Activity 16: Pollination
Coniferophyta, Cycadophyta (saycadofita), Ginkgophyta, and Gnetophyta
4 division of 1000 species gymnosperms
Cleistogamy
Ensures self-pollination and prevents cross pollination.
Anemophily
Greenish, small and odorless flowers
Making seeds
One of the ways that plants can produce offspring is by
Biotic pollination
More common and involves the participation of other organisms to distribute pollen.
Herkogamy
Morphological barriers are formed in between the anther and stigma
Self-pollination
No need of pollinators to transfer pollen
Cross-pollination
Occurs between flowers which are genetically different
Cross-pollination
Occurs both in perfect or imperfect flowers
Self-pollination
Occurs only in perfect flowers
Pollen
The contribution of the male parent and the female parent provides the ovule.
Hybridization
The crossing between populations that have different gene complexes (genetic material), they can be between races (called varieties in plants) of the same species or different species.
True
True or false, In ornithophily, the plants typically have colorful, often red, flowers with long tubular structures holding ample nectar and orientations of the stamen and stigma that ensure contact with the pollinator.
Beans and peas
Two examples of self-pollinated plants in the home vegetable garden.
Epihydrophily and Hypohydrophily
Two types of hydrophily
Sporophytic and gametophytic
Two types of self-incompatibility
Getonogamy and xenogamy
Types of cross-pollination
Self-pollination
Occurs when pollen grains fall directly from anther into the stigma of the flower.
Bees
One of the most common groups of insects that are important for the pollination of flowers
Genetic, cytoplasmic and cytoplasmic genetic
Types of male sterility
Hybridization techniques
Techniques are also used in anthropophily
Male parts of the Anemophilous flowers
Tend to produce very large quantities of pollen and the stigma
Presence of bisexual flowers
The __________ is a must for self-pollination.
Pollination
The act of transferring pollen grains from the male anther of a flower to the female stigma.
Cross-pollination
Transfer pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the different flower
Self-pollination
Transfer pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same flower
Self-pollination
Transfers few numbers of pollen
Cross-pollination
Transfers large numbers of pollen
Dicliny (Unisexuality), Dichogamy, Heterostyly
Types of mechanisms promoting cross-pollination
Self-pollination and cross-pollination
Types of pollination
Naked
gymnos
Marriage
Apart
Genetic material
Gene complexes
Angiosperm
Leaves are flat
Gymnosperm
Leaves are needle-like or scale-like
Seasonal, plant dies in autumn
Life cycle of angiosperm
Evergreen
Life cycle of gymnosperm
Cross-pollination
Maintains the gene pool
Anther and filament, together as a stamen
Male part of the flower
Gymnosperm
A group of woody, vascular plants with seeds but without flowers or fruit. The seeds of gymnosperm plants sit exposed on cones rather than enclosed in a fruit as they are with angiosperm plants.
Angiosperms
A major division of plant life, which make up the majority (80%) of all plants on Earth.
Dehiscence
A membrane affected by herkogamy does not allow the ¬____________ of pollen and prevents self-pollination.
Gymnosperm
Develop their seeds on the surface of scales and leaves, which often grow to form cone or stalk shapes
Process of fertilization
A pollen grain is transferred from one flower to another. A pollen tube grows from the stigma to the ovary, The nucleus of the pollen passes through the pollen tube and joins with the egg cell inside an ovule in the ovary, The fertilized egg cell develops into an embryo.
Cuticle
A waxy covering on a conifer's needle-like leaves that causes pine trees to become more common towards the poles and at higher elevations where temperatures become colder.
Ensures that recessive characters are eliminate, Wastage of the pollen grain is very less compared to crosspollination, Purity of the race is maintained, as there is no diversity in the genes, No involvement of external factors like wind, water, and other pollinating agents, Ensures that even a smaller quantity of produced pollen grains from plants have a good success rate in pollination
Advantages of self-pollination
Anemophily, Hydrophily, Zoophily, Anthropophily
Agents of Cross-pollination
Hermaphrodite
All the self-pollinated plants have ____________ flowers.
