-case 'r'. (Makes a statement regarding the association of two variables and how a change in one is related to the change in the other.)

Correlation coefficient

A statistic that indicates the degree or magnitude of relationship between two variables, often abbreviated using the lower-case 'r'.(Makes a statement regarding the association of two variables and how a change in one is related to the change in the other.)

Factor Analysis

A statistical procedure that reduces a set of items on a measuring instrument into a smaller number of dimensions called factors.

Multiple Regression Analysis

A statistical technique that determines the linear association between a set of predictor variables and a dependent variable and identifies the combination of predictor variables that best estimates the dependent variable (also referred to as the criterion variable).

Proxemics

A student of yours asks about the research of territorial or personal space. How do you name that research for her?

Nondirectional experimental hypothesis

A two-tailed test (i.e., 'The average patient who has completed psychoanalysis will have a statistically different IQ from the average patient who has not received analysis.')

Nondirectional experimental hypothesis

A two-tailed test(i.e., 'The average patient who has completed psychoanalysis will have a statistically different IQ from the average patient who has not received analysis.')

A 1-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used for testing ONE IV.

A two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used to test TWO IVs. (Two IVs requires a two-way ANOVA, 3 IVs requires a 3-way ANOVA, etc.)

A 1-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used for testing ONE IV.

A two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used to test TWO IVs.(Two IVs requires a two-way ANOVA, 3 IVs requires a 3-way ANOVA, etc.)

Ex post facto study

A type of quasi-experiment (literally means 'after the fact') connoting a correlational study in which preexisting groups are utilized

Parameter

A value obtained from a population. (Summarizes a characteristic of a population, i.e., average male height)

Parameter

A value obtained from a population.(Summarizes a characteristic of a population, i.e., average male height)

Statistic

A value obtained from a sample.

Variable

A variable is merely a behavior or a circumstance that can exist on at least two levels or conditions. A variable is a factor that "varies" or is capable of change. The variables of experimental trade can be discrete (e.g. brand of counseling or occupation) or continuous (e.g. height and weight).

If t value is less than the t value in a statistical table

ACCEPT the null hypothesis (computations must exceed the number cited in the table in order to reject null)

If t value is less than the t value in a statistical table

ACCEPT the null hypothesis(computations must exceed the number cited in the table in order to reject null)

ANOVA Assumptions

ANOVA assumptions:

Cognitive Tests

APTITUDE TEST: a test used to predict future performance, "intended to predict success in some occupation or training course"; GRE ACHIEVEMENT TEST: measure what you know (NCE) INTELLIGENCE TEST: WAIS, Stanford-Binet,

One's life is accepted and one realizes that some things can't be changed

According to Gould, what are the characteristics of life development at 43-53 years of age?

Resolution phase

According to Master's and Johnson, what is the stage of sexual response where there is a decrease of sexual tension as the person returns to the unstimulated state?

The adjustment to pregnancy and new responsibilities

According to Rossi, there are 4 stages of parental development. What is the anticipatory stage?

The child leaving home

According to Rossi, there are 4 stages of parental development. What is the disengagement stage?

State of Mind

According to cognitive theorists, what is the process which involves an element of self-consciousness that develops when new or next stage tasks are attempted?

Stroking

According to the principles of TA, what is defined as any recognition, whether positive, negative, conditional or unconditional

Maintenance Structure Technique

Act of the therapist focusing or highlighting certain behaviors in order to increase the functional aspects of the family structure

Social connectedness

Adler's term for a belief that people wish to 'belong'. (suggests we need one another)

Lifestyle, birth order, and family constellation are emphasized by _____.

Alfred Adler (Adlerians believe lifestyle is predictable self-fulfilling prophecy based on psychological feelings about self)

Another name for 'Type I error'

Alpha error

NCE - Group ...

Although all groups are unique, certain traits are typical of most groups. In the beginning stages of therapy, group members haven't yet started to relate to one another or to form social relationships and, therefore, they typically communicate only with the therapist, as if other group members aren't present. During this initial stage, the therapist should be prepared to play an active role.

Confederate (also known as 'stooge')

An accomplice who poses as a client being studied. (Frequently used in social psychology studies.)

Confederate (also known as 'stooge')

An accomplice who poses as a client being studied.(Frequently used in social psychology studies.)

Values Inventory

An assessment of the person's work ethics. Values inventories measure broader aspects of lifestyle.

unconditioned (unlearned) response

An association that naturally exists 9 (i.e., salivating when food is around)

Correlation

An expression of a relationship between 2 independent variables. Viewed on a scattergram. Expressed as number between -1.00 and +1.00 Correlations are BIVARIATE (there are 2 variables being compared).

ANCOVA

An extension of ANOVA. It is a statistic to eliminate a variable the researcher doesn't want in study. Those unwanted variables are called extraneous or covariates. ANCOVA is used to remove covariates. Randomization of subjects and treatments are necessary to use covariance. A major function of covariance is control .

Columbia Mental Maturity Scale

An individually administered mental ability test for children that requires minimal verbal response

Ann Roe (1956) > Needs Theory

Ann Roe's theory is the most deterministic approach. Roe believed that the type of parenting one receives influences the career choice of child - innate tendencies and expression of needs. Career choices gratify one's needs. Children whose parents provide a warm, accepting, and protected environment choose person-oriented occupations. Children whose parents were cold or rejecting choose technical or scientific careers. "An appropriate and satisfying vocation can be the bulwark against neurotic ills or a refuse from them. An inappropriate vocation can be sharply deleterious." Anne Roe postulated that overprotective parents teach children to place emphasis on the speed at which needs are met. The avoidant style produces children who do not know how to meet one's own needs. The accepting parent helps a child develop strategies for meeting one's own needs.

Ann Roe (1956) > Needs Theory

Anne Roe was the first career specialist to develop a two-dimensional system of occupational classification that utilizes FIELDS and LEVELS. The 8 occupational "fields" include: Service, Business, Contact, Organizations, Technology, Outdoor, Science, General Culture, and Arts & Entertainment The 6 "levels" of skill include: Professional & Managerial 1, Professional & Managerial 2, Semi-Professional / Small bBsiness, Skilled, Semi-Skilled, and Unskilled.

Ahistoric therapy

Any psychotherapeutic model that focuses on the here-and-now rather than the past.

NCE - Group Sociogram

As well as identifying alliances in the group, sociograms can help assess whether the alliances are growth-oriented. A sociogram is a graphic representation of the patterns showing which members are drawn to one another, which do not interact, and which members have a one-way attraction, mutual attraction, or aversion to each other.

Reasoning and Physical World

Assuming that Brain Lateralization Theory is correct, what function does the left hemisphere play?

Stage 3: Orientation to social valuation

Assuming there are 4 major developmental stages that have effects on occupational aspirations, how can the stage between the ages of 9-13 be defined?

Tiedeman & O'Hara: Theory of Career Decision Making (1963)

Assumption that one is responsible for one's own behavior because one has the capacity for choice and lives in a world which is not deterministic. Anticipating a Choice (process of making career choice) 1- EXPLORATION: try out new behaviors and fantsize about careers 2- CRYSTALLIZATION: evaluate advantages and disadvantages about possible alternatives, which leads to vocational clarification 3- CHOICE: a choice is made and they may feel confident or unsure about the decision 4- SPECIFICATION: reassess their decision and clarify options Adjusting to the Choice (implementing the decision) 5- INDUCTION: implementation of career choice 6- REFORMATION: adjust to new situations and people 7- INTEGRATION: occurs as individuals become comfortable and familiar with the new environment

Iconic Mode

At what stage of cognitive development is a child If her knowledge is based heavily on images which stand for perceptual events (pictures stand for events).

Arnold Lazarus's concept of BASIC ID (multimodal approach)

B - behavior including acts, habits, reactions A - affective responses like emotions, mood S - sensations, hearing, touch I - images, the way we perceive C - cognitions, thoughts, insights I - interpersonal relationships D - drugs, alcohol, legal or illegal

Setting the significance level at .01 (alpha = .01) means that: A. the chance of accepting the null hypothesis when it is false is 1% B. the chance of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true is 1% C. the chance of accepting the null hypothesis when it is true is 1% D. the chance of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is false is 1%

B. the chance of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true is 1%.

B. the chance of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true is 1%. - RATIONALE - When the level of significance, or alpha, is set at .01, this means that there is a 1% chance that a true null hypothesis will be rejected. In other words, there is a 1% chance of making a Type I error. Type I: rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true Type II: accepting the null hypothesis when it is false If result is statistically significant you can reject the null hypothesis.

Within-subject design Between-subject design

BETWEEN SUBJECTS DESIGN- comparing scores from separate groups. Also known as an independent-measures experimental design. Requires a separate, independent group of individuals for each treatment condition. The goal is to determine whether differences exist between two or more treatment conditions. Requires a larger # of participants. Primary advantage is that each individual score is independent of the other scores because each participant is measured only once. There are no time-related factors or order effects. Primary disadvantage is Individual Differences because they can become confounding variables and produce high variability (making it difficult to determine whether the treatment has any effect). If you anticipate a treatment having a large or longstanding effect that may influence participants in future conditions, it's better to use Between-Subjects design.

Within-subject design VS Between-subject design

Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT)

Bandura's Triadic Reciprocal Model of Causality - these factors are all affecting each other simultaneously: • personal attributes • external environmental factors • overt behavior In essence, a person inputs (e.g. gender, race) interact with contextual factors (e.g. culture, family geography) and learning experiences to influence self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectations. Self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectations in turn shape people's interests, goals, actions, and eventually their attainments. However, these are also influenced by contextual factors (e.g. job opportunities, access to training opportunities, financial resources).

Another name for 'Type II error'

Beta error

Two classes of constructive therapy are

Brief therapy - examines what worked in the past Narrative therapy - attempts to rewrite or 'reconstruct' stories

Career Terms

CAREER - the total work one does in a lifetime plus leisure. CAREER DEVELOPMENT - the total constellation of psychological, sociological, educational, physical, economic, and chance factors that combine to influence the nature and significance of work in the total life span of any given individual. CAREER COUNSELING - a therapeutic service for adults performed outside an educational setting CAREER GUIDANCE - developmental and educational process within a schools system

Career Terms

CAREER INTERVENTION - any activity designed to enhance a person's career development or to enable that person to make more effective career decisions. WORK - an activity that produces something of value for oneself or others. LIFESTYLE - the overall balance of work, leisure, family, and social activities. AKA avocational.

Developmental Theories > Career Pattern

CAREER PATTERN is determined by the parent's SES, mental ability, education, skills, personality characteristics, and career maturity. A career pattern is established when a person combines their life roles which are comprised of a lifestyle, life space, and life cycle.

Casual Comparative Research AKA Ex Post Facto

CASUAL COMPARATIVE research is sometimes called EX POST FACTO research because both the effect and the cause of the effect have already occurred. It involves group comparison but involves no planned treatment. It can establish a cause-and-effect relationship, however, these are tentative and need to be followed up by an experimental research study. There is no treatment applied during the actual study. The function of a CASUAL COMPARATIVE research study is to determine the reasons for the present status of things. Example: A study of the effect of gender on depression.

Casual Comparative Research AKA Ex Post Facto

CASUAL COMPARATIVE research is sometimes called EX POST FACTO research because both the effect and the cause of the effect have already occurred. This is a NON-Experimental Design. There is no treatment applied during the actual study. You do not manipulate any variables. The function of a CASUAL COMPARATIVE research study is to determine the reasons for the present status of things. An ex post facto design is the nonexperimental design most closely resembling an experimental design bc the counselor is interested in examining cause-and-effect relationships.

Stats - Descriptive Statistics Categories

CENTRAL TENDENCY- Mean (interval) Median (ordinal, used for extreme scores) Mode (nominal, least stable)

Descriptive Statistics Categories

CENTRAL TENDENCY- Mean (interval) Median (ordinal, used for extreme scores) Mode (nominal, least stable) VARIABILITY- Range (interval, least stable) Standard Deviation (most stable) Quartile (interval, not affected by extreme scores)

Computer Programs > CIDS, SIGI

CIDS (The Career Information Delivery System) - developed by the Univ. of Oregon, helps career counselors manage clerical and administrative tasks, exploration, interpretation, awareness of various careers and the decision making process. NCE - Group Corrective recapitulation of the primary family group</question> A belief by the dominant culture that the minority group possesses a pattern of negatively valued traits is best referred to as:

Developmental Theories > Gottfredson's Circumscription, Compromise, and Self-Creation: A Developmental Theory of Occupational Aspirations (1980s)

CIRCUMSCRIPTION - Ruling out unacceptable options based on their perceived fit with ones' developing self-concept. Process by which an individual narrows their territory when making a decision about social space or acceptable alternatives. Ideas about gender and prestige influence and limit career choices. SELF-CREATION - Included in circumscription process; altering self-concept in light of developmental or environmental factors After circumscription has excluded options outside a perceived social and personal space, the next process is one of COMPROMISE. In this stage, individuals may be inclined to sacrifice roles they see as more compatible with their self-concept in favor of those that are perceived to be more easily accessible. Individuals give up interests, prestige, and sex type when forced to compromise.

Forms of reliability

COEFFICIENT ALPHA is a type of internal consistency reliability coefficient. Involves giving a test once to a single group of examinees. A special formula is used to determine the degree of inter-item consistency. A COEFFICIENT OF EQUIVALENCE - Two equivalent forms of a test are administered to the same group of examinees at about the same time and their scores are correlated (aka Parallel form measure). COEFFICIENT OF STABILITY - the correlation of the scores when the same test is administered to the same group of examinees on two different occasions (test-retest).

Cognitive Information Processing (CIP) > CASVE Cycle (Decision Skills Domain)

COMMUNICATION (identifying a need - problems perceived as a gap) -receiving, encoding, and sending out queries; Knowing I need to make a choice ANALYSIS (problem is reduced into components)- identifying and placing problems in a conceptual framework; Understanding Myself and My Options; what are reasons for my gap? SYNTHESIS (problem is restructured by creating likely alternatives) Expanding and Narrowing My List of Options; formulating courses of action; elaboration (brainstorming); crystallization is used to narrow down to 3-5 options

Effects > Compensatory Effect, Spillover Theory, Recency Effect

COMPENSATORY EFFECT - proposes that in their leisure time people compensate for what they do during their work hours. For example, an accountant would compensate for a conservative, structured work environment by participating in a daring leisure activity like skydiving. SPILLOVER THEORY - by contrast, proposes that what people do at their job "spills over" to their leisure time. For example, a salesperson may choose leisure activities that involve interaction with other people. RECENCY EFFECT - when a rater's judgment of an employee reflects primarily his or her most recent performance (rather than the entire rating period)

Robert Hoppock

COMPOSITE THEORY- Feels that to make an accurate career decision you must know your personal needs and then find an occupation that meets a high percentage of those needs. As your personal needs change you might need to secure a different occupation. Noted that job satisfaction is determined by the extent to which a person's perceived needs are meet

Continuous Variable Discrete Variable Dichotomous Variable

CONTINUOUS Variable: measured on a scale that changes gradually as though there are divisions between the steps. Examples are temperature, distance, scores on GRE. If one were to compare two individuals in height... even if they are very very close it is always possible to find someone in between the two. DISCRETE Variables: are of a finite value and can assume only certain values. The number of puppies in a litter represents a discrete variable for that litter. DICHOTOMOUS Variables: are two levels that is either yes/no, in/out, religious/areligious, ect. Usually described as whole numbers whole continuous have divisions between the whole numbers.

Cross-Sectional Research Cross-Sequential Research Longitudinal Research

CROSS-SECTIONAL - A data-collection strategy in which data are collected at one point in time from participants who are at different developmental or grade levels. The purpose is to draw conclusions about differences between developmental groups. For instance, in studying the effects of age, the design might include young, middle-aged, and older subjects.

Pavlov's famous experiment: using dogs, the bell was the conditioned (learned) stimulus (CS), and the meat was the unconditioned (unlearned) stimulus (UCS)

CS - conditioned stimulus UCS or US - unconditioned stimulus

Career Salience

Career Salience refers to the significance an indivudal places on the role of career in relationship to other life roles. Career Salience involves 3 factors: PARTICIPATION - spending time and energy in a work role COMMITMENT - an emotional attachment to the work role VALUE EXPECTATION - the satisfaction gained from the vocational decisions and actions one makes throughout the course of one's lifespan.

Developmental Theories > Super's SELF-CONCEPT

Career decisions reflect our attempts at translating our self-understanding into career terms. Know thyself. Individuals implement their self concepts into career as a means of self-expression. The self concept developmental process is multidimensional. Both internal factors (aptitudes, values, personality) and external situational conditions (contextual interactions) are major determinants or self concept development. Self-concepts contain both objective and subjective elements. Self-concepts continue to develop over time, making career choices and adjusting to them lifelong tasks.

Cognitive Information Processing (CIP) (1996)

Career problem solving is primarily a cognitive process that can be improved through a sequential procedure known as CASVE, which includes generic processing skills. A GAP exists between the client's current situation and future career decision. Counselors are to seek out the problems and factors in this GAP. This model emphasizes that career information counseling is a learning event. However, CIP theory places the role of cognition as the mediating force that leads individuals to greater power and control in determining their own destinies.

Statistical Tests > NONPARAMETRIC INFERENTIAL TESTS

Chi-Square nonparametric test - examines whether obtained frequencies (nominal data) differ significantly from expected frequencies.The calculation is determined by first identifying the expected frequency by summing the total # of responses and dividing by 2. The expected frequency would then be compared to the obtained frequency.

Manageability to Change and Innovation

Clearly stated goals, objectives, and models of delivery make it easier to locate difficulties and find areas needing change.

Cross-sectional method (also known as 'synchronic method')

Clients are assessed at one point in time. (Indicative of measurements or observations at a single point, and thus preferable in terms of time consumption.)

Cross-sectional method (also known as 'synchronic method')

Clients are assessed at one point in time.(Indicative of measurements or observations at a single point, and thus preferable in terms of time consumption.)

Learning Theory of Career Counseling (LTCC) > Happenstance Approach (Krumboltz)

Clients are to learn to deal with unplanned events, especially in the give-and-take of the life the 21st century workforce. Five Critical Client Skills: 1) Curiosity- explore learning opportunities 2) Persistence- way of dealing with obstacles 3) Flexibility- adapting and adjusting to various circumstances 4) Optimism- positive attitude when pursuing new opportunities 5) Risk-taking- necessary during unexpected events

Bubbles in research

Considered flaws in research (i.e., rubbing a sticker on car and getting no bubbles - impossible)

...

Content and face validity are: c. nonstatistical

Convergent & Discriminant Validity (CONSTRUCT VALIDITY)

Convergent Validity- evidence based on the relationship between the focal test scores and independent measures of the same construct. The idea is that you want your test (that your are trying to validate) to strongly correlate with other measures of the same thing. Discriminant Validity—evidence that the scores on your test are not highly related to the scores from other tests that are designed to measure theoretically different constructs. This kind of evidence shows that your test is not a measure of those other things (i.e., other constructs). You want it to correlate with other measures of that construct (convergent evidence) but you also want it NOT to correlate strongly with measures of other things (divergent evidence).

Correlation is concerned with covariation.

Correlation does not imply causation!

Construct validity

Correlation r. Is extent to which a test measures an abstract trait or psychological notion theoretical construct like intelligence, self-esteem, feelings, artistic talent. Used for personality theory & non-cognitive tests. A construct is any trait you cannot "directly" measure or observe.

You need at least 30 individuals to conduct a 'true' experiment.

Correlational research requires 30 subjects per variable.

Counterbalancing

Counterbalancing is switching the order in which stimuli are presented to a subject in a study. It is used to control for the fact that the order of an experiment could impact on it's outcome.

Cronbach's alpha coeffient

Cronbach's alpha coefficient if performance on one item related to performance on another item (could also use Kuder-Richardson estimates (KR-20 or KR 21) Alternative to a split half method in determining internal consistency of a test

Two types of developmental studies

Cross-sectional and longitudinal

Cross-sectional design Longitudinal design

Cross-sectional design

Cross-sectional design Longitudinal design

Cross-sectional design Longitudinal design >Within-subjects; Nonexperimental; A one group pretest-posttest design

Demand Characteristics

Cues or features of a study which suggest a desired outcome. A subject can manipulate and confound an experiment by purposely trying to confirm or disprove the experimental hypothesis. Single-blind studies (clients don't know whether they are in control or experimental group) help eliminate demand characteristics.

Decided Client Undecided Client Indecisive Client

DECIDED CLIENT - clients who have made a career decision. These clients might profit from counseling that is designed to formulate other steps in decision making and to determine if their choice was inappropriately made. UNDECIDED CLIENT - have not made a career decision but might not view their current status as a problem. They prefer to delay making a commitment. They are uninformed, immature person who generally lacks self-knowledge, information about occupations, or both. INDECISIVE CLIENT - one who has a high level of anxiety accompanied by dysfunctional thinking. They lack self confidence, tolerance for ambiguity, and a sense of identity.

Computer Programs > DISCOVER II, GIS, OOH

DISCOVER II - primarily used for high school and utilizes Super's concepts, Tiedeman's decision model, Holland categories, and DOT information GIS (Guidance Information System) - developed by Tiedeman and is used exclusively today. OOH (the Occupational Outlook Handbook) and DOT (the Dictionary of Occupational Titles) provide information about specific occupations and are available in book and computerized form.

Career Materials (DOT/O*NET, OOH, GOE)

DOT (Department of Occupational Titles) was replaced by O*NET- was developed by the US Dept. of Labor and utilizes a 9-digit classification system and lists 20,000 jobs. OOH (The Occupational Outlook Handbook) - is also developed by the US Dept. of Labor - it describes 250 occupations, describes the nature of work, conditions, opportunities, education and training requirements, advancement potential, job outlook, salary, and related occupations. Easiest to understand. GOE (The Guide of Occupational Exploration) - Published by US Department Of Labor - Helps persons "explore" jobs that are slanted toward a given "interest' area. The 12 interest areas include: Artistic, Scientific, Plants and Animals, Protective, Mechanical, Industrial, Business detail, Selling, Accommodating, Humanitarian, Leading-influencing, and Physical-performing.

