Activity 16: Pollination

Coniferophyta, Cycadophyta (saycadofita), Ginkgophyta, and Gnetophyta

4 division of 1000 species gymnosperms

Cleistogamy

Ensures self-pollination and prevents cross pollination.

Anemophily

Greenish, small and odorless flowers

Making seeds

One of the ways that plants can produce offspring is by

Biotic pollination

More common and involves the participation of other organisms to distribute pollen.

Herkogamy

Morphological barriers are formed in between the anther and stigma

Self-pollination

No need of pollinators to transfer pollen

Cross-pollination

Occurs between flowers which are genetically different

Cross-pollination

Occurs both in perfect or imperfect flowers

Self-pollination

Occurs only in perfect flowers

Pollen

The contribution of the male parent and the female parent provides the ovule.

Hybridization

The crossing between populations that have different gene complexes (genetic material), they can be between races (called varieties in plants) of the same species or different species.

True

True or false, In ornithophily, the plants typically have colorful, often red, flowers with long tubular structures holding ample nectar and orientations of the stamen and stigma that ensure contact with the pollinator.

Beans and peas

Two examples of self-pollinated plants in the home vegetable garden.

Epihydrophily and Hypohydrophily

Two types of hydrophily

Sporophytic and gametophytic

Two types of self-incompatibility

Getonogamy and xenogamy

Types of cross-pollination

Self-pollination

Occurs when pollen grains fall directly from anther into the stigma of the flower.

Bees

One of the most common groups of insects that are important for the pollination of flowers

Genetic, cytoplasmic and cytoplasmic genetic

Types of male sterility

Hybridization techniques

Techniques are also used in anthropophily

Male parts of the Anemophilous flowers

Tend to produce very large quantities of pollen and the stigma

Presence of bisexual flowers

The __________ is a must for self-pollination.

Pollination

The act of transferring pollen grains from the male anther of a flower to the female stigma.

Cross-pollination

Transfer pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the different flower

Self-pollination

Transfer pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same flower

Self-pollination

Transfers few numbers of pollen

Cross-pollination

Transfers large numbers of pollen

Dicliny (Unisexuality), Dichogamy, Heterostyly

Types of mechanisms promoting cross-pollination

Self-pollination and cross-pollination

Types of pollination

Naked

gymnos

Marriage

Apart

Genetic material

Gene complexes

Angiosperm

Leaves are flat

Gymnosperm

Leaves are needle-like or scale-like

Seasonal, plant dies in autumn

Life cycle of angiosperm

Evergreen

Life cycle of gymnosperm

Cross-pollination

Maintains the gene pool

Anther and filament, together as a stamen

Male part of the flower

Gymnosperm

A group of woody, vascular plants with seeds but without flowers or fruit. The seeds of gymnosperm plants sit exposed on cones rather than enclosed in a fruit as they are with angiosperm plants.

Angiosperms

A major division of plant life, which make up the majority (80%) of all plants on Earth.

Dehiscence

A membrane affected by herkogamy does not allow the ¬____________ of pollen and prevents self-pollination.

Gymnosperm

Develop their seeds on the surface of scales and leaves, which often grow to form cone or stalk shapes

Process of fertilization

A pollen grain is transferred from one flower to another. A pollen tube grows from the stigma to the ovary, The nucleus of the pollen passes through the pollen tube and joins with the egg cell inside an ovule in the ovary, The fertilized egg cell develops into an embryo.

Cuticle

A waxy covering on a conifer's needle-like leaves that causes pine trees to become more common towards the poles and at higher elevations where temperatures become colder.

Ensures that recessive characters are eliminate, Wastage of the pollen grain is very less compared to crosspollination, Purity of the race is maintained, as there is no diversity in the genes, No involvement of external factors like wind, water, and other pollinating agents, Ensures that even a smaller quantity of produced pollen grains from plants have a good success rate in pollination

Advantages of self-pollination

Anemophily, Hydrophily, Zoophily, Anthropophily

Agents of Cross-pollination

Hermaphrodite

All the self-pollinated plants have ____________ flowers.