Angiosperms
Also known as "flowering plants"
10%
Among plants, only ____ does not require pollinators
All gymnosperms
Anemophily is found in ___________
maple seeds, acorns, beans, wheat, rice, and corn
Angiosperm fruit examples: such as
Monocots; cotyledon; eudicots
Angiosperms are divided into ________ that have a single ________ and dicots (also called ________ or true dicots) with two cotyledons
Sun bird or Hummingbird
Animals for Orchids and other wildflowers
Zoophily
Animals play an important role in plant reproduction. They help in seed dispersal. When an animal eats the fruit of a plant, they move to a different location. This movement helps in spreading the seeds and with this, we get new plants to new locations.
Dichogamy
Anthers and stigma mature at the different times.
Coconut, palm, maize, grasses and all gymnosperms
Best examples of wind-pollinated plants.
Nectarivores, long beaks
Birds involved in ornithophily tend to be specialist _________ with brushy tongues, _______, capable of hovering flight or are light enough to perch on the flower structures.
Homogamy
Both sex organs of a flower mature at the same time
Cross-pollination
Both the stigma and anther mature at a different time
Pine cones
Brown and unscented
Heterostyly
Difference between the length of the filaments of stamens and length of the style
Cross-pollination
Can take place between two flowers on different plants of the same species
Self-pollination
Can take place either in the same flower or another flower of the same plant
Cross-pollination
Causes heterozygous condition in progenies
Self-pollination
Causes homogenous condiions in progenies
Self-pollination
Causes inbreeding
Cross-pollination
Causes outbreeding
Large, white, or pale colored
Characteristics of flowers in chiropterophily
Inflorescence
Complete flower head of a plant (stems, stalks, bracts, and flowers)
Seeds
Contain the genetic information to produce a new plant.
The produced seeds are good in vigour and vitality, All unisexual plants can reproduce through the process of Crosspollination, The recessive characters in the lineage are eliminated as a result of genetic recombination, This process improves the immunity of the offsprings towards the diseases and other environmental factors, Cross-pollination introduces new genes into a sequence of species and this is mainly due to the fertilization between genetically different gametes
Cross-pollination advantages
Chiropterophily
Cross-pollination by bats
Anemophily
Cross-pollination by wind
Different grasses, maple trees, dandelions, catkins
Cross-pollination by wind
In this process, there is a great wastage of pollen grains, Due to genetic recombination during meiosis, there are chances of eliminations of good qualities and additions of unwanted characteristics in offspring
Cross-pollination disadvantages
Pollinators
Cross-pollination happens through the actions of ________
Fertilizes; ovule
Cross-pollination occurs when pollen from one plant ________ the ________ of another plant.
Cross-pollination
Decreases genetic uniformity and increases genetic variation
Apart
Dikh
No mixing up of genes. Due to which the vigour and vitality of the race are reduced, The immunity to diseases is reduced in the resultant offsprings
Disadvantages of self-pollination
Epihydrophily
Distribute pollen to the surface of water
Abiotic pollination
Does not require the assistance of any other organism but instead relies on environmental components such as wind and water.
Linseed
Example for heterostyly
Pear millet
Example for protogyny
Bougainvillea
Example of a flower that have attractive bracts
Presence of hyaline membrane around the anther
Example of a physical barrier for herkogamy
Rose
Example of an ornamental plant with attractive colored flowers, possess special fragrance and nectar glands
Vallisneria
Example of epihydrophily
Alfalfa
Example of herkogamy
Hydrilla
Example of hypohydrophily
Grasses, coniferous and some deciduous trees, and aquatic plant species
Examples for abiotic pollination
Tulips, grapes, plums, apples, pears, strawberries, daffodils, raspberries and others
Examples for cross-pollination by insects
Papaya, spinach, asparagus, date palm and hemp
Examples for dioecy
Mango, castor, banana, cucurbits, grapes, strawberry, cassava, and rubber
Examples for monoecy
Sugarbeet, maize
Examples for protandry
Trees, herbs, and shrubs
Examples of angiosperm
Prosopis (kikar), Acacia (Mimosoideae family), Mango and some members of Rubiaceae family
Examples of flowers for myrmecophily
Guava, agave, and morning glory
Examples of flowers in chiropterophily. These are nocturnal flowers
Aspidistra lurida and Chrysanthemum plants
Examples of plants for malacophily
Broccoli and many apple cultivars
Examples of plants that cannot set viable seed without cross pollination
Wheat, barley, oats and several other grass species
Examples under cleistogamy
Soybean, chickpea, pea, greengram, blackgram, tomato and brinjal, legumes
Examples under the position of anthers
Brightly colored petals, fragrant and sweet nectar
Factors that attract animals to the plant and encourage pollination.