Deductive Logic Inductive Logic

Deductive- general to specific Inductive- specific to general (study of treating client's phobia using a paradoxical strategy, then writes research report that paradox is treatment of choice for phobics)

Deductive reasoning Inductive reasoning

Deductive- general to specific (all stat profs are mean thus my stat prof must be mean)

Constructive Play

Define the self regulated creation of a product or problem-solution. Requires combining sensorimotor/practice repetitive activity with symbolic representation of thought

Terms

Delayed Entrants - In relation to the work force homemakers, military personnel, and the paroled are considered delayed entrants due to their absence from the work place for various periods of time. Dislocated Worker - a person who is unemployed due to downsizing, a company relocation, or the fact that the company closed the business Displaced Homemaker - women who enter or reenter the workforce after being at home. This often occurs after a divorce or death of partner. Reentry Woman - a woman who goes from working within the home to working outside the home

Standard Score

Descriptive statistics allows for the development of standard scores which are described and interpreted by using the appropriate mean and s.d. in relation to the normal curve.

Standard Score

Descriptive statistics allows for the development of standard scores which are described and interpreted by using the appropriate mean and s.d. in relation to the normal curve. Any set of score in which a mean and standard deviation is known. Types: T-score, Z-score, Stanine, Sten

Shortcut to determine whether or not something is positively or negatively skewed...

Determine if the mean is to the left or right of the median. The median would be in the center. Positive = Mode > Mean > Median Negative = Mode < Mean < Median positively skewed - majority of scores are at the lower end of the range of scores negatively skewed - majority of score are at the higher end of the distribution scale hard test > positively skewed

Alloplastic View

Development is the result of one's adapting to other people and objects. What is this view of cognitive development called?

The safest way to avoid Type I/Type II errors is to set alpha (significance level) at a very stringent level and use a large sample size for the study.

Differences revealed via large samples are more likely to be genuine than differences revealed using small sample size.

Nonequivalent Group Designs- a research study in which the researcher cannot use random assignment to create groups of participants.

Differential Research >Compares preexisting groups; Nonexperimental; between-subjects design

Nonequivalent Group Designs- a research study in which the researcher cannot use random assignment to create groups of participants.

Differential Research >Compares preexisting groups; Nonexperimental; between-subjects design Posttest-only nonequivalent control group design >Between-subjects design; Nonexperimental >Compares preexisting groups after one group receives a treatment Pretest-posttest nonequivalent control group design >Between-subjects design; Quasi-experimental; no random selection >Compares preexisting groups before and after one group receives a treatment O X O O C O (nonequivalent control group- one group receives treatment and one does not)

Leptokurtic distribution

Distribution curve is very tall, thin and peaked. (Memory: Leptokurtic leaps tall buildings in a single bound.)

Leptokurtic distribution

Distribution curve is very tall, thin and peaked.(Memory: Leptokurtic leaps tall buildings in a single bound.)

Stanine scores (contraction of 'standard' and 'nine')

Divides the distribution into 9 equal intervals with stanine 1 as the lowest 9th and 9 as the highest 9th - in this, 5 is the mean.

NCE - Group Working Stage

During the working stage the leader links common themes in order to promote awareness of shared concerns. During the working stage the group functions very well on its own and the leader becomes less active or directive.

EAT (in terms of social power)

E - expertness A - attractiveness T - trustworthiness (by Stanley Strong in 1968)

ERIC

Education Resources Information Center (1.2 million + journal articles)

ERIC

Education Resources Information Center (1.2 million + journal articles)

Trait-Oriented Theories

Emphasize how standardized tests are used and the importance of choosing appropriate testing tools. Human traits can be matched with certain work environments for a means of evaluating potential work sites. An individual's work needs can be compared with components of job satisfaction found in certain occupational environments. SELF-KNOWLEDGE in terms of understanding the level and depth of one's traits and characteristics is an essential element for evaluating career information: Traits of aptitude, interests, and personality types are projected into potential work environments to find CONGRUENCE and fit.

Trait-Oriented Theories > Person-Environment-Correspondence (PEC)

Environmental Structure: characteristic abilities and values of individuals who inhabit the work environment. Basic assumption is that clients who have abilities and values similar to individuals already on the job will make it less difficult for an individual to adjust to a work environment. This is example of MATCHING. Work adjustments usually follow one of two modes: 1- ACTIVE Mode: attempts to change the work environment 2- REACTIVE Mode: attempts to make changes in themselves SATISFACTION- an employee' contentment with work environment Satisfaction: refers to clients who are more self-fulfilled-oriented SATISFACTORINESS- the employer's satisfaction with an individual's job performance. Satisfactoriness: refers to clients who are more achievement-oriented

Ethnography

Ethnography: A data-collection method in which information is collected about a group of individuals in their natural setting, primarily through observations.

Criterion validity

Evidence based on relations to other variables. Relating test scores with relevant criteria to which scores from a test can be used to predict performance on some criterion such as a test or future performance. 2 types: Predictive or Concurrent

A negative correlation

Evident wen the variables are inversely associated (one goes up and the other goes down).

A positive correction

Evident when both variables change in the same direction (imagine a graphical representation of scores)

Type of Study - Method of Forming Groups

Ex Post Facto / Causal-Comparative - Groups Already Formed Experiment - Random Assignment of Individuals Quasi-Experiment - Random Assignment of Intact Groups

Experiments Type of Study - Method of Forming Groups

Ex Post Facto / Causal-Comparative - Groups Already Formed Experiment - Random Assignment of Individuals

Existentialism is considered a humanistic form of helping in which the counselor helps the client discover meaning in his or her life by doing a deed, experiencing value, and suffering.

Existentialism is more of a philosophy of helping than a grab bag of intervention strategies.

Pygmalion Effect (aka Rosenthal or Experimenter Effect)

Experimenter falls in love with his own hypothesis and the experiment becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy.

Concurrent validity

Extent to which test may be used to estimate an individual's present standing on the criterion (status quo). Validity evidence based on the relationship between test scores and criterion scores obtained at the same time

EMDR

Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (Francine Shapiro)

Analysis of Variance > Factorial ANOVA

FACTORIAL ANOVA

Decision Accuracy Terms

FALSE POSITIVE ERROR- an instrument inaccurately identifies the presence of a phenomenon. (the depression inventory would indicate that a non-depressed client has depressive symptoms) FALSE NEGATIVE ERROR- an instrument inaccurately identifies the absence of a phenomenon. (the depression inventory would indicate that a depressed client has no depressive symptoms)

Developmental Theories > Ginzberg and Associates (1951)

FANTASY Period (around age 11) - Play gradually becomes work oriented and reflects initial preferences for certain kinds of activities. Occupational preference reflects identification with role of an adult they know. TENTATIVE Period (ages 11-17) 1) Interest Stage - career decisions are based on likes and dislikes 2) Capacity Stage - individuals are able to assess and consider their capabilities in relation to career aspirations 3) Value Stage - personal goals and values are incorporated into the decision-making process 4) Transition Stage - availability, demand, and benefits of certain careers are taken into account

ANOVA- Factorial ANOVA

Factorial ANOVA not only helps us to study the effect of 2 or more factors but also gives information about their dependence or independence in the same experiment. It enables us to examine the interaction effect between the factors. An interaction effect is said to exist when differences on one factor depend on the level of other factor.

Alfred Adler

Father of Individual Psychology

Sigmund Freud

Father of Psychoanalysis (originally worked with Adler, Jung, and Viennese neurologist [re: talking cure])

William Glasser

Father of Reality Therapy

Platykurtic distribution

Flatter and more spread out than a normal curve. (Memory: 'Plat' sounds like 'flat')

Platykurtic distribution

Flatter and more spread out than a normal curve.(Memory: 'Plat' sounds like 'flat')

Median location in skewed distributions

For positively skewed distributions, the mode (point at the top of the curve) is less than the median (the point where 50% are above/50% below), which is less than the arithmetic mean (sum of observations/number of observations). The opposite rules apply to negatively skewed distribution: mode is greater than median, which is greater than arithmetic mean. Positive: Mean > Median > Mode Negative: Mean < Median < Mode

Social Responsiveness

For the first two to three months of life the infant uses signaling behavior to establish contact with others. At 3 to 6 months the primary caregiver becomes the focus of the signaling. This is called the _______ _______ stage.

Formative & Summartive Evaluation

Formative- Continuous information used to modify a program to improve effectiveness (4 exams during semester). Summative- Information gathered at the end of term. One time.

NCE - Group Tuckman & Jensen's STAGES

Forming Storming Norming Performing Adjourning

The word 'eclectic' is most associated with

Frederick C. Thorne (felt true eclecticism was more a 'hodgepodge of facts') -preferred the term 'psychological case handling' rather than psychotherapy)

Oedipus/Electra complex

Freud's most controversial theory

Loves to be touched and held closely

From birth to 4 months an infant weighs 10-18 pounds and has a length of 23-27 inches. What can be said about emotional development at this age?

~SEM Example

GRE Verbal Score = 430 Mean = 500 Sd = 100 Reliability Coefficient = .91 SEM = 100 √ 1 - .91 = 100 √ .09 = 100 (.30) = 30 68% of time score would fall between 400 (-30) and 460 (+30) 95% of time score would fall between 370 (-60) and 490 (+60)... 2 standard errors of measurement (2x30=60). 99.5% of time her score would fall between 340 (-90) and 530 (+90).... 3 SEM (3x30=90)

Gelatt's Decision-Making Model (1962)

Gelatt's decision-making model is a sequential model that includes generating alternatives and evaluating the consequences and desirability of each as steps in the sequence. Gelatt's decision-making model is prescriptive (describes ideal approaches to decision making). The model exerts that all decisions have similar qualities in that a choice, which has 2 or more possible courses of action, must be made and an individual must rationally analyze information accurately to predict the outcome of their choice. Decision-making process consists of: 1- Recognizing that a decision needs to be made 2- Collecting data and surveying possible courses of action 3- Determining possible outcomes and applying a prediction and value system to analyze possible outcomes 4- Making a choice, which could be terminal (final decision) or investigatory (call for additional information).

Developmental Theories > Gottfredson's Circumscription, Compromise, and Self-Creation: A Developmental Theory of Occupational Aspirations (1980s)

Genetically distinct individuals create different environments and each individual's genetic uniqueness shapes their experiences. She suggests both GENES and ENVIRONMENT drive human experiences which in turn consolidate individual traits. In recent revisions of her theory, Gottfredson's (2002, 2005) elaborated on the dynamic interplay between genetic makeup and the environment. Genetic characteristics play a crucial role in shaping the basic characteristics of a person, such as interests, skills, and values, yet their expression is moderated by the environment that one is exposed to. Even though genetic makeup and environment play a crucial role in shaping the person, Gottfredson maintained that the person is still an active agent who could influence or mould their own environment. Hence, career development is viewed as a self-creation process in which individuals looked for avenues or niches to express their genetic proclivities within the boundaries of their own cultural environment.

Eric Bern is to TA as Fritz Perls is to

Gestalt therapy

Parametric tests assume scores are NORMALLY DISTRIBUTED.

Good external validity = generalization

Thanatos

Greek for 'death' (i.e., 'Thanatologists study death')

Eros

Greek god of 'love of life' Freudians use it also to mean 'self-preservation'

NCE - Group Group Dynamics Group Process

Group dynamics refers to the interaction and energy exchange between members and leaders. The term is used to describe the forces operating in a group. Group process is the study of stages in a group. All group go through 3 stages regardless of the type of group or style of leadership. The three stages are: Beginning Stage, Middle or Working Stage, and Ending or Closing Stage.

Hawthorne Effect Rosenthal Effect Halo Effect

HAWTHORNE EFFECT- It is the process where human subjects of an experiment change their behavior, simply because they are being studied. This is one of the hardest inbuilt biases to eliminate or factor into the design. ROSENTHAL EFFECT- experimenter expectancy effects, the influence that a researcher can exert on the outcome of a research investigation HALO EFFECT- The Halo Effect perfectly fits the situation of Hollywood celebrities where people readily assume that since these people are physically attractive, it also follows that they are intelligent, friendly, and display good judgment as well.

Internal threats to Validity (design type error)

HISTORY- events which occur during experiment MATURATION- change in subject (fatigue/hunger) TESTING- test content familiarity; taken test before REGRESSION- regression to mean for purpose of extremes MORTALITY- attrition

Hawthorne Effect (also known as reacting to the presence of the investigator, or observer effect)

Happens sometimes if subjects know they are in experiment, their performance may improve because of the extra attention and knowledge they are being observed.

Interval scale

Has numbers scaled at equal distances but NO ABSOLUTE ZERO point. -Since intervals are same, amount of differences can be stipulated (i.e., 3 IQ points), can add/subtract but not multiply/divide (IQ TESTS provide interval measurement!)

Interval scale

Has numbers scaled at equal distances but NO ABSOLUTE ZERO point.-Since intervals are same, amount of differences can be stipulated (i.e., 3 IQ points), can add/subtract but not multiply/divide(IQ TESTS provide interval measurement!)

Solomon Four Group Design

Has random selection; has control group. A way to avoid some of the difficulties associated with the pretest-posttest design. This design has 2 extra control groups to reduce the influence of confounding variables. It allows researchers to test whether the pretest itself has an effect on the subjects. It controls for all sources of internal and external validity. R1 O X O R2 O C O R3 _ X O R4 _ C O

Solomon Four Group Design

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

Henry Murray's 1938 work, Exploratoin in Personality - subjective test

Personalogy

Henry Murray's term for personality typing.

A graph that shows the frequencies and shape that characterize a quantitative variable is called a ____.

Histogram Descritive Stats

Trait-Oriented Theories

Holds the position that individuals are attracted to an occupational environment that meets their personal needs and provides them with satisfaction. One observes work environments from several perspectives, including work requirements, personal-environment-fit, and potential reinforcers of one's personal needs. One should consider a number of occupations rather than just focus on one specific occupation.

Trait-Oriented Theories > John Holland's Typology

Holland's hexagonal model has 5 key concepts: 1) CONSISTENCY - Defined as degree of similarity between the 6 Holland types. The closer the types are to each other, the more consistent they are. 2) DIFFERENTIATION- Refers to level of distinctiveness between each of the 6 Holland types (RIASEC). Because undifferentiated individuals have many interests and abilities, they often have trouble making a career choice. **A TERM USED TO DEFINE HOW WILL A PERSON'S LIKES AND DISLIKES ARE DECLARED.

Mesomorphy

How can a good developed, stocky, muscular body be defined?

Variability

How the scores spread away or disperse from the central tendency. Some ways to examine variability are range and standard deviation.

Identity Terms

IDENTITY DIFFUSION - the status in which the adolescent does not have a sense of having choices; he or she has not yet made (nor is attempting/willing to make) a commitment IDENTITY FORCLOSURE - the status in which the adolescent seems willing to commit to some relevant roles, values, or goals for the future. Adolescents in this stage have not experienced an identity crisis. They tend to conform to the expectations of others regarding their future (e. g., allowing a parent to determine a career direction) As such, these individuals have not explored a range of options. IDENTITY MORATORIUM- the status in which the adolescent is currently in a crisis, exploring various commitments and is ready to make choices, but has not made a commitment to these choices yet. IDENTITY ACHIEVEMENT - the status in which the adolescent has gone through an identity crisis and has made a commitment to a sense of identity (i.e., certain role or value) that he or she has chosen

Validity - Threats to External Validity

INTERACTION BETWEEN TESTING & TREATMENT - pretest can serve as an intervention in itself or can sensitize individuals to purpose of study by alerting them to things they might not ordinarily notice INTERACTION BETWEEN SELECTION & TREATMENT - the characteristics of subjects determine how extensively the findings can be generalized REACTIVITY - subjects alter their behavior because they are aware they are being observed; Hawthorne Effect (tendency to perform better because of attention receiving); Evaluation Apprehension (causes subjects to act in ways they believe will help them avoid negative evaluations); Demand Characteristics (cues that inform subjects of purpose of study or suggest what behavior is expected of them); Experimenter Expectancy (unintentionally providing demand characteristics); MULTIPLE TREATMENT INTERFERENCE - when same subjects are exposed repeatedly to 2 or more treatments, the effects of the previous treatments are not usually erasable; when more than one level of the IV is administered OTHER THINGS - Halo Effect; Self-Fulfilling Prophecy; The Placebo Effect

Internal Validity VS External Validity

INTERNAL VALIDITY - The degree to which a researcher controls for and reduces the effects of extraneous variables than can affect study outcomes so that they represent true outcomes.

Measurement Scales (parametric data)

INTERVAL- Has characteristics of rank order. Measures in equal intervals. No absolute zero. One variable is so many units (degrees, grades, ect) more or less than another The distance and order are meaningful. There is no absolute zero. Zero degrees Celsius doesn't mean no temperature at all. Continuous data. Example: IQ tests RATIO- Scale with a true zero point. It also has all the "lower level" characteristics of equal intervals (interval scale), rank order (ordinal scale), and ability to mark a value with a name (nominal scale). Examples of ratio scales are number correct, weight, height, response time, Kelvin temperature, annual income. Example of presence of a true zero point: If your annual income is exactly zero dollars then you earned no annual income at all. you can buy nothing with zero dollars. Zero means zero. Continuous data.

Measurement Scales (parametric data) > Interval Scales

INTERVAL- predetermined equal intervals (height, IQ, temp) Has characteristics of rank order. Measures in equal intervals. No Absolute Zero (zero does not represent the absolute lowest value, rather, it is point on the scale with numbers both above and below it). Can have negative numbers. The distance and order are meaningful. Zero degrees Celsius doesn't mean no temperature at all. Continuous data. You can add and subtract but not multiply or divide (An IQ score of 70 is 70 points below an IQ of 140, yet you can't assert that one is twice as intelligent as the other). Scoring zero on IQ test doesn't mean you have zero knowledge.

***Item Analysis AKA item easiness AKA Alpha coefficient Item Discrimination

ITEM ANALYSIS - take the percentage correct score of the upper group and adding it to the percentage correct score of the lower group and dividing by 2. i.e. 43% + 15% = 58% divided by 2 would equal an item easiness index of 29% for this item. ITEM DISCRIMINATION- subtract the lower group percentage from the upper group percentage. i.e. 43% - 15% for an item discrimination index of 28%.

The variable you manipulate/control in an experiment is the

IV or independent variable ("I am the researcher so I manipulate or experiment with the IV.")

The variable you manipulate/control in an experiment is the

IV or independent variable("I am the researcher so I manipulate or experiment with the IV.")

35-55

If Bob suffers moderate and trainable mental retardation, what would be the range of his IQ score?

Affects Neurons and the Corpus Stratum

If Epinephrine and Norepinephrine are associated with stress reactions, what is the function of Dopamine?

Sexual Coercion

If Sid threatens to tell Mary's mother that she smokes Marijuana unless she has sex with him, what type of harassment is he guilty of?

Attempts to touch, grab, kiss, fondle

If a person is found guilty of sexual assault, what behaviors were included toward the harassed person?

Threatened Punishment (firing, demotion, failing the course)

If a person is found guilty of sexual coercion, what did his behavior include toward the harassed individual?

Without will; no desires

If a person suffers from schizophrenia and is in the AVOLITION phase, how can his behavior be characterized?

Multiple treatment interference

If a subject receives more than one treatment, it is often tough to discern which modality caused the improvements.

Reliable experiement

If an experiment can be replicated by others with almost identical findings.

Motivation

If modeling or acquiring of learning through observation occurs through four processes, what is the process where reinforcement, either internal/self reinforcement or external is required for behavior to be maintained and regularly manifested?

Stage 2: Orientation of Sex Roles

In Gottfredson's Theory, how can the stage between ages 6-8 be defined?

NCE - Group Person-Centered Groups

In Person-centered groups members find their own direction with minimal leader help. The leader's tasks include: role of facilitator - conveying congruence (genuineness), unconditional positive regard (acceptance), and empathetic understanding. The leader provides very little structuring or direction.

James-Lange Theory

In a lecture of yours, you are discussing the theory that asserts that the individual's perception of his physical reaction is the basis of his emotional experience. What theory are you talking about?

Cannon-Bard Theory

In a lecture or yours, you are discussing the theory that pertains to which comes first, the physical action or the emotional reaction. What is this theory called?

Counterbalancing

In a normal experiment, the order in which treatments are given can actually affect the behavior of the subjects or elicit a false response, due to fatigue or outside factors changing the behavior of many of the subjects. To counteract this, researchers often use a counterbalanced design, which reduces the chances of the order of treatment or other factors adversely influencing the results.

T score

In a research paper you are writing about the score that has a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10. What is this score?

z-score

In a research paper, you are writing about the most basic standard score which allows scores from different tests to be compared. What is the name of this score?

Construct Validity

In a research report you are writing about the extent to which a test measures a concept or trait of interest. What is this called?

Criterion Related Validity

In a research report, you are writing about the extent to which a test can predict, diagnose or classify and individual's behavior in specific situations. What is this called?

Independent group comparison design

In a study of two groups, change in one group DID NOT influence the other group.

A-B-A-B Design

In an ABAB research design, baseline data on a behavior is taken (phase A), a treatment is applied and the behavior is measured again (phase B), the treatment is withdrawn and baseline data is taken again (the second phase A), and the treatment is re-applied and the behavior is measured again (the second phase B). The purpose of an ABAB design is to insure that changes in the behavior really have to do with the treatment and not an extraneous factor. However, if the behavior does not revert to baseline levels after the treatment is withdrawn, the design cannot be effective. Baseline — the behavior of the participant prior to the administration of a treatment condition

A directive

In counseling, merely a suggestion

Correlation Coefficient

In general, a larger number of observations will produce larger correlation coefficients and a smaller number of observations will produce smaller correlation coefficients.

Random Assignment

In random assignment, you start with a set of people (you already have a sample, which very well may be a convenience sample), and then you randomly divide that set of people into two or more groups (i.e., you take the full set and randomly divide it into subsets). Your purpose it to produce two or more groups that are similar to each other on all characteristics. You are taking a set of people and randomly "assigning" them to two or more groups. Used in experimental research to produce the strongest experimental research designs.

Significance Level (alpha level) Probability Value (p-value)

Significance Level & Probability Value

In terms of null hypothesis, the concept of statistical significance can be understood to be the minimum level at which the null hypothesis can be rejected. This means if the experimenter sets his statistical significance level at 5% and the probability that the results are a chance process is 3%, then the experimenter can claim that the null hypothesis can be rejected. In this case, the experimenter will call his results to be statistically significant. Lower the significance level, higher the confidence. The probability level is usually at the 95% (.05) or the 99% (.01) level of significance. When a researcher states that a difference between groups is significant at the .05 level, this means that this difference would occur 5 times out of 100 by chance rather than by manipulation of the independent variable. It also means that there is a 95% chance that the difference occurred because of the manipulation of the independent variable. When a difference is significant at the .01 level, it means there is a 99% chance that the difference can be attributed to the independent variable.