Angiosperms

Also known as "flowering plants"

10%

Among plants, only ____ does not require pollinators

All gymnosperms

Anemophily is found in ___________

maple seeds, acorns, beans, wheat, rice, and corn

Angiosperm fruit examples: such as

Monocots; cotyledon; eudicots

Angiosperms are divided into ________ that have a single ________ and dicots (also called ________ or true dicots) with two cotyledons

Sun bird or Hummingbird

Animals for Orchids and other wildflowers

Zoophily

Animals play an important role in plant reproduction. They help in seed dispersal. When an animal eats the fruit of a plant, they move to a different location. This movement helps in spreading the seeds and with this, we get new plants to new locations.

Dichogamy

Anthers and stigma mature at the different times.

Coconut, palm, maize, grasses and all gymnosperms

Best examples of wind-pollinated plants.

Nectarivores, long beaks

Birds involved in ornithophily tend to be specialist _________ with brushy tongues, _______, capable of hovering flight or are light enough to perch on the flower structures.

Homogamy

Both sex organs of a flower mature at the same time

Cross-pollination

Both the stigma and anther mature at a different time

Pine cones

Brown and unscented

Heterostyly

Difference between the length of the filaments of stamens and length of the style

Cross-pollination

Can take place between two flowers on different plants of the same species

Self-pollination

Can take place either in the same flower or another flower of the same plant

Cross-pollination

Causes heterozygous condition in progenies

Self-pollination

Causes homogenous condiions in progenies

Self-pollination

Causes inbreeding

Cross-pollination

Causes outbreeding

Large, white, or pale colored

Characteristics of flowers in chiropterophily

Inflorescence

Complete flower head of a plant (stems, stalks, bracts, and flowers)

Seeds

Contain the genetic information to produce a new plant.

The produced seeds are good in vigour and vitality, All unisexual plants can reproduce through the process of Crosspollination, The recessive characters in the lineage are eliminated as a result of genetic recombination, This process improves the immunity of the offsprings towards the diseases and other environmental factors, Cross-pollination introduces new genes into a sequence of species and this is mainly due to the fertilization between genetically different gametes

Cross-pollination advantages

Chiropterophily

Cross-pollination by bats

Anemophily

Cross-pollination by wind

Different grasses, maple trees, dandelions, catkins

Cross-pollination by wind

In this process, there is a great wastage of pollen grains, Due to genetic recombination during meiosis, there are chances of eliminations of good qualities and additions of unwanted characteristics in offspring

Cross-pollination disadvantages

Pollinators

Cross-pollination happens through the actions of ________

Fertilizes; ovule

Cross-pollination occurs when pollen from one plant ________ the ________ of another plant.

Cross-pollination

Decreases genetic uniformity and increases genetic variation

Apart

Dikh

No mixing up of genes. Due to which the vigour and vitality of the race are reduced, The immunity to diseases is reduced in the resultant offsprings

Disadvantages of self-pollination

Epihydrophily

Distribute pollen to the surface of water

Abiotic pollination

Does not require the assistance of any other organism but instead relies on environmental components such as wind and water.

Linseed

Example for heterostyly

Pear millet

Example for protogyny

Bougainvillea

Example of a flower that have attractive bracts

Presence of hyaline membrane around the anther

Example of a physical barrier for herkogamy

Rose

Example of an ornamental plant with attractive colored flowers, possess special fragrance and nectar glands

Vallisneria

Example of epihydrophily

Alfalfa

Example of herkogamy

Hydrilla

Example of hypohydrophily

Grasses, coniferous and some deciduous trees, and aquatic plant species

Examples for abiotic pollination

Tulips, grapes, plums, apples, pears, strawberries, daffodils, raspberries and others

Examples for cross-pollination by insects

Papaya, spinach, asparagus, date palm and hemp

Examples for dioecy

Mango, castor, banana, cucurbits, grapes, strawberry, cassava, and rubber

Examples for monoecy

Sugarbeet, maize

Examples for protandry

Trees, herbs, and shrubs

Examples of angiosperm

Prosopis (kikar), Acacia (Mimosoideae family), Mango and some members of Rubiaceae family

Examples of flowers for myrmecophily

Guava, agave, and morning glory

Examples of flowers in chiropterophily. These are nocturnal flowers

Aspidistra lurida and Chrysanthemum plants

Examples of plants for malacophily

Broccoli and many apple cultivars

Examples of plants that cannot set viable seed without cross pollination

Wheat, barley, oats and several other grass species

Examples under cleistogamy

Soybean, chickpea, pea, greengram, blackgram, tomato and brinjal, legumes

Examples under the position of anthers

Brightly colored petals, fragrant and sweet nectar

Factors that attract animals to the plant and encourage pollination.