Yellow/blue
Favorable color in entomophily
Stigma, style, ovary, together as a carpel or pistil
Female part of the flower
Successful pollination
Fertilization can only occur after a:
Fruits and flowers need fertilization to reproduce
Fertilization is very important in the field of horticulture and agriculture because
Typical insect-pollinated flowers
Flowers adapted to pollination by wind do not produce nectar or scent.
Cross-pollination
Flowers should be open
Hairy or bushy, mucilaginous yellow clouds
Formed in the sky during the wind pollination in Pinus
Process of fertilization
Fruits and flowers can never reproduce without the
Self-pollination; cross-pollination
Geitonogamy in genetical point of view, it is ___________ but ecologically, considered as __________
Angiosperm
Hardwood
Self-pollination
If the pollen grains are transferred from an anther to the stigma of the same flower, or different flowers of the same plant.
Spreading pollen grains over the female flowers
If there are any difficulties in the pollination process through abiotic or biotic agents, the artificial method of pollination is performed by __________________
Do not attract
In anemophily, flowers ________ the pollinators
The female reproductive part of a flower
In anemophily, it is very large, sticky and feathery to extend completely outside the flower---pollen is more likely to reach them
Small, stigma, mucilaginous
In anemophily, pollen grains are very ________, lightweight and dry; ________ is hairy or bushy and __________.
Pollen; feathery stigma
In anemophily, the flowers usually emerge early in the spring, before the leaves, so that the leaves do not block the movement of the wind. The _______ is deposited on the exposed _________ of the flower
Large and wide-mouthed
In chiropterophily, flowers are naturally _____ and _________ to accommodate the head of the bat.
Fruity, large
In chiropterophily, the flowers have a strong, ______ , or musky fragrance and produce ________ amounts of nectar.
Honey bees
In entomophily, 80% is pollinated by ____________
Sticky
Meaning of mucilaginous
Red, long tubular, bottle-brush
In ornithophily, plants have colorful, often ____, flowers with ___________, __________ structures with nectar
Insects; sweet corn
In the home vegetable garden, tomato, watermelon and cucumbers are cross-pollinated by _______ and ______ is wind pollinated.
Microsporangia
In wind-pollinated species, the __________ hang out of the flower, and, as the wind blows, the lightweight pollen is carried with it.
Self-pollination
Increases genetic uniformity and decreases genetic variation
Anemophily
It is completely non-directional
Chiropterophily
It is most common in tropics and deserts
Xenogamy
It is real or true cross-pollination, genetically and ecologically.
Self-pollination
It occurs in the flowers which are genetically same
Cross-pollination
It occurs in the most of the flowering plants (in about ¾ of the species).
Self-incompatibility
It prevents self-pollination and promotes cross pollination.
Dichogamy
It promotes cross pollination even in the hermaphrodite species.
Herkogamy, Self-incompatibility, Male sterility
Kinds of adaptation for cross-pollination
Monoecy, dioecy, inflorescence
Kinds of dicliny
Monocliny (bisexuality), Homogamy, Cleistogamy, Chasmogamy, Postion of anthers
Kinds of mechanism promoting self-pollination
Protogyny and protandry
Kinds under dichogamy
Cross pollination
Leads to an increase in genetic diversity as different flowers will share and combine their genetic information to create unique offspring.
Chasmogamy
Opening (blooming) flowers only after the completion of pollination.
Entomophilous
Ornamental plants
Ants, flies, butterflies and wasps
Other species than bees in entomophily
Hydrophily
Pollen distributed by the flow of water, particularly in rivers and streams.
Self-pollination
Pollen grains are directly transferred onto the stigma of the flower
Male sterility
Pollen grains are non-functional
Hypohydrophily
Pollen grains are released inside the water
Cross-pollination
Pollen grains are transferred through insects, wind, water, animals
Plant pollination process
Pollen grains from the respective flowers land on the stigma, Formation of pollen tube with the style length, which connects both the stigma and ovary, Pollen grain starts transmitting sperm cells from the grainto the ovary, Formation of seed and release of seed
Self-incompatibility
Pollen grains of the flower cannot germinate on the stigma of the same flower.
Cleistogamy
Pollination and fertilization occur in unopened flower bud.