NCE - Group Stages

In the beginning (initial) stage of group work, the participants are concerned with fitting in. It is during the second (transition) stage that issues of power and control surface and conflicts arise. Nearing termination, groups tend to be less conflictual.

The response occurs prior to the effect (reward)

In the case of Classical Conditioning stimulus-response sequence, the stimulus precedes the response. What happens in the case of operant conditioning?

Successive Approximation

Increments of change toward a desired behavior are reinforced, thereby shaping the response to the desired behavior

Inferential Statistics

Inferential statistics is defined as the branch of statistics that is used to make inferences about the characteristics of populations based on sample data.

Inferential Statistics

Inferential statistics is defined as the branch of statistics that is used to make inferences about the characteristics of populations based on sample data. The goal is to go beyond the data at hand and make inferences about population parameters. In order to use inferential statistics, it is assumed that either random selection or random assignment was carried out (i.e., some form of randomization must is assumed).

Inferential Statistics VS Descriptive Statistics

Inferential statistics — Parametric statistical procedures that are used to make inferences about results from a sample to a population. To interpret inferential statistics, we must understand levels of significance. Levels of significance (p-value or alpha level) refer to the probability of rejecting or accepting the null hypothesis.

Inferential vs Descriptive Stats

Inferential statistics — the division of statistics focused on going beyond the immediate data and inferring the characteristics of population based on samples; statistics that go beyond the immediate data and infer the characteristics of populations based on samples Descriptive statistics — statistics that focus on describing, summarizing, or explaining data

Trait-Oriented Theories > John Holland's Typology

Instruments that use Holland's Classifications include: Kuder Preference Record, Strong Interest Inventory (SII), Self-directed Search (SDS), Career Aptitude Placement Survey (CAPS), and Career Occupational Preference Survey (COPS).

Validity - Internal validity External Validity

Internal Validity refers to whether the changes in the DV are due to the effects of the IV. Experiments are internally valid to the extent that extraneous variables have been controlled.

Ratio scale (highest level of measurement)

Interval scale with a TRUE ZERO POINT. Add/subtract/multiply/divide all possible. (Most psychological attributes can't be measured by ratio scale.)

Ratio scale (highest level of measurement)

Interval scale with a TRUE ZERO POINT. Add/subtract/multiply/divide all possible.(Most psychological attributes can't be measured by ratio scale.)

NCE - Group Stages in a Group

Introduction Conflict Cohesion Work Termination

NCE - Group ...

It is a dysfunctional group norm to focus on the past or issues not relevant to the group purpose. Immediate events take precedence over the past, although the group doesn't have to focus exclusively on the here-and-now. Some accounts of past incidents are important and relevant.

Collective unconscious

Jungian term, common to all mankind, and passed from generation to generation.

Archetype

Jungian; primal universal symbol that means the same thing to men and women (i.e., the cross), found to be in all walks of life (i.e., myths, fables, religion)

Kurtosid Mesokurtic Leptokurtic Platykurtic

KURTOSIS- refers to the peakedness or flatness of a distribution MESOKURTIC- normal distribution/ normal curve LEPTOKURTIC- more scores in center and higher peaks PLATYKURTIC- more scores on outer slopes and fewer in the center

Effects > Leniency/Strictness Effect, Central Tendency Bias, Halo Effect

LENIENCY/STRICTNESS EFFECT - occurs when a rater tends to give employees very high/lenient or very low/strict rating while avoiding the middle/average range. CENTRAL TENDENCY BIAS - when a rater rates almost everybody in the average range HALO EFFECT - a supervisor generalizing about an employee based on a single characteristic

Latent

Learning that takes place without an immediate manifestation is known as __________ learning.

Random sampling

Like sticking your hand in a fishbowl to pick up a winning lottery ticket - each individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected.

A _____ _____ uses vertical bars to represent the data.

Line graph A simple line graph might be used to show a trend over time (e.g., with the years on the X axis and the population sizes on the Y axis).

A ____ _____ uses one or more lines to depict information about one or more variables. A _____ _____ uses vertical bars to represent the data.

Line graph A simple line graph might be used to show a trend over time (e.g., with the years on the X axis and the population sizes on the Y axis). Bar graph The height of the bars usually represent the frequencies for the categories that sit on the X axis. Descriptive Stats

Normal curve

Linear line is the base line of curve. Line referred to as z-line. A z-line has mean of 0 and SD of 1. Note +-1 sd = 68% of curve (34+34), +-2 sd = 95% of curve (34+34+13.5+13.5) and +-3 sd = 99% of curve (95+2+2). The normal curve can be established for any set of data when the mean and sd are known.

John B. Watson is associated with what study?

Little Albert (demonstrated that fears were learned and not the result of some unconscious conflict)

C. G. Jung said men operate on logic (aka ____) principle, while women are intuitive, operating on the ____ principle.

Logos, Eros (Founder of Analytic Psychology)

Analysis of Variance > Multivariate ANOVA

MANOVA

Statistical Tests > PARAMETRIC INFERENTIAL TESTS

MANOVA - calculation used to compare difference among the variances of means of 2 or more groups with 2 or more DVs. The analysis of the DVs is conducted simultaneously. The DVs correlate in some way.

MANOVA

MANOVA, or multivariate analysis of variance, is used when more than 1 DV is being studied. For example, if you want to simultaneously assess the effectiveness of a holistic reading program on students' reading skill, as well as on students' writing skills, and you have two separate dependent variables, one measuring reading and one measuring writing, you could use a MANOVA.

Experimental Design

Manipulate the independent variable Strengthen study by making IV stronger Minimize error of variance by randomization and experimental control. There is often a control group. Random group assignment requirement and allows for control of internal validity Examples: posttest-only control group, pretest-posttest control, Solomon Four group

Nonparametirc tests

Mann-Whitney U-test Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test (for matched pairs) Solomon Kruskal-Wallis H-test Friedman Test

Nonparametric tests

Mann-Whitney U-test, Wilcoxon signed-rank test (for matched pairs), Soloman and Kruskal-Wallis H-test

Post-Hoc Comparison

Mathematical procedures used with certain inferential statistics (ANOVAs) to determine whether significant differences exist between 3 or more groups.

T-score (often called transformed score)

Mean of 50 with each SD of 10 [different from a Z-score] (i.e., a Z score of -1.0 would be a T score of 40. A Z-score of -1.5 would be a T-score of 35, etc.) - Not mathematically threatening because never expressed as a negative number.

T-score (often called transformed score)

Mean of 50 with each SD of 10 [different from a Z-score](i.e., a Z score of -1.0 would be a T score of 40. A Z-score of -1.5 would be a T-score of 35, etc.)- Not mathematically threatening because never expressed as a negative number

Repeated-measures comparison design

Measuring the SAME group of subjects without the IV and then with the IV.

Single-Case Experimenter Design

Method in which information on one or more individuals is obtained concurrently. Single-system design refers to a method that gathers information on any system that serves as a single unit. The single unit may be a person, an entire family, or a subset of family system. Experiment is conducted over a period of time.

Most common measures of central tendency

Mode, Median, Mean

NCE - Group Psychodrama

Moreno is considered the originator of psychodrama in a group setting and is often called the "father" of psychodrama.

Sexual Bribery

Morton, who is Sarah's boss, is suggesting sex with her for a salary raise and promotion. What type of harassment has he committed?

Z score

Most common standard score Mean=0 ; s.d.=1 A z-score allows one to compare people's scores on the basis of standard deviation units. Each z "point" is one standard deviation.

T score

Most common standard score Mean=50 ; s.d=10

Nonparametric (i.e., NOT normal distribution)

Most popular is the chi-square, used to determine whether an obtained distribution differs significantly from an expected distribution.

Nonparametric(i.e., NOT normal distribution)

Most popular is the chi-square, used to determine whether an obtained distribution differs significantly from an expected distribution.

Quasi Experimental

NO Random Assignment (NONEQUIVALENT). Does not provide for full control of potential confounding variables.

Measurement Scales (non-parametric data)

NOMINAL- One category. Used to categorize, label, classify, or name variables (eye color, occupation). Numbers can be used to label the categories but the numbers only serve as markers, not as indicators of amount or quantity (1=female ; 2=male). Central tendency is mode. Example: Myers Briggs. ORDINAL- Two categories. Order and direction; any variable where the levels can be ranked (but you don't know the distance between the levels). Finish position in race, rank in class. Central tendency is median; Likert Scale (more than or less than).

Measurement Scales (non-parametric data)

NOMINAL- classifies or sorts One category. Used to categorize, label, classify, or name variables (eye color, occupation). Numbers can be used to label the categories but the numbers only serve as markers, not as indicators of amount or quantity (1=female ; 2=male). No true zero point. Central tendency is mode. Least precise level of measurement. Ex: Myers Briggs

Statistical Tests - Inferential Stats > Nonparametric Tests

NONPARAMETRIC TESTS - Nominal / Ordinal - "Nonnormal", Distribution free

Negative reinforcement requires withdrawal of an aversive (negative) stimulus to increase the likelihood that a behavior will occur.

Negative reinforcement is NOT the same thing as punishment.

Double-blind study

Neither the subject nor the researcher knows of the person is in the control group. (Researcher is sometimes unaware of the null hypothesis too.)

Double-blind study

Neither the subject nor the researcher knows of the person is in the control group.(Researcher is sometimes unaware of the null hypothesis too.)

NOIR

Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

Four basic measurement scales (by. S. S. Steven)

Nominal - simplest type, strictly qualitative NOT quantitative Ordinal Interval Ratio

Four basic measurement scales (by. S. S. Steven)

Nominal - simplest type, strictly qualitative NOT quantitative. Ordinal, Interval,Ratio

Measurement Scales

Nominal data names things. Ordinal data names things and arrays things in order. Interval data names things, arrays things in order with equal intervals between adjacent numbers. Ratio data has the same properties as the others but is the only data that has an absolute zero.

Psychoanalysts believe a client who is resistant will be reluctant to bring unconscious ideas into the conscious mind.

Nonanalytic counselors use the term 'resistant' to describe clients who are fighting the helping process in any manner.

Chi-square

Nonparametric statistical measure that tests whether a distribution differs significantly from an expected theoretical distribution of scores. (Memory: ''chi' like 'chi-a pet' that I expected more from)

Chi-square

Nonparametric statistical measure that tests whether a distribution differs significantly from an expected theoretical distribution of scores.(Memory: ''chi' like 'chi-a pet' that I expected more from)

Intermittent schedule of reinforcement

Not every desirable behavior is reinforced (sometimes called 'thinning')

Analysis of Variance > One-Way ANOVA

ONE-WAY ANOVA

Enactive

Objects have meaning only with respect to the actions performed on them. This is called the ________ mode.

Horizontal sampling

Occurs when a researcher selects subjects from a single socioeconomic group.

Vertical sampling

Occurs when persons from two or more socioeconomic classes are used.

Unimodal

One peak in a distribution curve

biserial correlation

One variable is continuous while the other is dichotomous.

Directional experimental hypothesis

One-tailed test (i.e., hypothesis specifies one average is larger than another)

Directional experimental hypothesis

One-tailed test(i.e., hypothesis specifies one average is larger than another)

Freud's 3 psychosexual stages

Oral Anal Phallic

Sweet lemon rationalization

Overrates a reward (to protect self from bruised ego) (memory: sweets are overrated in our society)

Parametric VS Nonparametric

PARAMETRIC STATISTICS - Inferential statistics used to analyze data that are normally distributed.

Inferential Statistics Categories

PARAMETRIC TESTS (Normal) (Ratio or Interval): t-test z-test ANOVA 2-way ANOVA ANCOVA Factorial -Covariance NON-PARAMETRIC TESTS (Non-normal) (Ordinal or ratio): Chi-Square Median Test Sign Test

Statistical Tests - Inferential Stats > Parametric Tests

PARAMETRIC TESTS - Ratio / Interval - "Normal"

Types of Correlation

PEARSON r: when BOTH variables are measured on Ratio or Interval scales. Most stable measurement of correlation. Frequently used to determine the reliability and validity of certain traits such as personality. Pearson's r is a measure of LINEAR association between two variables. >Point Biserial: when 1 variable is nominal AKA dichotomous, and 1 variable is continuous (interval or ratio). Example: Gender (male/female) (nominal-dichotomous) and GRE score (continuous). >Phi Coefficient: both variables are nominal dichotomies. Example: Gender (male/female) and one who smokes cigarettes (smoker/nonsmoker). When a person is present or absent. >Spearman Rho: when 1 or more variables are measured on an ordinal (ranking) scale. Example: Using GPA (continuous scale) to rank students (ordinal scale). They not at an equal distance from each other (i.e., NOT linear),

The major functions of testing in vocational/career counseling are:

PREDICTION, DISCRIMINATION, MONITORING, EVALUATION PREDICTION and DISCRIMINATION are relevant to the content of a client's career choice, MONITORING is relevant to the process of a client's career choice. In PREDICTION, standardized test data are used to predict a client's success in various areas, such as academic and career behaviors. DISCRIMINATION involves using tests and inventories to help the client learn what occupational and/or academic groups he/she resembles in terms of interests, values, personality traits, etc. MONITORING data are used to identify a client's level of career maturity (i.e., readiness to make a career choice). EVALUATION entails using tests to determine the effectiveness of an intervention (e.g., whether and to what extent intervention goals are being achieved).

NCE - Group Primary Tension Secondary Tension

PRIMARY Tension is anxiety which is apparent when coming together, sharing, and learning the rules. SECONDARY Tension has to do with the individual differences and similarities that exist between and among the members as they work on issues within the group. Although both may be present in each session, it is likely to encounter a change from primary tension to secondary tension in the Transition Stage.

Cognitive Information Processing (CIP) > Problem, Problem Solving, Decision Making, Career Development, Lifestyle

PROBLEM - a gap between the existing and the ideal; gap between indecision and decidedness PROBLEM SOLVING - choosing how to remove the gap DECISION MAKING - transform the choice into action CAREER DEVELOPMENT - Implementation of an integrated series of career decisions over the life span. LIFESTYLE - Integration of decisions in the areas of career, personal, and family relationships, spirituality, and leisure that result in a guiding purpose, meaning, and direction in life

Parametric tests have more power than nonparametric statistical tests.

Parametric tests are used ONLY with interval and ratio data.

Personal Fable Concept

Part of and adolescent's egocentrism; belief that individual experiences are unique that no one felt the way the adolescent does

Pioneers in the Behaviorist movement

Pavlov, Jones, Watson

Kurtosis

Peakedness of a frequency distribution.

Developmental Theories > Super's Life Roles

People tend to play some or all of nine major roles: Child (son or daughter) Student Leisurite Citizen Worker Spouse (Partner) Homemaker Parent Pensioner

Life Scripts

Personal Life Plans born out of early decisions about self, others and the world

Scattergram (also known as scatterplot)

Pictorial diagram or graph of two variables being correlated.

Population Sample

Population- this is the group to which the researcher wants the results generalized

Population Sample

Population- this is the group to which the researcher wants the results generalized Sample- smaller group of the population selected for the research

Quasi Experimental

Pre-established groups Any research that fails to use random assignment or lacks a control group. Useful in studying treatment effects on a single subject and behavioral research. In the quasi-experiment the researcher uses preexisting groups, and hence the IV (independent variable) cannot be altered. In a quasi-experiment you cannot state with any degree of statistical confidence that the independent variable (IV) caused the dependent variable (DV). Ex post facto or "after the fact" quasi-experiments connot a correlational study or research in which intact, preexisting groups are utilized. The independent variable (IV) was administered before the research began.

External threats to Validity (design type error)

Pretest treatment Multiple treatment- simultaneous application of multiple interventions Selection- not random (susceptible to change) Reactive- differences in experimental and real life situations (pretest sensitization) Experimenter bias

When you see the letter P in relation to a test of significance it means

Probability

In hypothesis testing (it's also called significance testing) the research finding is said to be statistically significant when the _____ _____ is less than or equal to the ______ ______.

Probability value (p-value) Significance level (alpha level) • The key idea of hypothesis testing it that you reject the null hypothesis when the p-value is less than or equal to the significance level of.05.

RESEARCH

QUALITATIVE

RESEARCH

QUANTITATIVE

Research Designs

QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 7. Time-Series 8. Equivalent Time Samples Design 9. Nonequivalent Control Group Design 10. Counterbalanced Designs - all groups receive all treatments but in a different order; only restriction is that # of groups must equal # of treatments

Apgar rating

Quantitative rating test used to measure the vital signs of newborns a minute or two after birth

Quartile

Quartile is a useful concept in statistics and is conceptually similar to the median. To further see what quartiles do, the first quartile is at the 25th percentile. This means that 25% of the data is smaller than the first quartile and 75% of the data is larger than this. Similarly, in case of the third quartile, 25% of the data is larger than it while 75% of it is smaller. For the second quartile, which is nothing but the median, 50% or half of the data is smaller while half of the data is larger than this value.

Experimental Design

RANDOM GROUP ASSIGNMENT is a requirement because it controls confounding variables (allows for internal validity).

Random Selection Random Assignment

RANDOM SELECTION - involves selecting participants from a population so that every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. It is used to obtain a sample that resembles the population (i.e., to obtain a representative sample). Random selection ensures EXTERNAL Validity

Sampling Methods

RANDOM- each person has equal and independent chance of being selected STRATIFIED- Dividing the population into mutually exclusive groups and then selecting a random sample from each group; Proportional Stratified Sampling is most efficient sampling method of ALL (i.e., would generally require the smallest sample size) CLUSTER- groups are selected rather than individuals; Schools, teams, classrooms SYSTEMATIC- individuals selected from list by every kth name

Measure of Variability

RANGE, VARIANCE, STANDARD DEVIATION √25 = 5 (The square root of 25 is 5) The variance tells you (exactly) the average deviation from the mean, in "squared units." The standard deviation is just the square root of the variance (i.e., it brings the "squared units" back to regular units). The standard deviation tells you (approximately) how far the numbers tend to vary from the mean. (If the standard deviation is 7, then the numbers tend to be about 7 units from the mean.

Measurement Scales (parametric data) > Ratio Scales

RATIO- highest and most accurate Scale with a True Zero Point (no numbers exist below zero). Cannot have negative numbers. It also has all the "lower level" characteristics of equal intervals (interval scale), rank order (ordinal scale), and ability to mark a value with a name (nominal scale). Examples of ratio scales are number correct, weight, height, response time. Example of presence of a true zero point: If your annual income is exactly zero dollars then you earned no annual income at all. Zero means zero. Continuous data. You can add, subtract, multiply, and divide since you have absolute zero.

Trait-Oriented Theories > RIASEC descriptions RIA

REALISTIC - has practical abilities and would prefer to work with machine or tools rather than people; mechanic, farmer, builder, pilot INVESTIGATIVE - analytical and precise; good with detail; prefers to work with ideas; enjoys problem solving and research; chemist, geologist, biologist, researcher ARTISTIC - creative ability; uses intuition and imagination for problem solving; musician, artist, interior decorator, write, industrial designer

Developmental Theories > Ginzberg and Associates (1951)

REALISTIC Period (ages 17 -21) 1) Exploration Stage - individual narrows career choice to 2 or 3 possibilities but is generally in a stage of ambivalence. 2) Crystallization Stage - commitment to a specific career field is made; change of direction in this stage is called pseudocrystallization 3) Specification Stage - individual selects a job or professional training for a career

NCE - Group Power: Leadership Social exchange theory advocates that power is based upon having control of valuable resources (i.e. ability, material, means of punishment, position, identity, and information)

REFERENT POWER- when people do as he/she requests because they respect the person or want to be like him/her. REWARD POWER- refers to a person's ability to influence another through control of valued rewards and resources. LEGITIMATE POWER- legitimate base of social power; belief that it's ones duty to follow the leader's directions (i.e. teachers, law enforcement, supervisors) EXPERT POWER- member has expertise or ability that group relies on; looked upon as a very trustworthy person COERCIVE POWER - dispensing punishment or sanction to those who don't comply with the group's norms and standards. Used to bring out in the open a conflict to be resolved. INFORMATIONAL POWER - member has knowledge to accomplish a goal or task.

If F value exceeds the critical F value in a statistical table

REJECT the null hypothesis

Random Selection Random Assignment

Random selection is used to obtain a sample that resembles the population (i.e., to obtain a representative sample). Random assignment is used to create groups that are similar to one another. Random assignment is very important in experimental research because it makes your comparison groups equivalent on all characteristics; then the researcher gives one group and not the other and checks to see if the groups become different.)

Ordinal scale (2nd level of measurement)

Rank-orders variables, though distance between the variables may not be equal - Provides relative placement or standing but does not delineate absolute differences (adding/subtracting is no-no) (Memory: 'ordinal' sounds like 'order')

Ordinal scale (2nd level of measurement)

Two basic classes of intermittent reinforcement schedules

Ratio - based on # of responses ('variable' often used with this) Interval - based on time elapsed ('fixed' often used with this)

William Glasser is to reality therapy as Albert Ellis is to

Rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT) (Ellis is father of REBT)

Types of ego defense mechanisms

Rationalization, Compensation, Repression, Projection Reaction formation, Identification, Introjection, Denial, Displacement

Spontaneous Recovery

Recurrence of the previous extinguished conditioned response after a rest period

Predictive validity

Refers to the correlation between test scores based on the relationship between test scores collected at one point in time and criterion scores obtained at a later time. Extent to which future level of performance can be predicted from knowledge of prior test performance. Also know as "empirical validity". Examples are GRE, SAT

ENDED Construct Validity

Refers to the extent to which test results can be interpreted in terms of a particular construct all the methods used to measure construct validity produce evidence of relationships between test scores and other variables. 1.factor analysis (to show that test is measuring one concept) 2.experimental design (age differentiation/group differentiation) 3. convergence with other instruments (compare test scores to other well established tests) 4. discrimination from other measures (correlate scores to tests that are different)

Internal validity

Refers to whether the DVs were truly influenced by the experimental IVs or whether other factors had an impact.