Yellow/blue

Favorable color in entomophily

Stigma, style, ovary, together as a carpel or pistil

Female part of the flower

Successful pollination

Fertilization can only occur after a:

Fruits and flowers need fertilization to reproduce

Fertilization is very important in the field of horticulture and agriculture because

Typical insect-pollinated flowers

Flowers adapted to pollination by wind do not produce nectar or scent.

Cross-pollination

Flowers should be open

Hairy or bushy, mucilaginous yellow clouds

Formed in the sky during the wind pollination in Pinus

Process of fertilization

Fruits and flowers can never reproduce without the

Self-pollination; cross-pollination

Geitonogamy in genetical point of view, it is ___________ but ecologically, considered as __________

Angiosperm

Hardwood

Self-pollination

If the pollen grains are transferred from an anther to the stigma of the same flower, or different flowers of the same plant.

Spreading pollen grains over the female flowers

If there are any difficulties in the pollination process through abiotic or biotic agents, the artificial method of pollination is performed by __________________

Do not attract

In anemophily, flowers ________ the pollinators

The female reproductive part of a flower

In anemophily, it is very large, sticky and feathery to extend completely outside the flower---pollen is more likely to reach them

Small, stigma, mucilaginous

In anemophily, pollen grains are very ________, lightweight and dry; ________ is hairy or bushy and __________.

Pollen; feathery stigma

In anemophily, the flowers usually emerge early in the spring, before the leaves, so that the leaves do not block the movement of the wind. The _______ is deposited on the exposed _________ of the flower

Large and wide-mouthed

In chiropterophily, flowers are naturally _____ and _________ to accommodate the head of the bat.

Fruity, large

In chiropterophily, the flowers have a strong, ______ , or musky fragrance and produce ________ amounts of nectar.

Honey bees

In entomophily, 80% is pollinated by ____________

Sticky

Meaning of mucilaginous

Red, long tubular, bottle-brush

In ornithophily, plants have colorful, often ____, flowers with ___________, __________ structures with nectar

Insects; sweet corn

In the home vegetable garden, tomato, watermelon and cucumbers are cross-pollinated by _______ and ______ is wind pollinated.

Microsporangia

In wind-pollinated species, the __________ hang out of the flower, and, as the wind blows, the lightweight pollen is carried with it.

Self-pollination

Increases genetic uniformity and decreases genetic variation

Anemophily

It is completely non-directional

Chiropterophily

It is most common in tropics and deserts

Xenogamy

It is real or true cross-pollination, genetically and ecologically.

Self-pollination

It occurs in the flowers which are genetically same

Cross-pollination

It occurs in the most of the flowering plants (in about ¾ of the species).

Self-incompatibility

It prevents self-pollination and promotes cross pollination.

Dichogamy

It promotes cross pollination even in the hermaphrodite species.

Herkogamy, Self-incompatibility, Male sterility

Kinds of adaptation for cross-pollination

Monoecy, dioecy, inflorescence

Kinds of dicliny

Monocliny (bisexuality), Homogamy, Cleistogamy, Chasmogamy, Postion of anthers

Kinds of mechanism promoting self-pollination

Protogyny and protandry

Kinds under dichogamy

Cross pollination

Leads to an increase in genetic diversity as different flowers will share and combine their genetic information to create unique offspring.

Chasmogamy

Opening (blooming) flowers only after the completion of pollination.

Entomophilous

Ornamental plants

Ants, flies, butterflies and wasps

Other species than bees in entomophily

Hydrophily

Pollen distributed by the flow of water, particularly in rivers and streams.

Self-pollination

Pollen grains are directly transferred onto the stigma of the flower

Male sterility

Pollen grains are non-functional

Hypohydrophily

Pollen grains are released inside the water

Cross-pollination

Pollen grains are transferred through insects, wind, water, animals

Plant pollination process

Pollen grains from the respective flowers land on the stigma, Formation of pollen tube with the style length, which connects both the stigma and ovary, Pollen grain starts transmitting sperm cells from the grainto the ovary, Formation of seed and release of seed

Self-incompatibility

Pollen grains of the flower cannot germinate on the stigma of the same flower.

Cleistogamy

Pollination and fertilization occur in unopened flower bud.

