Anthropology Chapter 16, 11, 17, 2, 14

broad spectrum revolution

Beginning around 15,000 BP in the Middle East and 12,00 BP in Europe, during which a wider range, or broader spectrum, of plant and animal life was hunted, gathered, collected, caught, and fished.

Ideology

Beliefs and values concerning the distribution and use of power in society

Edward Burnett Tylor

Best known for his definition of culture

Diffusion

Borrowing of traits between cultures: Direct, Indirect, Forced, Unforced. [Mechanism of Cultural Change]

Market Principle

Buying, selling, and valuation based on supply and demand.

Manioc

Cassava; tuber domesticated in the South American lowlands.

Chiefdom

Group in the 1000's. Kin based society with inequality. Permanent political structure. A transitional form between tribes and states. Organized as permanent, but can rise or fall. The closer the chief is to founding ancestors, the greater his prestige. Another word for Chief: Khan

State

Specialized functions for state control: Population control, Judiciary control, law enforcement, fiscal systems. Control through boundaries: Provinces, districts, counties and parishes.

Focal vocabulary

Specialized sets of terms and distinctions that are particularly important to certain groups

Benefits of Food Production

Spinning and Weaving, Pottery and Brick Making, Smelting and casting metals, Trade and Commerce, Large Structures.

Phonemics

Studies only the significant sound contrasts of a given language

Hegemony

Subordinates comply by internalizing rulers' values and accepting the "naturalness" of domination (Gramsci, 1971 - Anarchist) Make subordinates believe that they will eventually gain power. (to convince someone that their natural role is to be subordinate) To separate or isolate people while supervising them closesly

Enculturation

The process by which a child learns his or her culture. (What you learn first)

Kinesics

The study of communication through body movements, stances, gestures, and facial expressions.

Phonology

The study of sounds used in speech [Structure of Language]

Morphology

The study of the forms in which sounds combine to form morphemes. [Structure of Language]

Sapir and Whorf

Argued that different languages cause speakers to think in different ways.

Noam Chomsky

Argued that the human brain has limited rules for language, so all languages have a common structure.

Neolithic period

(10,000 BCE - 5000 BCE) New Stone Age. A period of time in human history characterized by the development of agriculture and permanent settlements. Domesticated farming.

Correlation

(Association; when one variable changes, another does, too.) Variables are factors that are linked and interrelated, such as food intake and body weight, such that when one increases or decreases, the other tends to change, too.

Intellectual Property Rights

(IPR) An indigenous group's rights to their collective knowledge and its applications.

Culture

As Edward Burnett Tylor stated, "that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, arts, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society." [Culture is learned and shared]

Nabta Playa

A center for herders in southern egypt for many years. Full of megalithic structures and included an african cattle complex.

Typology

A description of ways (Similar to taxonomy)

Lexicon

A dictionary containing all morphemes (words) and their meanings. [Structure of Language]

Potlatch

A festive event and exchange system among tribes of North Pacific Coast. Some tribes still practice the potlatch. Potlatches traditionally gave away food, blankets, pieces of copper, or other such items. The idea behind this was the more you give the higher position you have.

Fertile Crescent

A geographical area of fertile land in the Middle East stretching in a broad semicircle from the Nile to the Tigris and Euphrates. [Farming started here]

Disease transmission

A major problem to food producing communities, with dense population and a sedentary lifestyle.

FOXP2

A mutated gene that helps explain why humans speak but chimps do not. Language has offered an adaptive advantages to humans.

Phoneme

A sound contrast that makes a difference or differentiates meaning.

Stratification

A structured ranking of entire groups of people that perpetuates unequal economic rewards and power in a society. 3 levels: Wealth (Economic Status), Power (Political Status), Prestige (Social Status) all three are not always correlated. (you could have one without the other)

Ethnocentrism

A tendency to view one's own culture as superior and to use one's own standards and values in judging outsiders. (I know what I believe is the best)

Big Man

A village head, except his authority is regional and may have influence over more than one village. Must be generous. Serves as temporary regional regulator to mobilize support.

The Yanomami

A village that believes that position of the village head is achieved; it comes with very limited authority. Must lead by example. Acts as a mediator. Must lead in generosity. Neglected Venezuelan indigenous people. Neglected by gov't. People want access to medical services and aid.

Power

Ability to exercise one's will over others

The Inuit

Aboriginal group of foragers located in the cold north.

Psychic unity of man

All human populations have equivalent capacities for culture.

Maize

Also known as corn, first domesticated in tropical southwestern Mexico around 8000 B.P.

Reciprocity

An exchange between social equals, normally related by kinship, marriage, or close personal ties. Dominant in egalitarian societies. Ethics of sharing is so strong that most foragers have lacked an expression for thank you.

Public Transcript

An open public interaction between superordinates and subordinates.