External validity

Refers to whether the experimental research results can be generalized to larger populations (other people, settings, conditions). [If the results of the study only apply to the population in the study then external validity is LOW.]

External validity

Refers to whether the experimental research results can be generalized to larger populations (other people, settings, conditions).[If the results of the study only apply to the population in the study then external validity is LOW.]

Regression analysis

Regression analysis is a set of statistical procedures used to explain or predict the values of a quantitative dependent variable based on the values of one or more independent variables.

Regression Analysis (Descriptive Stats)

Regression analysis is a set of statistical procedures used to explain or predict the values of a quantitative dependent variable based on the values of one or more independent variables. In simple regression, there is one quantitative dependent variable and one independent variable. Example: Showing the relationship between starting salary (Y or your dependent variable) and GPA (X or your independent variable) In multiple regression, there is one quantitative dependent variable and two or more independent variables.

Comparative View of Practice

Repeated Trials result in repeated pairings of the CS and the UCS

Solomon 4 group design

Researcher uses 2 control groups - only one experimental group and one control group are PRE-tested. The other control group and experimental group are merely post-tested. (Lets the researcher known if results are influenced by testing.)

Evaluation

Results in answers to qualitative questions.

Measurement

Results in answers to quantitative questions. The test score (quantity) is used to identify a number answer (usually expressed as raw score or percentage correct). Quality is to infer how well they did in comparison to a group.

A-B-A-B Designs

Reversal Single-Subject Design

I-Thou relationship

Rogerian and Existentialistic (relationship is horizontal in nature)

NCE - Group Rudolph Dreikurs

Rudolph Dreikurs was a student of Adler and was the first to discuss the use of group therapy in private practice. Dreikurs also introduced Adlerian principles in the treatment of children in the school setting.

Validity - Threats to Internal Validity

SELECTION OF SUBJECTS- differences in the results between 2 groups may not be due to the treatment variable because the composition of the 2 groups are different to begin with. INSTRUMENTATION- because they changed during the study or observers recording data become fatigued and record behaviors differently over time. TESTING - tests may serve as a learning experience that will cause subjects to alter their responses on a test when it is re-administered MATURATION ATTRITION EXPERIMENTER BIAS HISTORY - these may be extraneous incidents STATISTICAL REGRESSION - may be mistaken for the effect of the intervention

Developmental Theories > Gottfredson's Circumscription, Compromise, and Self-Creation: A Developmental Theory of Occupational Aspirations (1980s)

SELF-CONCEPT - One's view of self that has many elements, such as one's appearance, abilities, personality, gender, values, and place in society. If core elements of self-concept conflict with an occupation, the occupation is rejected. IMAGES OF OCCUPATIONS - Refer to occupational stereotypes that include personalities of people in different occupations, the work that is done, and the appropriateness of that work for different types of people. COGNITIVE MAPS OF OCCUPATIONS - These constitute how adolescents and adults distinguish occupations into major dimensions, specifically, masculinity/femininity, occupational prestige level, and field of work. SOCIAL SPACE - The zone of acceptable alternatives in each person's cognitive map of occupations, or each person's view of where they fit or want to fit in society. Career decision should center around "territories" instead of specific jobs.

~Standard Error of Measurement Example: A test of computer skill has a reliability coefficient of .75, a mean off 100, and a variance of 16. What is the test's standard error of measurement?

SEM = s.d. √ 1 - r The square root of the variance is 4, the reliability coefficient (.75) to produce: SEM = 4 X √ (1 - .75) = 4 X √.25 = 4 X 0.5 = = 2

~Standard Error of Measurement Formula

SEM = s.d. √ 1 - r SEM = (s.d.) multiplied by (the square root of [1 minus the reliability coefficient]).

Decision Accuracy Terms

SENSITIVITY- the instrument's ability to accurately identify the presence of a phenomenon. (the depression inventory results indicate that a depressed client has depressive symptoms)

Decision Accuracy Terms

SENSITIVITY- the instrument's ability to accurately identify the presence of a phenomenon. (the depression inventory results indicate that a depressed client has depressive symptoms) SPECIFICITY- the instrument's ability to accurately identify the absence of a phenomenon. (the depression inventory results indicate that a non-depressed client does not have depressive symptoms) EFFICIENCY- the ratio of total correct decisions divided by the total number of decisions.

Trait-Oriented Theories > RIASEC descriptions SEC

SOCIAL - good social skills, friendly and enjoys involvement with people and working in teams; nurse, teacher, social worker, counselor ENTERPRISING - leadership, speaking and negotiating abilities; likes leading others towards the achievement of a goal; salesperson, tv producer, manager, lawyer CONVENTIONAL - systematic and practical worker, good at following plan and attending to detail; banker, secretary, accountant

Internal Consistency

SPEARMAN-BROWN FORMULA - to compensate mathematically for the shorter length of Split-half reliability. Estimate of what reliability coefficient would be if the halves were increased to the original length of the instrument. Used when tests are dichotomous. KUDER-RICHARDSON FORMULAS- Used when tests are dichotomous. KR-20: Heterogeneous measures multiple domains (estimate of all possible split-half reliabilities) KR-21: Homogeneous measures one domain CRONBACH'S COEFFICIENT ALPHA- used when scoring multi-point responses (not dichotomous). Takes into consideration the variance of each item.

Systematic sampling

Sampling every nth person in a population (i.e., every 5th person, 10th person, etc.) - some believe this gives same results as random sampling although it is controversial.

A _______ is used to depict the relationship between two quantitative variables.

Scatterplot Typically, the independent or predictor variable is represented by the X axis (i.e., on the horizontal axis) and the dependent variable is represented by the Y axis (i.e., on the vertical axis). Descriptive Stats

A graph that shows the frequencies and shape that characterize a quantitative variable is called a _______.

Cognitive Information Processing (CIP)

Self-knowledge and occupational knowledge are schemas that keep evolving over the person's life span. In CIP terms, CAREER IDENTITY is defined as the level of development of self-knowledge memory structures. Career identity is a function of the complexity, integration, and stability of the schemata constituting the self-knowledge domain. In CIP terms, CAREER MATURITY is defined as the ability to make independent and responsible career decisions based on the thoughtful integration of the best information available about oneself and the occupational world. The goal of career counseling is to provide the conditions of learning that facilitate the growth of memory structures and cognitive skills so as to improve the client's capacity for processing information.

Factorial experiment

Several experimental variables are investigated and interactions can be noted. Factorial designs include 2 or more IVs.

Factorial experiment

Several experimental variables are investigated and interactions can be noted. Factorial designs include 2 or more IVs.

Significance Level AKA Alpha Level Significance Testing

Significance level — the cutoff the researcher uses to decide when to reject the null hypothesis; also called the alpha level

Significance Level Significance Testing

Significance level — the cutoff the researcher uses to decide when to reject the null hypothesis; also called the alpha level Significance testing — a commonly used synonym for hypothesis testing; NOTE: in significance or hypothesis testing, the researcher sets the significance (alpha) level, analyzes the data to obtain the probability value, and then the researcher compares the empirical probability value with the preset significance level to determine whether the finding is statistically significant

Significance Level & Probability Value

Significance levels indicate how likely a result is due to chance. In statistics, researchers use the "p" value to indicate significance. When SPSS calculates the Spearman rank correlation (rs), it also calculates the significance, or p value . . . p is compared to the alpha set by the researcher (the value at which the researcher will reject the null hypothesis that there is no significant relationship between the two variables). Alpha is often set at .05, meaning that the result has a 5% chance of not being true, which is the opposite of a 95% chance of being true. To interpret the significance level, subtract the number shown from one. So, a value of ".01" means that there is a 99% (1 - .01 = .99) chance of it being true a true, significant, correlation.

Significance Level (alpha level) Probability Value (p-value)

Research Designs

Single Variable Designs - one IV Factorial Designs - two or more IVs (at least one is manipulated)

Peer Cluster Theory

Small, identifiable peer clusters determine where, when and how drugs will be used

Statistical Tests > NONPARAMETRIC INFERENTIAL TESTS

Spearman correlation or Kendall's tau - A linear correlation between nonparametric data. used in place of the Pearson r when parametric assumptions cannot be utilized; used to calculate a correlation coefficient when 1 or more variables are measured on an ordinal (ranking) scale.

Spearman-Brown

Spearman-Brown formula — a statistical formula used for correcting the split-half reliability coefficient (because of the shortened test length created by splitting the full length test into two equivalent halves) Formula that is used to estimate the impact that lengthening or shortening a test will have on a test's reliability.

Development of Career Counseling > 6 Stages (1-3)

Stage 1 (1890-1919) - began the growth of placement services in urban areas to meet the needs of the growing Industrial organizations; Industrial Revolution, World War I (1914-1918) Stage 2 (1920-1939) - marked by the growth of educational guidance in elementary and secondary schools; Great Depression (1930s) Stage 3 (1940-1959) - was a time of significant growth of guidance needs in colleges and universities and in the training of counselors; World War II (1939-1945)

Development of Career Counseling > 6 Stages (4-6)

Stage 4 (1960-1979) - highlighted by organizational career development. The nature of work become more appropriately viewed as a very pervasive life role; Vietnam War (1960-1975) Stage 5 (1980-1989) - was a period of significant transitions brought on by information technology and the beginning of career counseling private practice and outplacement services. Stage 6 (1990-present) - viewed as a time of changing demographics, the beginning of multicultural counseling, continued development of technology, and a focus on school-to-work transitions.

What is the standard deviation of a sampling distribution called?

Standard Error

Standardized tests always have formal procedures for test administration and scoring.

Standardization implies the testing format, test materials, and scoring process are consistent.

SEM- Confidence Interval - What is the confidence interval and how does the SEm relate to it?

Statements about an examinee's obtained score (the actual score that is received on a test) are couched in terms of a CONFIDENCE INTERVAL — a band, interval, or range of scores that has a high probability of including the examinee's "true" score. Depending on the level of confidence one may want to have about where the "true" score may lie, the confidence band may be small or large. Most typical confidence intervals are 68%, 90%, or 95%. Respectively, these bands may be interpreted as the range within which a person's "true" score can be found 68%, 90%, or 95% of the time. It is not possible to construct a confidence interval within which an examinee's true score is absolutely certain to lie.

SPSS

Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (computer program for crunching statistics)

SPSS

Statistical Package for the Social Sciences(computer program for crunching statistics)

Trend analysis

Statistical procedure performed at different times to see if a trend is evident, using ANOVA sometimes.

Factor analysis

Statistical procedure to summarize MANY variables. (i.e., A test measuring a counselors ability may try to describe 3 important variables that make up an effective helper although hundreds exist.)

Statistically speaking, 68.26% of scores fall within + or - one SD of the mean.

Statistically speaking, 95.74% of scores fall within + or - 2 SD of the mean.

As X increases, Y also increases; As X decreases, Y also decreases

Statistically, how can 2 positively and directly related variables be described?

Trait-and-Factor Theory > Parsons' True Reasoning 3 Step Model

Step 1: Assessment of Self - gaining clear understanding of your aptitudes, abilities, resources, and limitations. Step 2: Obtaining Knowledge about the World of Work- occupational requirements, conditions of success, compensations, working conditions Step 3: Decision Making - TRUE REASONING of above 2 - Match the person (traits) with the career (factors). Based on psychometric methods that could be measured.

t-test example 2 groups or 2 tests and Random

Students (n=30) took the NCE six weeks ago with mean of 111. For six weeks the group studied NCE material once a week in a lecture format. The group retook the test six weeks later and derived mean of 119. The null hypothesis stated there would be no significant difference in the mean score.

t-test example 2 groups or 2 tests and Random

Matched design

Subjects are literally 'matched' in regard to any variable that could be correlated with the DV, which is really the postexperimental performance.

Vroom's Motivation and Management Expectancy Theory

Suggests employee performance is influenced by: VALANCE (rewards such as money, promotion, or satisfaction) EXPECTANCY (what am I capable of doing?) INSTRUMENTALITY (will management come through with promised rewards?)

Developmental Theories > Life-Span Life-Space (Super) > CAREER MATURITY

Super & Crite's term for successful completion of the appropriate life tasks for the stage that society presents to the person. A person is capable of maturity at each stage of the maxicycle.

Developmental Theories > Super's 6 Dimensions For Adolescents (Career Maturity)

Super's (1974) 6 Dimensions For Adolescents (Career Maturity): (1) Orientation to vocational choice (an attitudinal dimension) (2) Information and Planning (a competence dimension concerning specificity of information concerning future career decisions) (3) Consistency of Vocational Preferences (4) Crystallization of Traits (progress towards forming self-concept) (5) Vocational Independence (independence of work experience) (6) Wisdom of Vocational Preferences (realistic preferences)

Empathy is the ability to experience the client's subjective world.

Sympathy is compassion.

Brief Psychotic Disorder

Symptoms of schizophrenia that do not last more than a month is classified as which disorder?

A counselor believes that clients who receive assertiveness training will ask more questions in counseling classes. An experimental group receives assertiveness training while a control group does not. In order to test for significant differences between the groups the counselor should utilize the _____. One experimental group receives no training, a second group receives 4 assertiveness training sessions, and a third group receives 6 session. The statistic of choice would be the _______. If the researcher utilized two IVs then the statistic of choice would be the ________.

T test ANOVA Two-way ANOVA or MANOVA

NCE - Group ...

T-groups help people develop human relationship skills in organizational settings by examining group process rather than personal growth.

Within subjects designs

TESTING EFFECTS (threat to internal validity) are directly related to experience obtained by participating in previous treatment conditions. For example, participants may learn new skills in one treatment that can influence future behavior. Or participant can become fatigued from one treatment and that fatigue affects their scores in later treatment. The testing effects are often called ORDER EFFECTS to emphasize that participants go through a series of treatments in order, and that performance in any treatment may be influenced by treatments that occurred earlier in the order. When an order effect is caused by a specific treatment, it is called a CARRYOVER EFFECT.

CAREER THEORIES OVERVIEW

TRAIT-ORIENTED THEORIES > Trait-and-Factor (1909; 1939) > Person-Environment-Correspondence > Holland's Typology / Personality Approach (1966) DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES > Ginzberg & Associates (1951) > Life-Span, Life-Space Theory (1957) > Tiedeman & O'Hara Decision-Making Model (1963) > Theory of Circumscription & Compromise (1980s) SOCIAL LEARNING & COGNITIVE THEORIES > Learning Theory of Career Counseling (LTCC) (1990) > Cognitive Information Process (CIP) (1996) > Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) (1996) OTHER THEORIES > Ann Roe's Need Theory / Personality Approach (1956) > Gelatt's Decision-Making Model (1962)

True/False: A causal comparative design is a true experiment except for the fact that the groups are not randomly assigned.

TRUE

True/False: Data gleaned from the causal comparative ex-post facto design can be analyzed with a test of significance just like any true experiment.

TRUE

Research Designs

TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 4. Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design - at least 2 groups; random assignment; both groups given pretest of DV; one group gets new treatment, both groups are posttested.

Two-Tailed Test (Nondirectional) vs One-Tailed Test (Directional)

TWO-TAILED TEST - An alternative hypothesis stating that a difference is expected between the groups, but there is no prediction as to which group will perform better or worse.

Two-Tailed Test (Nondirectional) vs One-Tailed Test (Directional)

TWO-TAILED TEST - An alternative hypothesis stating that a difference is expected between the groups, but there is no prediction as to which group will perform better or worse. ONE-TAILED TEST- An alternative hypothesis stating that a difference is expected between the groups, and it is expected to occur in a specific direction.

Conformist Stage

Taking into consideration that a child is preoccupied with social acceptance, appearance, and material possessions, at what ego development sequence is he?

Intelligence, attention and motor skill defects

Taking into consideration that a mother takes aspirin during pregnancy, what effect could this have on the fetus?

Delirium

Taking into consideration that a person has the following symptoms: perceptual disorders, disrupted attentional impairment and he is disoriented, what diagnosis would be accurate for his disease?

Disillusionment and Anger

Taking into consideration that victims can react differently to sexual harassment what does the client experience when a resolution of the complaint may be a long hard process and not always successful with many organizations not always supportive?

Cognitive Information Processing (CIP) (1996)

Tenets: Career choice results from an interaction of cognitions and affective processes. Career development involves continual growth & change in knowledge structures. The major strategy of career intervention is to provide learning events that will develop the individual's information-processing abilities. The ultimate aim of career counseling is to enhance the client's capabilities as a career problem solver and a decision maker.

Learning Theory of Career Counseling (LTCC) > John Krumboltz (1990)

Tenets: Each individual's unique learning experiences over the life span develop primary influences that lead to career choice. Development involves genetic endowments and special abilities, environmental conditions and events, learning experiences, and task approach skills. Krumboltz uses Bandura's social learning theory and lists four factors that influence career choice: Genetic endowment and special abilities, Environmental conditions and events, Learning experiences, and Task-approach skills. Clients need to prepare for changing work tasks, not assume that occupations will remain stable. Clients need to expand their capabilities and interests, not base decisions on existing characteristics only. Career counselors should use cognitive reconstructuring, reframing, role playing, desensitization with phobias, and paradoxical intention.

Developmental Theories >Life-Span Life-Space (Donald Super; 1957)

Tenets: One chooses an occupation that best expresses one's vocational SELF-CONCEPT. Self-knowledge is key to career choice and job satisfaction. **Career development was viewed as a continuous process that involved multiple life roles. Every individual has potential. People have skills and talents that they develop through different life roles making them capable of a variety of tasks and numerous occupations. Career development is life long Vocational maturity is acquired through successfully accomplishing developmental tasks within a continuous series of life stages.

Testing VS Assessment

Testing is the process of measuring variables by means of devices or procedures designed to obtain a sample of behavior and Assessment is the gathering and integration of data for the purpose of making an educational evaluation, accomplished through the use of tools such as tests, interviews, case studies, behavioral observation, and specially designed apparatus and measurement procedures.

Learning Theory of Career Counseling (LTCC) > John Krumboltz

The 4 main factors that influence career choice: 1. Genetic endowment and special abilities - sex, race, physical appearance, intelligence, abilities, and talents 2. Environmental conditions and events - cultural, social, political, and economic forces beyond our control 3. Instrumental and associative learning experiences Instrumental= person's behavior leads to a consequence (punishment or reward) Associative= observational learning, classical conditioning 4. Task approach skills (e.g., self-observation, goal setting and information seeking).

Journal of Counseling Psychology

The APA's Journey of Counseling Psychology publishes more counseling research articles than any other periodical in the field.

NCE - Group A client receiving verbal feedback from her peers in a Gestalt therapy group is generally said to be experiencing:

The Hot Seat

Developmental Theories > Super's Life Rainbow > Super's Archway Model

The Life Rainbow is a two dimensional scheme of life stages that includes the Longitudinal: a maxi cycle life span with mini cycle stages and the Latitudinal: life space roles throughout life. The Archway Model clarifies how biological, psychological, and sociological determinants influence career development, and, reveals diverse life roles over an individual's life span.

Pearson Correlation Coefficient

The Pearson Product Moment Correlation ( r ) requires that the data collected on the two variables be CONTINUOUS (Interval or Ratio) and that the relationship between the two variables be LINEAR.

The RANGE is the simplest way to measure the spread of scores.

The RANGE is usually calculated by subtracting the lowest score from the highest scores (i.e., 93-33=60.) - If 'inclusive range' is specified on exam, then use the formula but add '1' to the final value after subtraction of the range. -generally increases with sample size

The RANGE is the simplest way to measure the spread of scores.

The RANGE is usually calculated by subtracting the lowest score from the highest scores (i.e., 93-33=60.)- If 'inclusive range' is specified on exam, then use the formula but add '1' to the final value after subtraction of the range.-generally increases with sample size

Significance Level (alpha level) Probability Value (p-value)

Significance Level & Probability Value

The SIGNIFICANCE LEVEL (alpha level) is just that point at which you would consider a result to be "rare." You are the one who decides on the significance level to use in your research study. A significance level is not an empirical result; it is the level that you set so that you will know what probability value will be small enough for you to reject the null hypothesis. The PROBABILITY VALUE (p-value) is a number that is obtained from the SPSS computer printout. It is based on your empirical data, and it tells you the probability of your result or a more extreme result when it is assumed that there is no relationship in the population (i.e., when you are assuming that the null hypothesis is true which is what we do in hypothesis testing).

Discriminating Social Responsiveness

The attachment stage from 2-7 months where the infant begins to show a preference for a familiar person is known as _____________.

Echolalia

The automatic repetition by someone of words spoken in his or her presence (ie: the baby babbling when the mother talks). It can also be a mental disorder.

ONTOGENESIS

The course of development of an organism or an individual

***Item discrimination

The degree to which an item differentiates correctly among test takes in the behavior that the test is designed to measure. Is to determine if the item can discriminate the learner from the non-learner. The item analysis results can be utilized to arrange the test in a spiral form.

Hunch

The experimental or alternative hypothesis.

Rosenthal Effect (experimenter expectancy)

The experimenter's beliefs about the individual may cause the experimenter to treat them in a special way so that they begin to fulfill the experimenter's expectations.

The umbilical chord falls from the naval and the child regains weight lost from birth

The first developmental stage of a human being is infancy (birth02 weeks) what is characteristic for this stage?

Statistically speaking, 99.74% of scores fall within + or - 3 SD of the mean.

The greater the standard deviation of scores, the greater the spread of a plotted graph.

X axis (also called 'abscissa')

The horizontal line drawn under a frequency distribution graph.

X axis (also called 'abscissa')

The horizontal line drawn under a frequency distribution graph. (horizontal axis plots the independent variable [IV])

NCE - Group Selection of members

The key factor in selecting a person for group work is to identify a personality pattern that may not lend itself to the group. Hostile, suicidal, homicidal, paranoid, and self-centered or psychotic persons are not good candidates for group counseling. However, psychotherapy groups in an inpatient setting focus more on individual concerns. The aggressive construction worker and the aforementioned personality types would be good choices for psychotherapy groups.

The probability of committing a Type I error equals the level of significance.

The level of significance is also called the 'alpha level'.

The larger the range, the greater the dispersion or spread of scores from the mean.

The most useful measure of central tendency is the MEAN (i.e., average). In skewed distributions, the median is the best choice.

The larger the range, the greater the dispersion or spread of scores from the mean.

The most useful measure of central tendency is the MEAN (i.e., average).In skewed distributions, the median is the best choice.