Anthropophily (Artificial Pollination)
Pollination done by human beings.
Mostly by animals
Pollination mechanism by angiosperm
Mostly by wind
Pollination mechanism by gymnosperm
The transfer of pollen from the male part of a plant (in flowers, this is the 'stamen') to the female part of the plant (the 'carpel')
Pollination process
Xenogamy
Pollination takes place in between flowers of two different plants of the same species
Geitonogamy
Pollination takes place in between the two flowers of the same plant:
Fertilization will not take place
Pollination will be useless if
Myrmecophily
Pollination with the help of ants and termites
Ornithophily
Pollination with the help of birds
Entomophily
Pollination with the help of insects
Malacophily or Malmacophily
Pollination with the help of snails
Monocliny (Bisexuality)
Presence of male and female organs in the same flower.
Dicliny (Unisexuality)
Presence of unisexual flowers confirms cross-pollination is compulsory
The pollen from the anthers of a certain plant is transported to the pistil (stigma) of another plant
Process of cross-pollination
Anemophilous plants
Produce enormous amount of pollen grains.
Angiosperm
Produce seeds encased in "fruits,"
Cross-pollination
Produces large amounts of pollen grains
Self-pollination
Produces limited amounts of pollen grains
Cross pollination
Provides greater genetic diversity and hence more vital offspring, compared to the self-pollination.
Varities
Races but in plants
Because of their reproductive structure (flowers)
Reason why angiosperms are called as flowering plants
Self-pollination
Reduces the gene pool
Self-pollination
Reduction in genetic diversity as the sperm and egg cells of the flower share some genetic information.
Self-pollination
Referred to as the primary type of pollination as it includes a single flower.
Unisexual or bisexual (in flowers)
Reproductive system of angiosperm
Unisexual system in the cones
Reproductive system of gymnosperm
Cross-pollination
Requires pollinators to transfer pollen grains
Hypohydrophily
Seagrasses in which female flower remain submergered in water and pollen grains are released inside the water.
Gymnosperm
Seeds are not enclosed, found on cones, scales or leaves
Brassica, Radish, Nicotiana, and many grass species
Self-incompatibility is found in several crop species like
Homozygous
Self-pollination often results in _______ plant lines, or plants with identical gene pairs for many traits, which ensures new plants grown from saving seed will be almost identical to the parent plants.
¼
Self-pollination or autogamy is observed in about ___ of the plants.
Self-pollination
Simple and fast type of pollination
Gymnosperm
Softwood
Seed
Sperma
Position of Anthers
Stigmas are surrounded by anthers
Fertilization
The fusion of male gamete with female gamete.
To create offspring for the next generation
The goal of every living organism, including plants
Pollination
The prerequisite of fertilization.
Pollination
The process in which pollen is taken from one plant or part of a plant to another so that new plant seeds can be produced.
Hybridization
The process of producing a plant or animal from two different types of plant or animal.
Angiosperm
The seeds are usually inside an ovary (fruit)
Self-pollination
This process is carried out even when the flowers are closed
Hypohydrophily
Those that distribute it beneath the surface.
Male sterility
Useful tool in hybrid seed production
Food, medicine, clothing
Uses of angiosperm
Lumber, paper
Uses of gymnosperm
Flowers of wind-pollinated angiosperm species
Usually green, small, may have small or no petals, and produce large amounts of pollen
Anemophily
Usually occurs when plants lack flowers with nectar or scent
Gymnosperms
Were for a long time the dominant plants on Earth but have been overthrown since the evolution and diversification of the angiosperms.
Monoecy
When male and female flowers are separate but present in the same plants
Dioecy
When staminate and pistillate flowers are present on different plants
Cross-pollination
When the pollen grains are transferred to the stigma of other flower of the same species. It takes place in between two different flowers
Gymnosperms
Woody, vascular plants with seeds but without flowers or fruits
Sulphur showers
Yellow clouds
Angiosperm
__________ number over 260,000 species
Protandry
anther mature before pistil
Self-pollination
both the stigma and another mature at the same time
Stigma
it receives the pollen grains
Anther
part of a flower that contain the pollen
Protogyny
pistil mature before anthers
Conifers
still dominate in cold and dry environments, as a waxy covering (cuticle) on their needle-like leaves allows them to survive in more extreme conditions than the angiosperms