Anthropophily (Artificial Pollination)

Pollination done by human beings.

Mostly by animals

Pollination mechanism by angiosperm

Mostly by wind

Pollination mechanism by gymnosperm

The transfer of pollen from the male part of a plant (in flowers, this is the 'stamen') to the female part of the plant (the 'carpel')

Pollination process

Xenogamy

Pollination takes place in between flowers of two different plants of the same species

Geitonogamy

Pollination takes place in between the two flowers of the same plant:

Fertilization will not take place

Pollination will be useless if

Myrmecophily

Pollination with the help of ants and termites

Ornithophily

Pollination with the help of birds

Entomophily

Pollination with the help of insects

Malacophily or Malmacophily

Pollination with the help of snails

Monocliny (Bisexuality)

Presence of male and female organs in the same flower.

Dicliny (Unisexuality)

Presence of unisexual flowers confirms cross-pollination is compulsory

The pollen from the anthers of a certain plant is transported to the pistil (stigma) of another plant

Process of cross-pollination

Anemophilous plants

Produce enormous amount of pollen grains.

Angiosperm

Produce seeds encased in "fruits,"

Cross-pollination

Produces large amounts of pollen grains

Self-pollination

Produces limited amounts of pollen grains

Cross pollination

Provides greater genetic diversity and hence more vital offspring, compared to the self-pollination.

Varities

Races but in plants

Because of their reproductive structure (flowers)

Reason why angiosperms are called as flowering plants

Self-pollination

Reduces the gene pool

Self-pollination

Reduction in genetic diversity as the sperm and egg cells of the flower share some genetic information.

Self-pollination

Referred to as the primary type of pollination as it includes a single flower.

Unisexual or bisexual (in flowers)

Reproductive system of angiosperm

Unisexual system in the cones

Reproductive system of gymnosperm

Cross-pollination

Requires pollinators to transfer pollen grains

Hypohydrophily

Seagrasses in which female flower remain submergered in water and pollen grains are released inside the water.

Gymnosperm

Seeds are not enclosed, found on cones, scales or leaves

Brassica, Radish, Nicotiana, and many grass species

Self-incompatibility is found in several crop species like

Homozygous

Self-pollination often results in _______ plant lines, or plants with identical gene pairs for many traits, which ensures new plants grown from saving seed will be almost identical to the parent plants.

¼

Self-pollination or autogamy is observed in about ___ of the plants.

Self-pollination

Simple and fast type of pollination

Gymnosperm

Softwood

Seed

Sperma

Position of Anthers

Stigmas are surrounded by anthers

Fertilization

The fusion of male gamete with female gamete.

To create offspring for the next generation

The goal of every living organism, including plants

Pollination

The prerequisite of fertilization.

Pollination

The process in which pollen is taken from one plant or part of a plant to another so that new plant seeds can be produced.

Hybridization

The process of producing a plant or animal from two different types of plant or animal.

Angiosperm

The seeds are usually inside an ovary (fruit)

Self-pollination

This process is carried out even when the flowers are closed

Hypohydrophily

Those that distribute it beneath the surface.

Male sterility

Useful tool in hybrid seed production

Food, medicine, clothing

Uses of angiosperm

Lumber, paper

Uses of gymnosperm

Flowers of wind-pollinated angiosperm species

Usually green, small, may have small or no petals, and produce large amounts of pollen

Anemophily

Usually occurs when plants lack flowers with nectar or scent

Gymnosperms

Were for a long time the dominant plants on Earth but have been overthrown since the evolution and diversification of the angiosperms.

Monoecy

When male and female flowers are separate but present in the same plants

Dioecy

When staminate and pistillate flowers are present on different plants

Cross-pollination

When the pollen grains are transferred to the stigma of other flower of the same species. It takes place in between two different flowers

Gymnosperms

Woody, vascular plants with seeds but without flowers or fruits

Sulphur showers

Yellow clouds

Angiosperm

__________ number over 260,000 species

Protandry

anther mature before pistil

Self-pollination

both the stigma and another mature at the same time

Stigma

it receives the pollen grains

Anther

part of a flower that contain the pollen

Protogyny

pistil mature before anthers

Conifers

still dominate in cold and dry environments, as a waxy covering (cuticle) on their needle-like leaves allows them to survive in more extreme conditions than the angiosperms