The experiment

The most valuable type of research (used to discover cause-and-effect relationships)

The experiment

The most valuable type of research(used to discover cause-and-effect relationships)

Gelatt's Decision-Making Model (1962)

The nature of decision making is continuous and cyclical. Although there are times when key decisions must be made. Asserts that information can be organized into 3 systems: 1- PREDICTIVE SYSTEM- concerned with probable alternatives, actions, and possibilities 2- VALUE SYSTEM - concerned with one's relative preferences, likes, and dislikes regarding the outcomes 3- DECISION SYSTEM - provides rules and criteria for evaluating the outcome

Drug Dependence

The need for continued or repeated use of a drug in order to maintain a particular desired state which includes the avoidance of withdrawl

Drug Tolerance

The need for ever increasingly larger doses of a drug to obtain the initial effect of the original dose

ANOVA & t-test

The one-way ANOVA is an extension of the independent two-sample t-test.

One-Way ANOVA and T-Test

The one-way ANOVA is an extension of the independent two-sample t-test. In the above example, if we considered only two age groups, say below 40 and above 40, then the independent samples t-test would have been enough although application of ANOVA would have also produced the same result. In the example considered above, there were three age groups and hence it was necessary to use one-way ANOVA.

NCE - Group Structure

The overuse of structure hinders the development of closeness, trust, and genuineness. Structured techniques are less effective than unstructured ones. Structured techniques can generate early cohesiveness. Structured techniques can foster dependency upon the leader.

Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) (1996) > The Big 3 (1)

The personal determinants (Big 3) of career development have been conceptualized as: 1. SELF EFFICACY- Perceived abilities; Judgments of one's abilities to organize and carry out actions. It is strengthened with repeated success and weakened with repeated failure. It is developed through 4 types of learning experiences: 1- Personal Performance Accomplishments (MOST Influential) 2- Vicarious Learning, 3- Social persuasion, and 4- Physiological States and Reactions (Weak efficacy beliefs can produce anxiety/high levels of anxiety undermine performance).

NCE - Group Pre-Interview

The pre-interview serves as an INFORMED CONSENT procedure. Each member becomes aware of what is expected of them and what takes place in this type of group before it begins.

Levels of Significance

The probability that results obtained from one sample (experimental) group will differ significantly from those obtained from another (control) group.

Developmental Theories > Super's Maxicycle & Minicycle

The process of change is a MAXICYCLE. Any life-career stage depends on Readiness to cope. A MAXICYCLE is the progression through stages of one's lifetime (birth, growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance, decline, and death). A MINICYCLE is a process of going through the same stages; however this occurs stage to stage. Therefore, a person would probably conduct a minimum of 6 minicycles during a maxicycle.

NCE - Group Psychodynamic Approach

The psychodynamic approach attempts to uncover the unconscious determinants of groups members' present behavior. Psychodynamic group leaders do not require members to remain strictly in the here-and-now.

Aggressive Behavior

The reinforcers used for the behavior, the models of aggressive behavior seen by the child and the amount of guilt or anxiety associated with aggressive behavior influences what type of behavior in a child ages 2-6?

Longitudinal method (also known as 'diachronic method')

The same clients are studied over a period of time.

Longitudinal method(also known as 'diachronic method')

The same clients are studied over a period of time.

Interquartile range

The score distance between the 25th and 75th percentile.

Significance Level & Probability Value with Errors

The significance level refers only to the Type-I error.

Significance Level & Probability Value with Errors

The significance level refers only to the Type-I error. Setting the significance level at .01 (alpha = .01) means that the chance of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true is 1%. In other words, there is a 1% chance of making a Type I error. If result is statistically significant you can reject the null hypothesis and the probability of a Type I error is low. Type I and Type II Error have an inverse relationship. If Type II Error becomes more likely, Type I Error actually becomes less likely. When you decrease the significance level, alpha errors decrease but beta errors increase.

Single-blind study

The subject does not know whether they are in the control group, but the researcher does. (helps eliminate 'demand characteristics')

Single-blind study

The subject does not know whether they are in the control group, but the researcher does.(helps eliminate 'demand characteristics')

Developmental Theories > Gottfredson's Circumscription, Compromise, and Self-Creation: A Developmental Theory of Occupational Aspirations (1980s)

The theory assumes that we build a COGNITIVE MAP of occupations by picking up OCCUPATIONAL STEREOTYPES from those around us. Occupations are placed on this map using only a small number of dimensions: SEX-TYPE, PRESTIGE LEVEL, & FIELD OF WORK. As young people build this map, they begin to decide which occupations are acceptable and which are unacceptable — those which fit with their own developing SELF-CONCEPT and those which do not. Incorporating a biosocial developmental approach, her theory describes how people become attracted to certain occupations. Self-concept in vocational development is a key factor to career selection because people want jobs that are compatible with their self-images. A key factor in career decision is self-concept that is determined by one's social class, level of intelligence, and experiences with sex-typing. Individual development progresses through 4 stages.

Abscissa Ordinate

The x axis is used to plot the IV scores. The x axis is also known as the ABSCISSA. The y axis is used to plot the frequency of the DVs. The y axis is also known as the ORDINATE.

Non-cognitive tests

There are no right/wrong answers. Faking may be a concern. Error types: halo, criterion, leniency, acquiescence, social desirability, ect Acquiescence- when a client always agrees with something Deviation (in reference to testing)- when an individual purposely, or when in doubt, gives unusual responses. Social desirability- when someone tries to answer the questions in a socially acceptable manner.

Technological Advances

These advances shape the development of intellectual functioning

Experimenter effects

Things that can flaw an experiment because the researcher unconsciously communicates intent or expectations to the subjects.

Standard Error of Measurement (Reliability)

This deviation provides an indication of what an individual's true score would be if they took the instrument repeated times. The SEM is the standard deviation of an individual's repeated test scores when administered the same instrument multiple times. The SEM is inversely related to reliability in that the larger the SEM, the lower the reliability of a test. If the reliability coefficient is 1.00, the SEM=0. The SEM is often reported in terms of confidence intervals, which define that range of scores where the true score is thought to lie. Counselors can use SEM to determine the range scores 68%, 95%, or 99.5% of the time.

Law of effect (aka 'trial and error')

Thorndike's suggestion that satisfying associations related to a given behavior will cause it to be 'stamped in' while those associated with annoying consequences will be 'stamped out'.

Resentful Demoralization of the Comparison Group (also called compensatory equalization)

Threat to validity in which comparison group lowers their performance or behaves inept in an attempt to make the experimental group look better than they should. (Noted if the comparison group deteriorates throughout the experiment while the experimental group does not.)

Resentful Demoralization of the Comparison Group (also called compensatory equalization)

Threat to validity in which comparison group lowers their performance or behaves inept in an attempt to make the experimental group look better than they should.(Noted if the comparison group deteriorates throughout the experiment while the experimental group does not.)

Developmental Theories > Tiedeman and O'Hara's Developmental Model

Tiedeman and O'Hara's developmental model parallels Erikson's stages. A lifetime of decision-making abilities and self-awareness is of major importance in choosing one's career. Their 3 concepts included: 1- DIFFERENTIATION - expressing one's unique individuality, 2- INTEGRATION - ability to adjust to others to be part of society, and 3- EGO IDENTITY (Central to his theory) - personal meanings, values, and relationships that are the foundation for broader integration with society.

Coefficient of Determination (Variance accounted for)

To find percentage of shared variance between 2 variables, simply square the correlation coefficient. Example: If the correlation coefficient is .90, then the common variance would equal 81%. Coefficient of Determination is 81% (variance accounted for ~ shared variance); 19% (variance unaccounted for). The Coefficient of Determination tells us how much of the variance in the scores of one variable can be understood or explained by the scores on a second variable. When 2 variables are related or correlated with each other, there is a certain amount of shared variance between them. The stronger the correlation, the greater the amount of shared variance, and the higher the coefficient of determination.

Correlation info

To test whether a correlation coefficient is statistically significant, the researcher starts with the null hypothesis that there is no relationship between the 2 variables AKA the correlation coefficient equals zero. The alternative hypothesis is that there is a statistical relationship between the 2 variables and that the correlation coefficient is not equal to zero. So you are testing whether the correlation coefficient is statistically different from 0.

Significance Level & Probability Value

Significance Level (alpha level) Probability Value (p-value)

Multimodal distribution

Two or more peaks in a distribution curve

Within-subjects design

Two or more values or levels of the IV are administered to each subject.

Errors

Type I (Alpha Error) - Rejected null hypothesis when it is true (e.g. Results indicate that the biofeedback helped raise exam scores but in reality that is not the case.)

In social sciences, the accepted probability level is usually .05 or less.

Type I (alpha error) occurs when a researcher rejects the null hypothesis although it is true.

Errors

Type I Error = False Positive (client who doesn't have condition is identified as having it)

Type I Alpha Error Type II Beta Error

Type I Error: Rejecting the null hypothesis (H0) when it is true Type II Error: Accepting the null hypothesis (H0) when it is false

Type I Alpha Error Type II Beta Error

Type I Error: Rejecting the null hypothesis (H0) when it is true Type II Error: Accepting the null hypothesis (H0) when it is false Type I Error: The research hypothesis (H1) is accepted even though the null hypothesis (H0) is correct. Type II Error: The research hypothesis (H1) is not accepted when in fact it is true. The null hypothesis (H0) is accepted when in fact it is false. Type I: FALSE POSITIVE Error- an instrument inaccurately identifies the presence of a phenomenon. (The results indicate that the biofeedback helped raise written board exam scores but in reality this is not the case) Type II: FALSE NEGATIVE Error- an instrument inaccurately identifies the absence of a phenomenon. (the depression inventory would indicate that a depressed client has no depressive symptoms)

Lowering the significance level LOWERS Type I errors, but it RAISES the risk of Type II errors.

Type I/Type II relationship is a seesaw.

Type I Alpha Error Type II Beta Error

Type I: FALSE POSITIVE Error- an instrument inaccurately identifies the presence of a phenomenon. (The results indicate that the biofeedback helped raise written board exam scores but in reality this is not the case) Type II: FALSE NEGATIVE Error- an instrument inaccurately identifies the absence of a phenomenon. (the depression inventory would indicate that a depressed client has no depressive symptoms)

Existentialist speak of 3 worlds:

Umwelt (physical) Mitwelt (relationship) Eigenwelt (identity)

Ego defense mechanisms are

Unconscious processes that minimize anxiety and protect the self from severe id or superego demands -distort reality and are based on self-deception to protect our self image

Confounded or flawed variable

Undesirable variables that invalidate experiments. (The only experimental variable should be the independent variable.)

Confounded or flawed variable

Undesirable variables that invalidate experiments.(The only experimental variable should be the independent variable.)

Content validity

Universe or domain. No correlation r to report. Evidence based on expert judgment of the degree to which the items adequately represent the construct domain of interest Taxonomy often determines weight of item Item Analysis: item easiness (i.e. spiral items) and item discrimination Do the items appear to represent the thing you are trying to measure? Does the set of items underrepresent the construct's content (i.e., have you excluded any important content areas or topics)? Do any items represent something other than what you are trying to measure (i.e., have you included any irrelevant items)?

Use norm-referenced tests Use criterion referenced tests

Use norm referenced tests: simply to rank order the examinees along some achievement continuum; to compare the student's performance to an established norm; standardized tests. Norm-referenced scores (scaled scores) compare the scores of one student or group of students to another, or the same student or group at different points in time. Scores reported with a confidence band around the institutional mean scores. Criterion-Referenced Tests- Making test scores meaningful without indicating the test taker's relative position in a group. On a criterion-referenced test, each individual test taker's score is compared with a fixed standard, rather than with the performance of the other test takers. Sometimes called domain referenced.

Analysis of variance (ANOVA)

Used for more than 2 sample groups, yields and F statistic

t test

Used to determine whether two sample groups are significantly different, simple form of the ANOVA, for comparing 2 sample groups (for "two-groups" or "two-randomized groups" research design)

t test

Used to determine whether two sample groups are significantly different, simple form of the ANOVA, for comparing 2 sample groups(for "two-groups" or "two-randomized groups" research design)

Confidence Interval

Used to estimate the degree to which an obtained test score differs from a true test score. SEm estimate how repeated measures of a person on same instrument tend to be distributed around their "true" score. The true score is always unknown. SEm is directly related to reliability of a test. The larger the SEm, the lower the reliability. Using the 68% confidence level, for example, if a child receives an intelligence test score of 115 with a SEm of three (3) points, there is a 68% probability that the child's true score falls within the range of 112 to 118. It would not be appropriate to select the highest or lowest numbers within that range as the best estimate of the child's true score.

Factorial design

Used to ferret out the effects of more than one IV.

Y axis (also known as 'ordinate')

Used to plot frequency of the DVs, plotting the experimental data. (memory: Letter 'Y' is vertical like the line it represents in a graph)

Y axis (also known as 'ordinate')

Used to plot frequency of the DVs, plotting the experimental data. (memory: Letter 'Y' is vertical like the line it represents in a graph)

Quota sampling

Used when a specific number of cases are necessary from various strata (groups).

Cluster sampling

Used when it is nearly impossible to find a list of the entire population. (Will not be as accurate as random sample but is used to save time and practical considerations.)

Cluster sampling

Used when it is nearly impossible to find a list of the entire population.(Will not be as accurate as random sample but is used to save time and practical considerations.)

Quasi-experiment

Uses PRE-EXISTING groups, so the independent variable (IV) cannot be altered (i.e., gender or ethnicity), and can't state with any statistical confidence that the IV caused the dependent variable (DV).

Likert scale

Uses choices like: strongly agree, agree, disagree, or strongly disagree. Created by Renis Likert in 1930, helped improve the overall degree of measurement. (memory: How much do you Likert something?)

Likert scale

Cognitive Information Processing (CIP) > CASVE Cycle (Decision Skills Domain)

VALUING (problem solutions are evaluated by prioritizing alternatives) judging each action as to its likelihood of success and failure and its impact on the individual, others, and society; Choosing An Occupation, Program, or Job EXECUTION (problem solutions are accomplished by formulating strategies - taking action to narrow the gap) Implementing My Choice Concludes with return to Communication phase. Was gap removed successfully? Yes - Move on to successive problems; No - Recycle

Variance

Variance- how far on average the scores deviated from the mean. The variance is the standard deviation squared. The standard deviation is the square root of variance.

Gender Harassment

Verbal remarks and non touching behaviors that are sexist in nature

Within-subject design Between-subject design

WITHIN-SUBJECTS DESIGN (pre-post design)- The same group of subjects participate in all of the treatments. Sometimes called a repeated-measures design. It looks for differences between treatment conditions within the same group of participants. Primary advantages are that it eliminates the confounding problems based on Individual Differences between groups; since each participant appears in every treatment condition, each individual serves as his own control or baseline which makes it possible to measure and remove the variance caused by Individual difference. It also requires fewer participants than Between-Subjects designs which reduces variance (more likely to detect treatment effect). Primary disadvantage are the Order Effects: The relationship between scores across treatments creates the potential for the scores in one treatment to be influenced by previous treatments, previous measurements, or previous experience. Other disadvantage is threats to internal validity- main two are environmental variables (different locations of the test) and time-related factors (history, maturation, instrumentation, testing effects, regression).

Within-subject design VS Between-subject design

answer needed

What are Rossi's four stages of adult development related to parenting?

Visual discrimination and memory skill problems

What are the consequences of PCB (a manufacturing chemical) exposure?

retarded growth, mental retardation and lukemia

What are the consequences of x-ray exposure?

Pre-term births

What are the consequences to the new born if a pregnant woman takes caffeine?

Answer Needed

What are the four processes of "modeling" or acquiring learning through observation?

Mental Retardation

What are the health effects of a newborn if he has been exposed to x-rays for 6 months before his birth?

maternal diseases

What can produce birth defects by crossing the placental barrier

Death

What can the HIV taratogen cause to happen in a newborn?

Intimacy with Others

What characterizes the early adulthood stage of Erickson's stages of development?

Ancient Egypt

What civilization provided some of the earliest written evidence of treatment of disease and behavior disorders, including a detailed description of the treatment wounds and other surgical operations?

Seductive Behavior

What defines inappropriate sexual advances, attempting to discuss sexual interest or a person's sex life?

Hyperirritability, crib death, miscarriage (spontaneous abortion), and still birth

What effect can marijuana usage during pregnancy and/or after the baby is born?

Chi-square nonparametric test

What examines whether obtained frequencies different significantly from expected frequencies of only one subject or group. (A probability distribution used to test independence of two nominal variables)

Chi-square nonparametric test

What examines whether obtained frequencies different significantly from expected frequencies. Goodness-Of-Fit Test: A nonparametric inferential hypothesis test that examines how well an observed frequency distribution of a nominal (categorical) variable fits some expected pattern of frequencies. Observed frequencies: the frequencies observed in the sample Expected frequencies: frequencies expected in the sample based on some pattern of frequencies such as those in the population. Probability of throwing heads on a coin is 50% and is referred to as an expected frequency.The observed frequency would be throwing heads 71%.

Lower birth weight and pre-term births

What impact does smoking have on a fetus?

Electroencephalogram measures the alpha waves of the brain

What is an EEG?

Symbolic Mode

What is the last stage to develop?

Mental Retardation

What is the main consequence of Lead exposure?

Standard Deviation

What is the measure of variability that is most often used and describes how scores vary around the mean?

AAMR Adaptive Behavior Scale

What is the measurement used for mentally retarded, emotionally maladjusted, developmentally disabled and other handicapped children and adults.

ENCODING

What is the mental process of converting external stimuli into meaningful forms (memory)

Authoritative

What is the most effective form of parenting style where parents have definite standards but also encourage the child to be independent and will illicit opinions at times?

MANOVA

What is the name of the measurement that shows the relationship between each independent variable and the dependent variable?

Sampling Error

What is the name of the occurrence when subjects are not under the researcher's control or there is a discrepancy due to random sampling?

Standard Score

What is the name of the score that is derived from the normal curve?

Exploration Life Stage

What is the name of the stage which characterizes of the developing self; a realistic self concept and where one learns more about various opportunities

The Peabody Picture Vocabulary?

What is the name of the testing instrument used with severely handicapped individuals ages 2.5 to 18 years?

Concern with the larger world

What is the primary social characteristic that develops during late adolescence?

Action Research

What is the research that has as its purpose the development of new approaches with direct applications for counseling practitioners or use within the education field?

Stratified Random Sample

What is the sampling technique in which items/subjects are divided into parts and in each part, each item/subject, has an equal chance of being selected?

Iconic mode

What is the second stage to develop which utilizes symbols for thought?

Plateau Phase

What is the sexual response phase as defined by Master's and Johnson where the tension prepares the body for orgasm and there is increased stimulation of body parts and functions.

Biological Energy

What is the source of all basic drives as people progress through the stages of life?

Percentage

What is the statistic that indicates a proportion of a subgroup to a total group?

Constructive Alternativism

What is the term for an important determinant for one's decisions and behaviors?

Causality

What is the term for the understanding that the child can cause something to happen?

Sampling Bias

What is the term for when a researcher selects a non-representative sample for his/her own convenience?

Autonomous Morality

What is the term for when children begin to realize that rules are created by people and that intentions and consequences may be taken into consideration (Begins about age 10).

Disequalibrium

What is the term for when the child's current schemas cannot process new information. The child changes the schemas and equilibration is established?

Organicism

What is the term that is sometimes used to classify the more holistic theories that accept qualitative changes?

An Ordeal

What is the term when a therapist prescribes a situation that is equal or greater than the distress of the client- described symptom itself.

25 percent

What is the weight and size of the brain at the time of birth expressed as a percentage of adult weight and size?

Permissive Parenting Style

What kind of parenting style is it when parents keep their "hands off" and let children be with the hope that they will be more self-reliant?

External, Environmental Forces

What main principle do learning theorists emphasize?

Vineland Social Maturity Scale

What measure assesses an individual's competency in taking personal responsibility and seeing to practical needs?

25%

What percentage of adult weight and size does an infant brain have at birth?

Martin Seligman

What researcher experimentally induced learned helplessness in dogs?

Hiskey-Nebraska Test

What test assesses hearing impaired children up to 16 years old?

Brain Lateralization Theory

What theory contends that the right side of the brain controls the left side of the body?

Astin's Theory

What theory of motivation purports three primary needs (survival, pleasure, and contribution)

Integration Factor Theory (Bruner)

What theory postulates that cognitive maturation results from the integration of acts and skills termed "blueprints" or plans of higher order combinations?

Easy Temperament

What type of temperament is characterized by a positive mood, quick establishment of routines an easy adaptation to new experiences?

Skewed distribution

When a distribution of scores is not distributed normally (and symmetrically).

Test battery

When a number of specific tests are used together to predict a single criterion. A test battery is considered a horizontal test, because several measures are used to produce results that could be more accurate than those derived from merely using a single source

Multiple-baseline design

When a researcher employs more than 1 target behavior.

Multi-variate analysis of variance (MANOVA)

When a study has moe than one dependent variable.

Halo Effect

When a trait that is not being evaluated (i.e., attractiveness) influences a researcher's rating on another trait (i.e., counseling skill).

T-Test

When comparing 2 sample groups, the t test, which is a simplistic form of the analysis of variance, it used. The t test is used to ascertain whether 2 sample means are significantly different. The researcher sets the level of significance and then runs the experiment. The t test is computed and this yields a t value. The researcher then goes to a t table found in most statistics' texts. If the t value obtained statistically is lower than the t value in the table (sometimes called "critical t"), then you accept the null hypothesis. Your computation must exceed the number cited in the table in order to reject the null. If there are more than 2 groups, then the ANOVA is used. The results of an ANOVA yield an F-statistic. The researcher then consults an F table for a critical value of F. If F obtained exceeds the critical F value in the table, then the null hypothesis is rejected.

Bivariate

When correlational data describes the nature of two variables .

Multivariate

When more than two variables are under scrutiny.

Covary negatively

When one variable increases while the other decreases.

Experimental neurosis

When the differentiation process becomes too tough because stimuli are almost identical

Naturalistic observation

When the researcher does not intervene but merely observes a subject, preferably in its natural setting. (oldest method of research)

Naturalistic observation

When the researcher does not intervene but merely observes a subject, preferably in its natural setting.(oldest method of research)

Covary positively

When two variables vary together.

Quasi-experimental Designs

When you cannot random assign you can use quasi-experimental groups (ready made groups). An experimental research design that does not provide for full control of potential confounding variables primarily because it does not randomly assign participants to comparison groups Quasi-experimental and single-case designs do have manipulation of the independent variable (otherwise they would not be "experimental research" designs).

Mode

Which measure of central tendency is only appropriate for use with nominal data?

Serotonin

Which neurotransmitter has the effect of creating sleep disorders?

Acquisition

While Conditioned Response (CR) is the learned response to a conditioned stimulus, what is the term for the period when the organism learns the association between the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response?

ANCOVA

While giving a lecture on Inferential Statistics you mention the measurement that shows how a covariate interacts with the dependent variable. How do you name this measurement?

Lightner Witmer

Who founded the first psychological clinic in Philadelphia where he focused on addressing the problems of mentally deficient children?

Paul Ekman

Who is the researcher who studied the cross-cultural facial expressions of emotions?

Stanley Coopersmith

Who is the theorist who conducted the most extensive study of parent-child relationships and self-esteem with middle class boys from ages 10 -12 years?

A. Gibson

Who is the theorist who performed the VIsual Cliff experiment with infants?

Galen

Who made a number of original contributions concerning the anatomy of the nervous system

Aretaeus of Cappadocia

Who was the first person to note the difference between acute and chronic mental disorders and to distinguish among illusions, delusions and hallucinations?

Asclepiades

Who was the first to note the difference between acute and chronic mental disorders and distinguish between illusions, delusions and hallucinations?

68-95-99.7 rule (empirical rule)

Within a normal distribution, 68% of scores will fall within +/- 1 standard deviation (SD) of the mean; 95% within 2 SDs of the mean; and 99.7% within 3 SDs of the mean. (Almost all scores will fall between 3 SDs of the mean.)

68-95-99.7 rule (empirical rule)

Within a normal distribution, 68% of scores will fall within +/- 1 standard deviation (SD) of the mean; 95% within 2 SDs of the mean; and 99.7% within 3 SDs of the mean.(Almost all scores will fall between 3 SDs of the mean.)

Within-subject design

Time-Series Design

Within-subject design. Quasi-experimental; No random selection

Time-series design

Within-subject design. Quasi-experimental; No random selection Has a series of observations for each participant before a treatment or event and a series of observations after the treatment or event. A treatment is a manipulation administered by the researcher. An event is an outside occurrence that is not controlled or manipulated by the researcher. O O O O X O O O O

Error Variance (Reliability)

X = T +-e (e can be positive or negative) Observed score (X) = True score (R) plus/minus Error Variance (e) ERROR is the difference between a person's true score and that person's observed score. SYSTEMATIC - methods are planned, orderly, and methodical (a test question that contains a typographical error and everyone who takes test has same error). UNSYSTEMATIC - occurrences are presumed to be random and don't fluctuate (typo on just one person's test; Reading instructions incorrectly to students, fatigue) Reliability does not measure systematic errors because they are constant and do not fluctuate.

NCE - Group Corrective Recapitulation

Yalom has identified several curative factors that operate in every type of therapy group. A group can serve as a microcosm of the family and allow members to work through past family problems in a more encouraging environment; Yalom refers to this process as corrective recapitulation of the primary family group.

Multiple-Treatment Interface

You are administering more than one treatment consecutively to the same subjects. What are you causing to occur?

Percentile Rank (PR)

You are giving a lecture on the types of derived scores. Your students what to know the name of the score which indicates the percentage of scores that fall below a given score. What is this score?

Psychological Addiction

You are telling your students about a pattern of behaviors wherein one is driven to use the drug and to act in ways that guarantee its availability. What are you telling them about?

The Cohort Effect

You are telling your students about the effect of a group of people being born at a certain time and being reared in a certain historical setting. What are you telling them about?

Transfer Learning

You are telling your students about the effect of earlier learning on present learning. What is this?

Enactive Mode

You are telling your students about the first stage to develop. What is it?

Penetrance

You are telling your students about the genetic transfer of mental illness or other characteristics from one generation to another. What are you telling them about?

Dependence

You are telling your students about the need for continued or repeated use of a drug in order to maintain a particular desired state which includes the avoidance of withdrawl. What are you telling them about?

Descriptive Research

You are telling your students about the research that is used when the independent variables have already occurred so the researcher cannot predict outcomes. What type of research is this?

Constructive Play

You are telling your students about the self-regulated creation of a product or a problem solution. How do you name it on being asked by your students?

Frequency

You are telling your students about the statistic that indicates the number of subjects in a particular category. What do you call this statistic?

Proportion

You are telling your students about the statistic that indicates the relation of a subgroup to the total group. How do you name it?

Achievement Tests

You are telling your students about the tests that measure the level of acquisition of information. What are they called?

Louis Thurston

You are telling your students about the theorist who first developed a scale technique to measure attitude. What is his name?

Leon Festinger

You are telling your students about the theorist who is associated with attitude changes, specifically cognitive dissonance. What is his name?

William Sheldon

You are telling your students about the theorist who places human development into three major body types. Who is he?

Arnold Gesell

You are telling your students about the theorist who used the theory of maturation to explain common developmental patterns that are internally controlled rather than influenced by the external environment. Who is he?

Telegraphic Speech

You are telling your students about the utterances of two or three words that children make, usually between the ages of 18 months and 24 months that convey complete thought. What are you telling them about?

100 Percent

You are telling your students about the weight and size of the brain at age 16. They want to know it as a percentage of its adult weight and size. What do you tell them?

80 percent

You are telling your students about the weight and size of the brain at age 2. What is the percentage of its adult weight and size?

Symbolic Mode

You are telling your students that language provides the means for representing experience and for transforming it. What does this refer to?

Diathesis-Stress Model

You are using a model that emphasizes the combination of nature and nurture to produce abnormality. What kind of model are you using?

Statistical Model

You are using a model that emphasizes the rarity or infrequency of a behavior or a trait as the primary determinant of mental illness. What kind of model are you using?

Significance Level (alpha level) Probability Value (p-value)

Significance Level & Probability Value

You set a SIGNIFICANCE LEVEL (the alpha level) to use in your research study, which is the point at which you would consider a result to be very unlikely. Then, if your probability value is less than or equal to your significance level, you reject the null hypothesis. Setting the significance level at .01 (alpha = .01) means that the chance of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true is 1%. In other words, there is a 1% chance of making a Type I error. It boils down to this: if your probability value is less than or equal to the significance level (i.e. .05) then you will reject the null hypothesis (H0) and tentatively accept the alternative hypothesis (H1) which is usually good for experimenter. If not (i.e., if it is > .05) then you will fail to reject the null. REMEMBER: The concept of the probability value (also called the p-value) it the most important concept in hypothesis testing.

Active Proximity Seeking

You tell your students that from seven months to two years, the child actively seeks close contact with the caretaker. Later, attachments with others develop. What do you name this stage?

Holophrastic speech

Your little son says just the word 'juice' when he wants to say 'give me some juice' What type of speech does this refer to?

Lallation

Your three year old son says 'tuice' whenever he wishes to have a juice or drink. What does this behavior refer to?

Process

_______ research examines the nature of the counseling interview and tries to determine successful outcomes

Sten

a 10 division of the normal curve Mean = 5.5 ; s.d = 2)

Variable

a behavior or circumstance that can exist on at least two levels or conditions. (a factor that 'varies' or is capable of change)

Variable

a behavior or circumstance that can exist on at least two levels or conditions.(a factor that 'varies' or is capable of change)

To conduct an experiment with a hypothesis, one needs

a control group and an experimental group.

Sociogram is to a counseling group as a scattergram is to _____.

a correlation coefficient.

Little Albert

a famous case, John Watson (pioneer of American Behaviorism) in 1920 - toddler made to fear white furry things

Hypothesis

a hunch or educated guess which can be tested utilizing the experimental model. A statement which can be tested regarding the relationship between the independent (IV) and the dependent variables (DV).

Hypothesis

Type II error (aka bet error)

a researcher has accepted the null hypothesis

Secondary reinforcement

a stimulus which accompanies a primary reinforcer takes on reinforcement properties of its own (most popular secondary is 'money')

Counseling paradigm

a treatment model (paradigm = model)

Causal Comparative design

a true experiment WITHOUT random assignment (Data from the causal comparative ex post factor [after the fact] design can be analyzed with a test of significance [t test or ANOVA] just like any true experiment.)

Causal Comparative design

717. In the social sciences the accepted probability level is usually a. .05 or less b. 1.0 or higher c. .0001 or less d. 5.0

a. .05 or less

767. Z-scores (also called standard scores) are the same as standard deviations, thus a z-score of -2.5 means a. 2.5 SD below the mean b. 2.5 SD above the mean c. a CEEB score of 500 d. -.05% of the population falls within this area of the curve

a. 2.5 SD below the mean

761. The range is a measure of variance and usually is calculated by determining the difference between the highest and the lowest score. Thus, on a test where the top score was a 93 and the lowest score was a 33 out of 100, the range would be a. 61 b. 77 c. 59 d. more information is necessary

a. 61

724. Assume the experiment in question 708 is conducted. The results indicate that the biofeedback helped raise written board exam scores but in reality this is not the case. The researcher has made a a. Type I error b. Type II error c. beta error d. b and c

a. Type I error

774. The ordinal scale rank-orders variables, though the relative distance between the elements is not always equal. An example of this would be a. a horse categorized as a second place winner in a race b. an IQ score of 111 c. the weight of an Olympic barbell set d. a temperature of 78 degrees Fahrenheit

a. a horse categorized as a second place winner in a race

741. In a normal curve the mean, the median, and the mode all fall precisely in the middle of the curve. From a graphical standpoint the so-called normal or Gaussian curve (named after the astronomer/mathematician K. F. Gauss) look like a. a symmetrical bell b. the tope half of a bowling ball c. the top half of a hot dog d. the mountain which is leaning toward the left

a. a symmetrical bell

735. A good guess would be that if you would correlate the length of CACREP graduates' baby toes with their NCE scores the result would a. be close to 0.00 b. be close to a perfect 1.00 c. be close to a perfect negative correlation of -1.00 be. about +.70

a. be close to 0.00

798. A client goes to a string of 14 chemical dependency centers that operate on the 12-step model. When his current therapist suggests a new inpatient progrma the client responds with, "What for, I already know the 12 steps?" This client is using a. deductive logic b. inductive logic c. an empathic assertion d. an I statement

a. deductive logic

719. P = .05 really means that a. differences truly exist; the experimenter will obtain the same results 95 out of 100 times b. differences truly exist; the experimenter will obtain the same results 99 out of 100 times c. there is a 95% error factor d. there is 10 % error factor

a. differences truly exist; the experimenter will obtain the same results 95 out of 100 times

739. A large study at a major university gave an experimental group of clients a new type of therapy that was intended to ameliorate test anxiety. The control group did not receive the new therapy. Neither the clients nor the researcher knew which students received the new treatment. This was a a. double-blind study b. single-blind study c. typical AB design d. case of correlational research

a. double-blind study

771. Test scores on an exam that feel below three standard deviations of the mean or above three standard deviations of the mean could be described as a. extreme b. very typical or within the average range c. close to the mean d. very low scores

a. extreme

787. Standardized test always have a. formal procedures for test administration and scoring b. a mean of 100 and an SD of 15 c. a mean of 100 and a standard error of measurement of 3 d. a reliability coefficient of +.90 or above

a. formal procedures for test administration and scoring

763. A counselor educator is teaching two separate classes in individual inventory. In the morning class the counselor educator has 53 students and in the afternoon class she has 177 students. A statistician would expect the range of scores on a test would be a. greater in the afternoon class than the morning class b. smaller in the afternoon class c. impossible to speculate about without more data d. nearly the same in either class

a. greater in the afternoon class than the morning class

755. A distribution with class intervals can be graphically displayed via a bar graph also called a a. histogram b. sociogram c. genogram d. genus

a. histogram

707. In experimental terminology IV stands for _______ and DV stands for ________ a. Independent variable; dependent variable b. dependent variable; independent variable c. individual variable; dependent variable d. independent variable; designer variable

a. independent variable; dependent variable

703. Occam's Razor suggests that experimenters a. interpret the results in the simplest manner b. interpret the results in the most complex manner c. interpret the results using a correlation coefficient d. interpret the results using a clinical interview

a. interpret the results in the simplest manner

702. Experiments emphasize parsimony, which means a. interpreting the results in the simplest way b. interpreting the results in the most complex manner c. interpreting the results using a correlation coefficient d. interpreting the results using a clinical interview

a. interpreting the results in the simplest way

783. All of the following describe the analysis of covariance technique except a. it is a correlation coefficient b. it controls for sample differences which exist c. it helps to remove confounding, extraneous variables d. it statistically eliminates differences in average values influenced by covariates

a. it is a correlation coefficient

745. The most useful measure of central tendency is the a. mean often abbreviated by an X with a bar over it b. median often abbreviated by Md or Mdn c. mode often abbreviated by Mo d. point of maximum concentration

a. mean often abbreviated by an X with a bar over it

766. The standard deviation is the square root of the variance. A z-score of +1 would be the same as a. one standard deviation above the mean b. one standard deviation below the mean c. the same as a so-called T-score d. the median score if the population is normal

a. one standard deviation above the mean

758. The y axis is used to plot the frequency of the DVs. The y axis is also known as the a. ordinate b. abscissa c. the IV d. the horizontal axis

a. ordinate

795. An operational definition a. outlines a procedure b. is theoretical c. outlines a construct d. is synonymous wit the word axiom

a. outlines a procedure

733. If data indicate that students who study a lot get very high scores on state counselor licensing exams, then the correlation between study time and LPC exam scores would be a. positive b. negative c. 0.00 d. impossible to ascertain

a. positive

775. The interval scale has numbers scaled at equal distances but has no absolute zero point. Most tests used in school fall into this category. You can add and subtract using interval scales but cannot multiply or divide. An example of this would be a. that an IQ of 70 is 70 points below an IQ of 140, yet a counselor could not assert that a client with an IQ of 140 is twice as intelligent as a client with an IQ of 70 b. that a 20lb weight is half as heavy as a 40 lb weight c. that a first-place runner is three times as fast as the third-place finisher d. that a baseball player with number 9 on his uniform can get 9 times more hits than player number 1

a. that an IQ of 70 is 70 points below an IQ of 140, yet a counselor could not assert that a client with an IQ of 140 is twice as intelligent as a client with an IQ of 70

780. A researcher notes that a group of clients who are not receiving counseling, but are observed in a research study, are improving. Her hypothesis is that the attention she has given them has been curative. The best explanation of their improvement would be a. the Hawthorne effect b. the Halo effect c. the Rosenthal effect d. a Type II error in the research

a. the Hawthorne effect

714. The hunch is known as the experimental or alternative hypothesis. The experimental hypothesis suggests that a difference will be evident between the control group and the experimental group (i.e., the group receiving the IV). Thus, if the experiment in question 708 were conducted, the experimental hypothesis would suggest that a. the biofeedback would raise board scores b. the control group will score better on the board exam c. there will be no difference between the experimental and the control groups d. the experiment has been confounded

a. the biofeedback would raise board scores

749. The median is a. the middle score when the data are arranged from highest to lowest b. the arithmetic average c. the most frequent value obtained d. never more useful than the mean

a. the middle score when the data are arranged from highest to lowest

742. The most common measures of central tendency are the mean, the median, and the mode. The mode is a. the most frequently occurring score and the least important measure of central tendency b. always 10% less than the mean c. the arithmetic average d. the middle score in the distribution of scores

a. the most frequently occurring score and the least important measure of central tendency

732. When a researcher uses correlation, then there is no direct manipulation of the IV. A researcher might ask, for example, how IQ correlates with the incidence of panic disorder. Again, nothing is manipulated; just measured. In cases such as this a correlation coefficient will reveal a. the relationship between IQ and panic disorder b. the probability that a significant different exists c. an "F" test d. percentile rank

a. the relationship between IQ and panic disorder

727. A counselor believes that clients who receive assertiveness training will ask more questions in counseling classes. An experimental group receives assertiveness training while a control group does not. In order to test for significant differences between the groups the counselor should utilize a. the student's "t" test b. a correlation coefficient c. a survey d. an analysis of variance or ANOVA

a. the student's "t" test

706. An experiment is said to be confounded when a. undesirable variables are not kept out of the experiment b. undesirable variables are kept out of the experiment c. basic research is used in place of applied research d. the sample is random

a. undesirable variables are not kept out of the experiment

Eidetic imagery (aka photographic memory)

ability to remember the most minute details of a scene or picture for an extended period of time (children have it but is it gone by adolescence)

The x axis is used to plot the IV scores. The x axis is also known as the ________. The y axis is used to plot the frequency of the DVs. The y axis is also known as the _________.

abscissa ordinate

Reflection of emotional content

accomplished when the counselor restates the client's verbalization in such a manner that the client becomes more aware of his emotions.

Retroflection

act of doing to yourself what you really wish to do to someone else (gestalt concept)

Awfulizing (aka 'catastrophizing')

act of telling yourself how difficult,, terrible, and horrendous a given situation really is

REBT suggests the ABC theory of personality in which A is ____, B is the _____, and C is the ______.

activating event, belief system, emotional consequence

Token economies

agencies that use tokens as a system of behavior modification

If a researcher changes the significance level from .05 to .001, then

alpha errors decrease, but beta errors increase.

Unmatched/uncorrelated groups

also known as independent groups

Metacognition

an individual's tendency to be aware of his own cognitions or cognitive abilities

Free association

analytic technique, instructing the client to say whatever comes to mind.

Jung felt society caused men to deny their feminine side (aka ______) and women to deny their masculine side (aka ____).

anima, animus (memory: aniMA is feminine; aniMUS as in MUScles)

Percentage score

another way of stating a RAW score.

Operant

any behavior which is not elicited by an obvious stimulant.

Demand characteristic

any characteristic (aka bit of knowledge, correct or incorrect), that the subject in an experiment is aware of that can influence his or her behavior. (Demand characteristics can confound an experiment!)

Demand characteristic

any characteristic (aka bit of knowledge, correct or incorrect), that the subject in an experiment is aware of that can influence his or her behavior.(Demand characteristics can confound an experiment!)

Introspection

any process in which the client attempts to describe his own internal thoughts, feelings, and ideas.

ANCOVA and ANOVA

are NOT correlation coefficient.

Associationism

asserts ideas are held together by associations. (roots in Aristotle essay, but in line with John Locke, Hume, Mill, Hartley)

Alternative hypothesis (aka 'affirmative hypothesis')

asserts th independent variable (IV) has indeed caused a change.

Alternative hypothesis (aka 'affirmative hypothesis')

asserts the independent variable (IV) has indeed caused a change.

Existentialism is to logotherapy as ________ is to behaviorism.

associationism (asserts that ideas are held together by associations)

Horizontal relationship

assumes equality between persons.

An eclectic counselor

attempts to choose the best theoretical approach based on the client's attributes, resources, and situation. (50% of counselors claim to be eclectic)

Minnesota viewpoint

attempts to match the client's traits with a career (created by E. G. Williamson)

Some counselors feel transference is actually a form of projection, displacement, and repetition in which client treats counselor in same manner as he would an _______ _____from the past.

authority figure.

Mean

average of all scores

792. A doctoral student who begins working on his bibiography for his thesis would most likely utilize a. SPSS b. ERIC, for primary and secondary sources c. O*NET d. a random number table or random number generation computer program

b. ERIC, for primary and secondary sources

773. There are four basic measuremeent scales: the nominal, the ordinal, the interval, and the ration. The nominal scale is strictly a qualitative scale. It is the simplest type of scale. It is used to distinguish logically separated groups. Which of the following illustrates the function of the nominal scale? a. A horse categorized as a second place winner in a show b. A DSM or ICD diagnostic category c. An IQ score of 111 d. The weight of an Olympic barbell set

b. a DSM or ICD diagnostic category

743. A bimodal distribution has two modes (i.e., most frequently occurring scores). Graphically, this looks roughly like a. a symmetrical bell-shaped curve b. a camel's back with two humps c. the top half of a bowling ball d. a mountain which is leaning toward the left

b. a camel's back with two humps

752. If a group of first semester graduate students in counseling took the NCE exam, a distribution of scores would be a. a bell-shaped curve b. a positively skewed c. a negatively skewed d. more information obviously is needed

b. a positively skewed

768. A T-score is different from a z-score. A z-score is the same as the standard deviation. A T-score, however, has a mean of 50 with every 10 points landing at a standard deviation above or below the mean. Thus a T-score of 50 would equal +1 SD while a T-score of 40 would a. be -2 SD b. be -1 SD c. be a z-score of +2 d. be a z-score of +1

b. be -1 SD

791. Switchingthe order in which stimuli are presented to a subject in a study is known as a. the pygmalion effect b. counterbalancing c. ahistoric therapy d. multipl treatment interference

b. counterbalancing

797. A researcher studies a single session of counseling in which a counselor treats a client's phobia using a paradoxical strategy. He then writes in his research report that paradox is the treatment of choice for phobics. This is an example of a. deductive logic or reasoning b. inductive logic or reasoning c. attrition or so-called experimental mortality d. construct validity

b. inductive logic or reasoning

738. In a new study the clients do not know whether they are receiving an experimental treatment for depression or whether they are simply part of the control group. This is, nevertheless, known to the researcher. Thus, this is a a. double-blind study b. single-blind study c. baseline for an intensive N=1 design d. particpant observer model

b. single-blind study

782. A panel of investigators discovered that a researcher who completed a major study had unconsciously rated attractive females as better counselors. This is an example of a. the Hawthorn effect b. the Halo effect c. the Rosenthal effect d. trend analysis

b. the Halo effect

757. The x axis is used to plot the IV scores. The x axis is also known as a. the y axis b. the abscissa c. the DV d. the vertical axis

b. the abscissa

788. There are two distinct types of developmental studies. In a cross-sectional study, clients are assessed at one point in time. In a longitudinal study, however a. the researcher has an accomplice pose as a client b. the same people are studied over a period of time c. the researcher relies on a single observation of a variable being investigated d. all of the above

b. the same people are studied over a period of time

718. P = .05 really means that a. five subjects were not included in the study b. there is only a 5% chance that the difference between the control group and the experimental groups is due to chance factors c. the level of significance is .01 d. no level of significance has been set

b. there is only a 5% chance that the difference between the control group and the experimental groups is due to chance factors

Characteristics of youngest child (Adlerian)

baby in the family and can be pampered or spoiled, often exceed older children's performance due to modeling/imitating.

A Type II error is also called a ____ error and means you _____ null when it is _____.

beta, accept, false

Counseling in 1970s

biofeedback, behavior modification, crisis hotlines

Neurolinguistic programming (NLP)

brainchild of linguistics professor John Grinder and mathematician John Bander.

720. The study that would best rule out chance factors would have a significance level of P = a. .05 b. .01 c. .001 d. 08

c. .001

772. In World War II the Air Force used stanine scores as a measurement. Stanine scores divide the distribution into nine equal intervals with stanine 1 as the lowest ninth and 9 as the highest ninth. In this system 5 is the mean. Thus a Binet IQ score of 101 would fall in stanine a. 1 b. 9 c. 5 d. 7

c. 5

790. If an ANOVA yields a significant F value, you could rely on ______ to test significant differences between group means a. one-and two-tailed t tests b. percentile rank c. Duncan's multiple-range, Tukey's, or Scheffe's test d. summative or formative evaluation

c. Duncan's multiple-range, Tukey's or Scheffe's test

786. A researcher creates a new motoric test in which clients throw a baseball at a target 40 feet away. Each client is given 100 throws, and the mean of the test is 50. (In other words, out of 100 throws the mean number of times the client will hit the target is 50 times.) Sam took the test and hit the target just two times out of 100 throws allowed. Jeff, on the other hand, hit the target an amazing 92 out of 100 trials. Using the concept of statistical regression toward the mean the research would predict that a. Sam and Jeff's score swill stay about the same if they take the test again b. Sam and Jeff will both score over 95 next time c. Sam's score will increase while Jeff's will go down d. Sam will beat Jeff if they are both tested again.

c. Sam's score will increase while Jeff's will go down

793. In a random sample each individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected. Selection by chance. In a new study, however, it will be important to include 20% African Americans. What type of sampling procedure will be necessary? a. Standard (I.e. simple) random sampling is adequate b. Cluster sampling is called for c. Stratified sampling would be best d. Horizontal sampling is required

c. Stratified sampling would be best

711. In order for the processor of counselor education to conduct the experiment suggested in question 708 the experimental group would need to receive a. the manipulated IV b. the biofeedback training c. a and b d. the organismic IV

c. a and b

762. A sociogram is to a counseling group as a scattergram is to a. the normal curve b. the range c. a correlation coefficient d. the John Henry Effect

c. a correlation coefficient

748. When a distribution of scores is not distributed normally statisticians call it a. Guass's curve b. a symmetrical bell-shaped curve c. a skewed distribution d. an invalid distribution

c. a skewed distribution

726. If a researcher changes the significance level from .05 to .001 then a. alpha and beta errors will increase b. alpha errors increase but beta errors decrease c. alpha errors decrease; however, beta errors increase d. this will have no impact on Type I and Type II errors

c. alpha errors decrease; however, beta errors increase

713. The null hypothesis suggests that there will not be a significant different between the experimental group which received the IV and the control group which did not. Thus, if the experiment in question 708 was conducted, the null hypothesis would suggest a. all students receiving biofeedback training would score equally well on the board exam b. systematic desensitization might work better than biofeedback c. biofeedback will not improve the board exam scores d. met-analysis is required

c. biofeedback will not improve the board exam scores

The null hypothesis suggests that there will not be a significant difference between the experimental group which received the IV and the control group which did not. Thus, if the experiment (biofeedback training could reduce anxiety and improve the average score on written board exams) was conducted, the null hypothesis would suggest that a. all students receiving biofeedback training would score equally well on the board exam. b. systematic desensitization might work better than biofeedback. c. biofeedback will not improve the board exam scores. d. meta-analysis is required.

c. biofeedback will not improve the board exam scores.

708. A professor of counselor education hypothesized that biofeedback training could reduce anxiety and improve the average score on written board exams. If this professor decides to conduct a formal experiment the IV will be the ______, and the DV will be the _______. a. professor; anxiety level b. anxiety level; board exam score c. biofeedback; board exam score d. board exam score; biofeedback

c. biofeedback; board exam score

730. To complete a "t" test you would consult a tabled value of "t". In order to see if significant differences exist in an ANOVA you would a. consult the mode b. consult a table for "t" values c. consult a table for "F" values d. compute a chi-square

c. consult a table for "F" values

710. In order for the professor of counselor education (see question 708) to conduct an experiment regarding his hypothesis he will need a(n) _______ and a(n)_____. a. biofeedback group; systematic desensitization group b. control group; systematic desensitization group c. control group; experimental group d. at least 60 subjects in the control group; at least 60 subjects in the experimental group.

c. control group; experimental group

750. In a new experiment, a counselor educator wants to ferret out the effects of more than one IV. She will use a ______ design a. Pearson product-moment r b. Spearman rank order rho c. factorial d. Solomon four-group design created by psychologist Richard L Solomon

c. factorial

704. A counselor educator is running an experiment to test a new form of counseling. Unbeknownst to the experimenter one of the client in the study is secretly seeing a gestalt therapist. this experiment a. is parsimonious b. is an example of Occam's Razor c. is confounded/flawed d. is valid and will most likely help the field of counseling

c. is confounded/flawed

734. Which of the following would mostlikely yield a perfect correlation of 1.00? a. IQ and salary b. ICD diagnosis and salary c. length in inches and length in centimeters d. height and weight

c. length in inches and length in centimeters

744. In a basic curve or so-called frequency polygon the point of maximum concentration is the a. mean b. median c. mode d. range

c. mode

753. Nine of the world's finest counselor educators are given an elementary exam on counseling theory. The distribution of scores would most likely be a. a bell-shaped curve b. positively skewed c. negatively skewed d. more information would be necessary

c. negatively skewed

716. When you see the letter "P" in relation to a test of significance it means a. portion b. population parameter c. probability d. the researcher is using an ethnographic qualitative approach

c. probability

794. A researcher wants to run a true experiment but insists she will not use a random sample. You could safely say that a. she absolutely, positively cannot run a true experiment b. her research will be absolutely, positively be casual comparative research c. she could accomplish this using systematic sampling d. her research will be correlational

c. she could accomplish this using systematic sampling

778. The simplest form of descriptive research is the _______, which requires a questionnaire return rate of _______ to be accurate a. survey; 5% b. survey; 10%-25% c. survey; 50-75% d. survey; 95%

c. survey; 50-75%

737. Behaviorists often utilize N=1, which is called intensive experimental design. The first step in this approach would be to a. consult a random number table b. decide on nonparametric statistical test c. take a baseline measure d. compute the range

c. take a baseline measure

781. An elementary school counselor tells the third-grade teacher that a test revealed that certain children will excel during the school year. In reality, no such test was administered. Moreover, the children were unaware of the experiment. By the end of the year, all of the children who were supposed to excel did excel! This would best be explained via a. the Hawthorne effect b. the Halo effect c. the Rosenthal effect or the experimenter expectancy effect d. observer bias

c. the Rosenthal effect or the experimenter expectancy effect

701. The most valuable type of research is a. always conducted using a factor analysis b. conducted using the chi-square c. the experiment, used to discover cause-and-effect relationships d. the quasi-experiment

c. the experiment, used to discover cause-and-effect relationships

779. A researcher gives a depressed patient a sugar pill and the individual's depression begins to lift. This is known as a. the Hawthorne effect b. the Halo effect c. the placebo effect d. the learned helplessness syndrome

c. the placebo effect

777. Researcher often utilize naturalistic observation when doing ethological investigations or studying children's behavior. In this approach a. the researcher manipulates the IV b. the researcher manipulates the IV and the DV c. the researcher does not manipulate or control variables d. the researcher will rely on a 2x3 factorial design

c. the researcher does not manipulate or control variables

759. If a distribution is bimodal, then there is a good chance that a. the curve will be normal b. the curve will be shaped like a symmetrical bell c. the researcher is working with two distinct populations d. the research is useless in the field of counseling

c. the researcher is working with two distinct populations

799. Mike takes a math achievement test. In order to predict his score if he takes the test again the counselor must know a. the range of scores in his class b. the standard deviation c. the standard error of measurement (SEM) d. the mode for the test

c. the standard error of measurement (SEM)

729. If the researcher in the previous question utilized two IV's then the statistic of choice would be a. the median b. the "t" test c. the two-way ANOVA or MANOVA d. the ANOVA

c. the two-way ANOVA or MANOVA

770. A plykurtic distribution would look approximately like a. the upper half of a bowling ball b. the normal distribution c. the upper half of a hot dog, lying on its side over the abscissa d. a camel's back

c. the upper half of a hot dog, lying on its side over the abscissa

722. A Type I error occurs when a. you have a beta error b. you accept null when it is false c. you reject null when it is true d. you fail to use a test of significance

c. you reject null when it is true

Preconscious mind

capable of bringing ideas, images, and thoughts into awareness with minimal difficulty -can access info from the conscious as well as unconscious mind

Correlation research is quasi-experimental and does not yield _____ - ____ data.

cause-effect

chaotic and has no sense of time (pleasure principle - 'I want it NOW')

Reality therapy (aka choice therapy)

childhood is usually not explored, present moment of counseling (therapist makes friends with client)

Transference neurosis

client is attached to the counselor as if he is a substitute parent.

Fixed role therapy (aka 'behavioral rehearsal')

client is given a sketch of a person in a role and is instructed to read the script at least 3 times a day to act, think, and verbalize like the person in the script. (by George A. Kelly who also did 'psychology of personal constructs')

Paradoxical strategies

client is instructed to intensify or purposely engage in the maladaptive behavior. (used by Frankl, and by family therapist)

Tyranny of the shoulds

coined by Karen Horney (neo-Freudian)

Key areas that often cause problems for counselor self-image are

competence power intimacy

Counseling in 1960s

competing psychotherapies

The superego

composed of values, morals, and ideals of parents, caretakers, and society

Subjective units of distress scale (SUDS)

concept used in forming a hierarchy to perform Wolpe's systematic desensitization (aka, technique for curbing phobic reactions and anxiety)

Implosive therapy (in anxiety terms)

conducted using the imagination and relies on psychoanalytic symbolism (brainchild of T. G. Stampf)

The counselor who is _____ is real and authentic.

congruent

Freud's topographic notion that the mind is like an iceberg with 2 states:

conscious unconscious

Respondent

consequence of a known stimulus. (dog salivating)

Dream work

consists of deciphering the hidden meaning (latent) of a dream (through symbolism) so the individual is aware of unconscious motives, impulses, desires, and conflicts.

Psychodynamic therapy

contasts psychoanalysis: -utilizes fewer sessions per week -doesn't utilize a couch, performed face-to-face (makes use of analytic principles but relies on fewer sessions)

Reality therapy incorporates

control theory and choice theory

When a researcher uses ______, then there is no direct manipulation of the IV.

correlation

A sociogram is to a counseling group as a scattergram is to a ________ _______.

correlation coefficient

Pearson r is the most common _______ ________.

correlation coefficient.

Attending (counseling behavior)

counselor behaviors that signal he is truly engaged in active listening skills.

Accurate empathy

counselor can truly understand what the client is feeling or experiencing

Differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO)

counselor positively reinforces an individual for engaging in a healthy alternative behavior.

In _________ the counselor's past is projected onto the client and the helper's objectivity suffers markedly.

counter-transference

Albert Ellis

created Rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT)

Arthur Janov

created primal scream therapy

John B Watson is to cause as Mary Cover Jones is to

cure (demonstrated learning could serve as treatment for a phobic reaction)

731. Which level of significance would best rule out chance factors? a. .05 b. .01 c. .2 d. .001

d. .001

785. The WAIS-III IQ test is given to 100 adults picked randomly. How many of the adults would most likely receive an IQ score between 85 and 115 a. 7 people b. 99 people c. 95 people d. 68 people

d. 68 people

764. The variance is a measure of dispersion of scores around some measure of central tendency. The variance is the standard deviation squared. A popular IQ test has a standard deviation (SD) of 15. A counselor would expect that if the mean IQ score is 100, then a. the average score on the test would be 122 b. 95% of the people who take the test will score between 85 and 115 c. 99% of the people who take the test will score between 85 and 115 d. 68% of the people who take the test will score between 85 and 115

d. 68% of the people who take the test will score between 85 and 115

709. Experimenters should always abide by a code of ethics. The variable you manipulate/control in an experiment is the a. DV b. dependent variable c. the variable you will measure to determine the outcome d. IV or independent variable

d. IV or independent variable

712. Hypothesis testing is most closely related to the work of a. Hoppock b. Freud c. Lloyd Morgan d. R.A. Fisher

d. R.A. Fisher

800. A researcher performs a study that has excellent external or so called population validity, meaning that the results have generalizability. To collect his data the researcher gave clients a rating scale in which they were to respond with strongly agree, somewhat agree, neutral, somewhat disagree, or strongly disagree. This is a. projective measure b. unacceptable for use in standardized testing c. a speed test d. a Likert scale

d. a Likert scale

723. A Type II error a. is also called a beta error b. means you reject null when it is applicable c. means you accept null when it is false d. a and c

d. a and c

747. From a mathematical standpoint, the mean is merely the sum of the scores divided by the number of scores. The mean is misleading when a. the distribution is skewed b. the distribution has no extreme scores c. there are extreme scores d. a and c

d. a and c

715. From a purely statistical standpoint, in order to compare a control group (which does not receive the IV or experimental manipulation) to the experimental group the researcher will need a. a correlation coefficient b. only descriptive statistics c. percentile rank d. a test of significance

d. a test of significance

796. In a parametric test the assumption is that the scores are normally distributed. In nonparametric testing the curve is not a normal distribution. Which of these tests are nonparametric statistical measures a. Mann-Whitney U-test, often just called the U-test b. Wilcoxon signed-rank test for matched pairs c. Soloman and the Kruskal-Wallis H-test d. All of the above are nonparametric measures

d. all of the above are nonparametric measures

721. Type I and Type II errors are called ______ and _____ respectively a. beta; alpha b. .01; .05 c. A and B d. alpha; beta

d. alpha; beta

728. The researcher in question 727 now attempts a more complex experiment. One group receives no assertiveness training, a second group receives four assertiveness training sessions, and a third receives six sessions. The statistic of choice would a. be the mean b. be the "t" test c. be the two-way ANOVA d. be the ANOVA

d. be the ANOVA

784. Three years ago an inpatient chemical dependency center in a hospital asked their clients if they would like to undergo an archaic form of therapy created by Wilhem Reich known as "vegotherapy". Approximately half of the clients stated they would like to try the treatment while the other 50% stated that they would stick with the tried-and-true program of the center. Outcome data on their drinking was compiled at the end of seven weeks using a t test. This study could best be described as a. correlation research b. a true experiment c. a cohort study d. causal comparative research

d. causal comparative research

736. Dr X discovered that the correlation between therapists who hold NCC status and therapists who practice systematic desensitization is .90. A student who perused Dr X's research told his fellow students that Dr. X had discovered that attaining NCC status causes therapists to become behaviorally oriented. THe student is incorrect because a. systematic desensitization is clearly not a behavioral strategy b. this can only be determined via a histogram c. the study suffers from longitudinal and maturational effects. d. correlation does not imply causal

d. correlation does not imply causal

740. Experimental is to cause and effect as correlational is to a. blind study b. double-blind study c. N=1 design d. degree of relationship

d. degree of relationship

789. A counselor educator, Dr. Y, is doing research on his classes. He hypothesizes that if he reinforces students in his morning class by smiling each time a student asks a relevant question, then more students will ask questions and exam grades will go up. Betty and Linda accidentally overhear Dr. Y discussing the experiment with the department chairman. Betty is a real people pleaser and decides she will ask lots of questions and try to help Dr. Y confirm his hypothesis. Linda, nevertheless, is angry she is being experimented on and promises Betty that Dr. Y could smile until the cows came in but she still wouldn't ask a question. Both Linda and Betty exemplify a. internal versus external validity b. ipsative versus normative interpretation of test scores c. the use of the nonparametric chi-square test d. demand characteristics of experiments

d. demand characteristics of experiments

760. If an experiment can be replicated by others with almost identical findings, then the experiment a. is impacted by the observer effect b. is said to be a naturalistic observation c. is the result of ethological observation d. is said to be reliable

d. is said to be reliable

751. Regardless of the shape, the _______ will always be the high point when a distribution is displayed graphically a. df b. mean c. median d. mode

d. mode

754. Billy received an 82 on his college math final. This is Billy's raw score on the test. A raw score simply refers to the number of items correctly answered. A raw score is expressed in the units by which it was originally obtained. The raw score is not altered mathematically. Billy's raw score indicates that a. he is roughly a B student b. he answer 82% correctly c. his percentile rank is 82 d. more information is obviously necessary

d. more information is obviously necessary

776. A ratio scale is an interval scale with a true zero point. Ratio measurements are possible using this scale. Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division all can be utilized on a ratio scale. In terms of counseling research a. the ration scale is the most practical b. all true studies utilize the ratio scale c. a and b d. most psychological attributes cannot be measured on a ratio scale

d. most psychological attributes cannot be measured on a ratio scale

769. An IQ score on an IQ test which was three standard deviations above the mean would be a. about average b. slightly below the norm for adults c. approximately 110 d. near genius level

d. near genius level

705. Nondirective is to person-centered as a. psychological testing is to counseling b. confounding is to experimenting c. appraisal is to research d. parsimony is to Occam's Razor

d. parsimony is to Occam's Razor

765. Using the data in question 764 one could say that a person with an IQ score of 122 would fall within a. plus or minus 1 SD of the mean b. the average IQ range c. an IQ score which is more than 2 SD above the mean d. plus or minus 2 SD of the mean

d. plus or minus 2 SD of the mean

725. A counselor educator decides to increase the sample size in her experiment. This will a. confound the experiment in nearly every case b. raise the probability of type I and type II errors c. have virtually no impact on type I and type II errors d. reduce type I and type II errors

d. reduce type I and type II errors

746. In a career counseling session an electrical engineer mentions three jobs he has held. The first paid $10 per hour, the second paid $30 per hour, and the third paid a higher rate of $50 per hour. The counselor responds that the client is averaging $30 per hour. The counselor is using a. a Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient b. a factorial design c. the harmonic mean d. the mean

d. the mean

756. When a horizontal line is drawn under a frequency distribution it is known as a. mesokurtic b. the y axis c. the ordinate d. the x axis

d. the x axis

Jung's assumption was that projection will _____ and individuation will ______ as therapy renders shadow behaviors conscious.

decrease, increase

Experimental is to cause and effect as correlational is to _____ of _______.

degree of relationship.

Flooding (in anxiety terms)

deliberate exposure with response prevention

Neal Miller

demonstrated that animals could be conditioned to control autonomic processes. (heart rate, blood pressure)

Analytic psychology is sometimes referred to as

depth psychology

Correlation coefficient is a

descriptive statistic which indicates the degree of 'linear relationship' between two variables.

Mann-Whitney U-test

determines whether 2 uncorrelated means differe significantly when data are nonparmetric (memory: the 'u' reminds you of 'uncorrelated')

Mann-Whitney U-test

determines whether 2 uncorrelated means differe significantly when data are nonparmetric(memory: the 'u' reminds you of 'uncorrelated')

Jospeh Wolpe

developed 'systematic desensitization' to weaken a client's response to anxiety-producing stimuli

Counseling in 1950s

development psychology

Rogerians do not emphasize _____ or giving ____.

diagnosis, advice.

Glasser's position on mental illness is that

diagnostic labels give clients permission to act sick

Adlerians are ______ and use homework assignments.

didactic (teaching)

In vivo treatment

direct treatment of an overt behavior.

REBT's ABC theory of personality believes that the intervention that occurs at D, ____ leads to E, ____.

disputing the irrational behavior at B, leads to a new emotional consequence.

Range

distance between the largest and the smallest scores.

The control group

does not receive the IV (same characteristics of the experimental group - the averages between the two groups should not differ significantly)

The control group

does not receive the IV(same characteristics of the experimental group - the averages between the two groups should not differ significantly)

Range

done by subtracting the lowest number (score) from the highest number (score) and add one.

Some researchers refer to the level of significance as where one _____ the ____, or as the ______ point.

draws, line, cutoff (If a researcher sets the level of significance at .50, then the odds would be 50/50 that the results were due to pure chance.)

Some researchers refer to the level of significance as where one _____ the ____, or as the ______ point.

draws, line, cutoff(If a researcher sets the level of significance at .50, then the odds would be 50/50 that the results were due to pure chance.)

Reliability is to standard error of measurement as validity is to standard error of ____________.

estimate Standard error of estimate- Predicted scores in relation to actual scores

Compensation

evident when a person attempts to develop or overdevelop a positive trait to make up for a limitation.

Countertransference

evident when the counselor's feelings are strong enough to hinder the treatment process.

Aaron T. Beck

ex-psychoanalytic therapist, created Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), developed cognitive therapy

Cohort study

examines people who were born at the same time (or shared an event, like fought in Vietnam) in regard to a given characteristic.

Chi-square nonparametric test

examines whether obtained frequencies differ significantly from expected frequencies

ego

executive administrator of the personality (seen as the Child in TA) -acts as a police officer to control impulses of the id (aka instincts, or the Child) and the superego (conscience, or the Parent) -also called 'reality principle' and houses individual's identity

Rollo May

existentialist and prime move in this counseling movement.

Dependent variable

expresses the outcome or the data regarding factors one wants to measure (memory: 'D' in dependent and data)

Dependent variable

expresses the outcome or the data regarding factors one wants to measure(memory: 'D' in dependent and data)

Congruence in counselor

external behavior matches an internal response or state.

In a new experiment, a counselor educator wants to ferret out the effects of more than one IV. She will use a _______ design.

factorial

Wilhelm Reich

felt repeated sexual gratification was necessary for cure of emotional maladies. (orgone box - later outlawed and Reich died in jail)

Rudolph Dreikurs

first to discuss the use of group therapy in private practice. (also introduced Adlerian principles to treatment of children in school setting)

Sensate focus

form of behavioral sex therapy, relies on counterconditioning (by Masters & Johnson)

Another term for classical conditioning is

forward conditioning

Gustav Jung

founded Analytic Psychology

Existential counselors emphasize the client's

free choice, decision, and will

Baseline

frequency that a behavior is manifested prior to or in the absence of treatment.

Systematic desensitization hierarchy

from least anxiety-producing to most, ideally with 10 to 15 evenly spaced steps.

Noogenic neurosis (Existentialism)

frustration of the will to meaning

Little Hans

gave Little Albert study a psychoanalytic explanation.

An IQ score on an IQ test which has 3 SDs above the mean would be near the ____ level.

genius

Reinforcement schedule

gives guidelines for reinforcement.

Characteristics of firstborns (Adlerian)

go to great lengths to please their parents, may feel upstaged by 2nd born and prone to feelings of inferiority

Placebo effect

happens when an item is thought to have an effect and produces results, even though there is no effect from the item (all in their head)

Bimodal distribution

has two modes (graphically looks like a camel with 2 humps)

Bimodal distribution

has two modes(graphically looks like a camel with 2 humps)

Logotherapy

healing through meaning Viktor Frankl)

Latent content of dreams

hidden meaning of a dream

Ulterior transactions

hidden transactions as two or more ego states are operating at the same time.

Lower significance =

higher risk of Type II errors

Interpretation

highly valued in analytic and psychodynamic modalities (takes place when counselor uncovers a deeper meaning regarding a client's situation)

Factorial notation

i.e., 2x3 factorial notation = The first variable has 2 levels (i.e., male or female) and the second IV has 3 levels (age, height, weight)

Factorial notation

i.e., 2x3 factorial notation = The first variable has 2 levels (i.e., male or female) and the second IV has 3 levels (age, height, weight)

Resolution of Freud's Oedipus complex leads to the development of the superego, which is accomplished by

identifying with the same sex parent (also called aggressor)

Ipsative

implies a within person analysis rather than a normative analysis between individuals.

Replication

implies another researcher can repeat the experiment exactly as it was performed before.

In experimental terminology, IV stands for _____ ______, and DV stands for ______ _______.

independent variable, dependent variable

Yerkes-Dodson Law

indicates a moderate amount of arousal or anxiety on a test improves performance.

Standard error of measurement (SEM)

indicates what the individual would score if he takes the same test again.

Projection

individual attributes his own unacceptable qualities onto others.

Fixed interval scheduling is the most _____ of them all.

ineffective

Skinner's operant conditioning is also called

instrumental learning (memory: Skinner's last name has an 'i' so it is his term)

Rationalization

intellectual excuse to minimize hurt feelings (tends to interpret thoughts in a positive manner)

Another name for N=1

intensive experimental design (pioneered by Freud), also known as a case study (N= the number of people being studied)

Another name for N=1

intensive experimental design (pioneered by Freud), also known as a case study(N= the number of people being studied)

(Occam's Razor suggests that) Experiments emphasize parsimony, which means:

interpreting the results in the simplest way.

Parsimony (also known as Occam's Razor)

interpreting the results in the simplest ways (Literally a tendency to be miserly and not overspend.)

Parsimony (also known as Occam's Razor)

interpreting the results in the simplest ways(Literally a tendency to be miserly and not overspend.)

Introversion

introverted person is his own primary source of pleasure (term is Jungian)

Jacob Moreno

invented psychodrama first coined the term 'group therapy' in 1931

Ellis feels that _____ is at the core of emotional disturbance.

irrational thinking (at point B)

Percentile

is a point on the raw score scale. Special percentiles are referred to as quartiles. (Quartile 3= Q3 = the 75%; Q2 = 50%; Q1 = 25%)

Applied research (aka 'action research' or experience-near research)

is conducted to advance our knowledge of how theories, skills, and techniques can be used in terms of practical application.

Applied research (aka 'action research' or experience-near research)

is conducted to advance our knowledge of how theories, skills, and techniques can be used in terms of practical application.

Basic research

is conducted to advance our understanding of theory.

Percentile rank

is descriptive statistic telling the counselor what percentage of the cases fell below a certain level.

True Score

is the average of all the scores for a person upon retesting a large number of times, hypothetical score that could be attained if the assessment were perfectly reliable.

Percentage score

is the number of correct items divided by total number of items. (6/10 = 60%)

Robert Carkhuff

known for his 5 point scale measuring empathy, genuineness, concreteness, and respect.

B. F. Skinner's reinforcement theory elaborated on Edward Thorndike's ____ of _____.

law of effect (responses accompanied by satisfaction will be repeated)

Other terms for 'level of significance'

level of confidence confidence level alpha level

Other terms for 'level of significance'

level of confidence confidence level alpha level

The purpose of interpretation in counseling is to

make the client aware of their unconscious processes. (in the hopes that insight will be followed by motivation)

animus, anima, self archetypes

male, female sides

Persona (archetype)

mask or role we present to others to hide our true self.

Threats to internal validity

maturation of subjects (psychological and physical changes including fatigue due to time involved), mortality (subjects withdrawing), instruments used to measure the behavior or trait, or statistical regression (notion that extremely high or low scores would move toward the mean if utilized again)

Threats to internal validity

maturation of subjects (psychological and physical changes including fatigue due to time involved), mortality(subjects withdrawing), instruments used to measure the behavior or trait, or statistical regression (notion that extremely high or low scores would move toward the mean if utilized again)

Characteristics of 2nd born (Adlerian)

may compete with firstborn and often passes 1st child's performance

Characteristics of middle child (Adlerian)

may feel they are treated unfairly, seen as more manipulative.

Performance Test

measure interests, attitudes, and other noncognitive attributes of personality. Examples are projective tests and personality inventories.

Gaussian curve is said to be ______ because the peak is in the middle.

mesokurtic

Ontology

metaphysical study of life experience

Organ inferiority

methods in which person attempts to compensate for inferiority (Alfred Adler)

Median

middle scores in a distribution of scores

Median

middle scores in a distribution of scores (The middle scores when data are arranged from highest to lowest.)

Regardless of the shape, the ____ will always be the high point when a distribution is displayed graphically.

mode

Nominal scale

most basic, does not provide measurable info, merely classifies names, labels, or identifies by group, has NO TRUE ZERO point and DOES NOT INDICATE ORDER. (i.e., street address, telephone #, gender, brand or therapy; adding/subtracting nominal categories is meaningless)

Nominal Scale

most basic, does not provide measurable info, merely classifies names, labels, or identifies by group, has NO TRUE ZERO point and DOES NOT INDICATE ORDER.(i.e., street address, telephone #, gender, brand or therapy; adding/subtracting nominal categories is meaningless)

Mode

most frequently occurring scores and the least important measure of central tendency. (The highest or maximum point of concentration on a curve.)

Mode

most frequently occurring scores and the least important measure of central tendency.(The highest or maximum point of concentration on a curve.)

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

most widely used measure of personality preference and disposition, 4 bipolar scales (based on Jung's work)

Joseph Breuer

neurologist who taught Freud 'talking cure', or 'catharsis'

Names for Carl. R. Rogers' theory

non-directive, client-centered, and now, person-centered counseling (also called 'self theory')

Covert

not observable

Most counselors see themselves as practitioners, not .

not reaserachers

Insight

novel sudden understanding of a problem.

Accurate empathy

occurs when a counselor is able to experience the client's point of view in terms of feelings and cognitions.

Reaction formation

occurs when a person can't accept a given impulse and this behaves in the opposite manner.

Stimulus generalization (aka 'second order conditioning')

occurs when a stimulus similar to the conditioned (learned) stimulus produces the same reaction. (i.e., buzzer instead of bell)

Displacement

occurs when an impulse is unleashed at a safe target. (man hates boss but kicks dog)

Confounding

occurs when an undesirable variable (also known as contaminating variable) which is not controlled by the researcher is introduced in the experiment.

Musturbation (aka 'absolutist thinking')

occurs when client uses too many shoulds, oughts, and musts in his thinking.

Perception

occurs when you perceive something unconsciously and thus it has an impact on your behavior.

Sensitization

one is made more sensitive to a stimulus

Operational definition

outlines a procedure (important so other researchers can attempt to replicate the study's findings)

Operational definition

outlines a procedure(important so other researchers can attempt to replicate the study's findings)

Aversive conditioning

pairing an unpleasant stimulus to a pleasant stimulus to reduce the satisfaction (i.e., Antabuse and alcoholics)

Adler was the first therapist who relied on ______.

paradox (exaggerate the behavior you want to stop)

Frankl is the Father of existentialism and ____ _____.

paradoxical intention

Slips of the tongue

parapraxis (Freud called it 'the psychopathology of everyday life')

Nondirective is to person-centered as

parsimony is to Occam's Razor (both are synonymous)

Nondirective is to person-centered as

parsimony is to Occam's Razor(both are synonymous)

Reality therapy's 'BCP'

perception controls behavior

Interposition

perceptual term where one item conceals or covers another

The superego strives for _____ rather than _____ like the id.

perfection, pleasure

Incomplete parent (according to TA)

person expects others to parent him or uses lack of parenting as an excuse for poor behavior.

Extroversion

person has tendency to find satisfaction in other people (term is Jungian)

Existentialism is a type of _______.

philosophy

Perls suggested FIVE layers of neurosis:

phony, phobic, impasse, implosive, and explosive

Internal verbalizations are to REBT as ____ ___ ___ ____ are to Glasser's Choice Theory.

pictures in the mind

R. A. Fisher

pioneered hypothesis testing.

When something is added following an operant, it is known as a ____ ______, and when taken away, it is called a ______ ______.

positive reinforcer, negative reinforcer

Statistical regression

predicts very high and very low scores will move toward the mean if a test is administered again. (It is a threat to internal validity.)

Counseling in 1980s

professionalism, licensing

transference

projecting feelings toward the therapist that the client originally felt toward a significant other person in their life.

Phrenology

pseudo-science which asserted one's personality could be determined by the shape of their skull.

Symptom substitution

psychoanalytic concept which means if one symptom is stopped, a new symptom may start in its place (behaviorists also believe in this concept)

All reinforcers strengthen probability that a behavior will occur, but _____ lowers it.

punishment

Behavior modifiers feel _____ temporarily suppresses the behavior.

punishment (decreases the probability a behavior will occur)

Mark is obsessed with stamping out pornography. He is unconsciously involved in this cause so that he can view the material. This is

reaction formation (the person acts the opposite of the way they actually feel.)

The experimental group

received the IV (has the same characteristics of the control group the averages between the two groups should not differ significantly)

The experimental group

received the IV (has the same characteristics of the control group the averages between the two groups should not differ significantly)

A counselor decides to increase the sample size in her experiment. This will ____

reduce Type 1 and Type II errors. Raising the size of a sample helps lower the risk of chance/error factors.

A counselor decides to increase the sample size in her experiment. This will ____

reduce Type 1 and Type II errors.Raising the size of a sample helps lower the risk of chance/error factors.

Quartile

refers to the points that divide a distribution into fourths. (indicates 25th percentile is the 1st quartile, 2nd quartile is the median, 3rd quartile is at 75 percentile.

Quartile

refers to the points that divide a distribution into fourths.(indicates 25th percentile is the 1st quartile, 2nd quartile is the median, 3rd quartile is at 75 percentile.

Respondent behavior

reflexes

All ______ rend to increase probability that a prior behavior will occur.

reinforces

Continuous schedule of reinforcement

reinforcing every behavior (not necessarily the most practical or effective)

Type I errors _____ null when it is _____.

reject, true. (memory: RA - Reject when Applicable/true)

Type I errors _____ null when it is _____.

reject, true.(memory: RA - Reject when Applicable/true)

Systematic desensitization consists of 4 steps

relaxation training, construction of anxiety hierarchy, desensitization in imagination, and in vivo desensitization.

Suppression differs from repression in that

repression is automatic and involuntary.

Inductive research

research goes from the specific to a generalization.

Deductive research

research that reduces the general to the specific. (contrasts inductive research)

Deductive research

research that reduces the general to the specific.(contrasts inductive research)

Standard deviation

s.d is square root of variance. A calculation in which each individual score is determined to be how many units away from arithmetic mean. Used when the mean is reported as the best indicator of the average. This is the most reliable measure of variability for a sample.

Z-score (often called standard score)

same as a standard deviation - the most elementary of standard score. (memory: Z score is simply SD) A Z-score of +1 or 1 SD would include about 34% of the cases in a normal population.

Z-score (often called standard score)

same as a standard deviation - the most elementary of standard score.(memory: Z score is simply SD)A Z-score of +1 or 1 SD would include about 34% of the cases in a normal population.

A person-centered therapist would treat all diagnostic categories of the DSM using the ____ _____.

same principles.

Wilcoxon

signed rank test used in place of the t test when data are nonparametric and you wish to test whether 2 correlated means differ significantly (memory: 'co' to remind you of correlated)

Wilcoxon

signed rank test used in place of the t test when data are nonparametric and you wish to test whether 2 correlated means differ significantly (memory: 'co' to remind you of correlated)

Abreaction

similar to catharsis in that emotions are purged, but when the emotional outburst is very powerful and/or violent.

Denial (aka suppression)

similar to repression except that it is a conscious act.

Idiographic studies

single case investigations (Case studies are often misleading because the results are not necessarily generalizable.)

Idiographic studies

single case investigations(Case studies are often misleading because the results are not necessarily generalization.)

Neo-Freudians emphasized

social factors (Adler, Karen Horney, Erik Erikson, Harry Stack Sullivan, Erich Fromm)

Social power is also called

social influence

conditioned (learned) response

something that a person has learned to do when a certain stimulus is presented.

Repression

subconsciously forgetting a traumatic or painful event (Freudians think it is the most important of defenses)

Empathy

subjective understanding of the client in the here-and-now.

Experimental ethics

subjects informed of risk, negative after effects removed, allow subjects to withdraw at any time, confidentiality of subjects is protected, results will be presented in an accurate format that is not misleading, and will use only techniques trained in.

When the past is discussed in reality therapy, the focus is on

successful behaviors.

Karpman's triangle

suggested 3 roles necessary for manipulative drama (a 'game' in transaction analysis): -persecutor, rescuer, and victim

Occam's Razor (also known as Lloyd Morgan's 1894 Canon)

suggests experimenters interpret the results in the simplest manner.

Occam's Razor (also known as Lloyd Morgan's 1894 Canon)

suggests experimenters interpret the results in the simplest manner.

Null hypothesis

suggests there WILL NOT be a significant difference between the experimental group which received the IV and the control group which did not. (asserts the samples will not change - will stay the same - even after the experimental variable is applied.) *The IV DOES NOT affect the DV.*

Null hypothesis

suggests there WILL NOT be a significant difference between the experimental group which received the IV and the control group which did not.(asserts the samples will not change - will stay the same - even after the experimental variable is applied.)*The IV DOES NOT affect the DV.*

Manifest content of dreams

surface meaning of a dream

The simplest form of descriptive research is the _______, which requires a questionnaire return rate of ______ to be accurate.

survey, 50-75% (Ideal sample size for a survey is 100, compared to an experimental study which gets by with 15) Survey problems include - poor construction of instrument, low return rate, subjects are often not randomized

The simplest form of descriptive research is the _______, which requires a questionnaire return rate of ______ to be accurate.

survey, 50-75%(Ideal sample size for a survey is 100, compared to an experimental study which gets by with 15)Survey problems include - poor construction of instrument, low return rate, subjects are often not randomized

Counterbalancing

switching the order in which stimuli are presented to a subject in a study. (Used to control for the fact that the order of an experiment could impact its outcome.)

Counterbalancing

switching the order in which stimuli are presented to a subject in a study.(Used to control for the fact that the order of an experiment could impact its outcome.)

Systematic desensitization

systematic paradigm that lessens one's anxiety to a stimuli through gradual exposure to it (form of behavior therapy based on Pavlov's classical conditioning)

Statistical Tests > PARAMETRIC INFERENTIAL TESTS

t test - A parametric statistical procedure that involves testing the differences between the means of 2 groups

ANOVA

t test - involving testing the differences between the means of 2 groups

Therapeutic cognitive restructuring (aka 'changing thoughts')

takes place when a client begins thinking in a healthy new way using different internal dialogue.

Catharsis

talking about difficulties in order to purge emotions in a curative process

Confrontation

technique used to illuminate discrepancies between the client's and the helper's conceptualization of a given situation.

Mandalas

term borrowed from Hinu writings by Jung that stands for a magic protective circle that represents self-unification.

Freud's critics cite that many aspects of his theory are difficult to ____ from a scientific standpoint.

test Freud's psychoanalysis is the OLDEST major form of psychotherapy.

Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA)

tests 2 or more groups while controlling for extraneous variables that are called covariates

ANCOVA

tests a null hypothesis regarding the means of two or more groups AFTER the random samples are adjusted to eliminate average differences.

The Interpretation of Dreams

the Bible of Psychoanalysis by Freud

Berne's Transactional Analysis (TA) posits 3 ego states

the Child (like id) the Adult (like ego) the Parent (like superego)

Existentialists focus primarily on

the client's perception in the here-and-now. (focus is on what the person can ultimately become)

The mean is misleading when ___ and ___

the distribution is skewed, there are extreme scores.

Reality principle

the ego

Pleasure principle

the id

shadow archetype

the mask behind the persona which contains id-like (child-like) material - denied yet desired (dark side of the personality)

Variable ratio of intermittent scheduling

the most difficult to extinguish

Percentile rank

the percentage of area in a histogram that is to the left of the score referred. The is an area of the curve. A percentile rank tells you the percentage of scores in a reference group (the norm group that's used to determine percentile ranks) that fall below a particular raw score. For example, if your percentile rank is 93 then you know that 93 percent of the scores in the reference group fall below your score.

Experimental research

the process of gathering data in order to make evaluative comparisons regarding different situations.

Ego ideal

the superego (the perfect self that the person judges himself against)

Independent variable

the variable the researcher manipulates, controls, alters, or wishes to experiment with (memory: 'I' manipulate the IV)

Independent variable

the variable the researcher manipulates, controls, alters, or wishes to experiment with (memory: 'I' manipulate the IV)

Normal curve

theoretical notion often referred to as 'bell-shaped curve'. Bell is symmetrical.

Active therapy (aka 'active-directive' therapy)

therapy to delineate the directive paradigm.

P.05 means

there is only a 5% chance that the difference between the control group and the experimental group is due to chance. (differences truly exist; the experimenter will obtain the same results 95 out of 100 times.)

P.05 means

there is only a 5% chance that the difference between the control group and the experimental group is due to chance.(differences truly exist; the experimenter will obtain the same results 95 out of 100 times.)

Concreteness (aka 'specificity')

this principle is used to alleviate vague language.

John Henry Effect (also known as 'compensatory rivalry of a comparison group')

threat to internal validity when subjects strive to prove an experimental treatment that might threaten their livelihood isn't really effective. (i.e., sabotage)

Use of tests of significance

to determine whether a difference in the groups' scores is significant or just due to change factors.

Desensitization

to make one less sensitive

Beck's contention was that depression is the result of a cognitive _____ of negative beliefs regarding oneself, one's future, and one's experience.

triad

If a distribution is bimodal, then there is a good chance that the researcher is working with:

two distinct populations

Id, ego, superego is to structural theory as _______, _____, _____ are to topographical theory.

unconscious, preconscious, and conscious

Sour grapes rationalization

underrating a reward (because they didn't get it)

Constructivist theories of intervention stress importance of ______ the client's views.

understanding

An experiment is confounded when

undesirable variables are not kept out of the experiment.

Unfinished business (Gestalt concept)

unexpressed emotions

Bibliotherapy

use of books or writings pertaining to self-improvement. (is a form of homework)

Rational imagery

used by rational-emotive behavior therapists where client is asked to imagine that he or she is in a situation which has traditionally caused disturbance)

Pearson Product-Moment correlation r

used for interval or ratio data. (memory - Pearson r uses I and R for Info and Referral)

Pearson Product-Moment correlation r

used for interval or ratio data.(memory - Pearson r uses I and R for Info and Referral)

Spearman rho correlation

used for ordinal data

Spearman correlation (also known as Kendall's tau)

used in place of the Pearson r when parametric assumptions cannot be utilized

Kruskal-Wallis

used instead of the ANOVA when data is nonparametric

Rational-behavior therapy

uses rational-emotive imagery regularly, works well for multicultural counseling, by Maxie Maultsby.

Resistance

when a client refuses to follow a counselor's directives such as homework, completing psych tests, etc.)

Summarization

when a counselor reviews what has transpired in past counseling sessions he is using (constitutes a 'synthesis' regarding general tone and feeling of helping process)

Higher order conditioning.

when a new stimulus is paired with the conditioned (learned) stimulus and the new stimulus takes on the power of the conditioned (learned) stimulus.

Sublimation

when a person acts out an unconscious impulse in a socially acceptable way (i.e., aggressive person has a career as a boxer)

Identification

when a person identifies with a cause or a successful person with the unconscious hope that he or she will be perceived as successful or worthwhile.

Trace conditioning

when conditioned (learned) stimulus terminates before the occurrence of the unconditioned (unlearned) stimulus.

Delayed conditioning

when the conditioned (learned) stimulus is delayed until the unconditioned (unlearned) stimulus occurs

Paraphrasing

whenever a counselor restates a client's message in the counselor's own words.

Sampling Methods

~ STANDARDIZED (going out and grabbing as many 5th graders as possible to take test) ~ RANDOM- each person has equal and independent chance of being selected ~ STRATIFIED- Dividing the population into mutually exclusive groups and then selecting a random sample from each group; Proportional Stratified Sampling is most efficient sampling method of them ALL (i.e., would generally require the smallest sample size) Concerned that SES is going to affect scores, so I need to make sure that sample has correct amount in proportion- picks characteristic and then covers all the variation in that characteristics to make sample look exactly like population. ~ CLUSTER- groups are selected rather than individuals; Schools, teams, classrooms ~ SYSTEMATIC- pick first person between 1 and 10 at random and then use every 10th person.

Symbols

σ = standard deviation σ2 = variance µ = mean ∑ = The sum of

Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT)

• Interaction between people & environment is dynamic & ever changing. People influence and are influenced by the environment. People's interests lie in their beliefs they can do those things well. • Career choice is influences by environmental factors. • Big 3: Self-Efficacy; Outcome Expectations; Personal Goals • Personal Agency - reflects how a person exerts power to achieve a solution; Modifying faulty self efficacy and outcome expectations can help individuals acquire new successful experiences and open their eyes to new career occupations

~Square Roots List 1-10

√.01 = .1 √.04 = .2 √.09 = .3 √.16 = .4 √.25 = .5 √.36 = .6 √.49 = .7 √.64 = .8 √.81 = .9 √1 = 1

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