Teosinte

Ancestor or corn

Karl Marx

Author of the Communist Manifesto (1848)

Economic Antrhopology

Comparative study of economies as adaptive strategies. (What motivates people in different cultures to produce, distribute or exchange, and consume? Anthropologists view economic systems and motivations in a cross-cultural perspective.)

Daniel Cohen

Created typology of societies based on correlation between economies and social features

Acculturation

Cultural exchange resulting from extended contact. An exchange of features that results when groups come into consistent firsthand contact [Mechanism of Cultural Change]

Negative reciprocity

Dealing [trading] with people outside or on the fringes of the social system; filled with distrust.

Law

Defined rules relating to power, authority, crimes, etc. in a society.

Max Weber

Defined the three dimensions of social stratification: Wealth, Power, and Prestige.

Specialization

Development of skills in a specific kind of work

Cultural Universal Traits

Distinguish human from other species: Infant dependency, Year-round sexuality, complex brains, group living/family living, incest taboo/exogamy

Aculturation

Everything you learn for culture after enculturation.

Historical Linguistics

Examines the long-term variation of speech by studying protolangues and daughter languages. When languages disappear, cultural diversity is reduced. Of approx. 7000 remaining languages, some 20 percent are endangered (originally 12,000 languages)

Megalithic structures

Example: solstice calendars. Useful for planting. Made of large stones.

Balanced reciprocity

Exchanges between people who are more distantly related than are members of the same band or household. (equal value trade)

Hilly Flanks

Farming started in _____ _____ that had abundant wheat.

Differential access

Favored access to resources by superordinates over subordinates. This means that some men and women had privileged access to power, prestige, and wealth.

Costs of Food Production

Food producers typically work harder than foragers. Herds, fields and irrigation needs more care. Producers have more children. Malnutrition, Anemia, Stunting. Workload related stress

Old World Food production

For food production: Large animal domestication and plant domestication

New World food production

For food production: Plant domestication only.

Band

Foraging economies are usually associated with which type of sociopolitical organization? (Numbered 20 to 50 members. Egalitarian with no formal gov't. Related by marriage or kinship. Food foraging for economy. Not stratified. Disputes are often settled nonviolently.)

7 places farming started

Get all 7: fertile crescent. Meso-America, Eastern U.S., South Central andes.

Fallowing

Give the soil a chance to replenish naturally

Generalized reciprocity

Giving with no specific expectation of an exchange. (charity)

Globalization

Global power relations and cultural forms intersects with 'local cultures. Modern change. (Coca-cola used around the world)

Terracing

Great labor necessary to build and maintain this system of farming.

Tribe

Group in the 100's. Ranked society, with food production and small economy, typically pastoralists and horticulturalists. Members are considered descended from common ancestor. Somewhat egalitarian except the leaders.

Symbols

Signs that have no necessary or natural connection with the things for which they stand. Human cultural learning depends on the uniquely developed human capacity to use symbols. Natural biological needs can be expressed differently.

Pastoralists

Herders whose activities focus on such domesticated animals as cattle, sheep, goats, camels, and yaks. Use animals for resources.

Adaptive and Maladaptive Culture

Humans have biological and cultural ways of coping with environmental stress. Whats good for the individual isn't necessarily good for the group. Adaptive behavior that offers short term benefits may hurt the groups long term survival

Cultural Relativism

In order to understand another culture fully, we must try to understand how the people in that culture see things. (opposite of believing that your own culture is best)

Less work and a better diet

In recent times, many foraging groups have been exposed to the idea of food production but have never adopted it. Why?

Pastoralism

Includes: Pastoral Nomadism, Transhumance, Pastoralists

Human Rights

Individual rights based on justice and morality that cannot be terminated by any nation, culture, or religion.

Social Control

Informal means of social control include gossip, stigma, and shame. Belief in sorcery may also aid in social control [Part of a state system]

Sociolinguistics

Investigates relationships between social and linguistic variation, or language in its social context. Focuses on features that vary with social position and situation. Linguistic change does not occur in a vacuum but in society.

Alienation from the "Means of Production"

Ownership of land and tools not held by workers, Power held by few over many, Skills and knowledge not accessible to all. Tension between economic levels. Unequal access to wealth, power, etc. (Non-Industrial meets the Industrial society)

Non-Industrial Modes of Production

Land, Labor, Tools, Specialization

Semantics

Language's meaning system

Ifugao

Location in the Philippines where they used irrigation.

Subordinate

Lower, underprivileged, group in a stratified society

Pastoral nomadism

Members of pastoral society follow herd throughout the year

Gender Speech Contrasts

Men and Women have differences in phonology, grammar, and vocabulary as well as in the body stances and movements that accompany speech. In north america and Great Britain, women's speech tends to be more similar to standard dialect than is men's speech.

Mesolithic period

Middle part of the Stone Age beginning about 15,000 years ago [broad spectrum revolution]

The San

Modern Foragers: Live in desert area of southern Africa. Botswana moved the san outside their ancestral territory to create a wildlife area. Demonstrates how foragers affected by national governments

Cultivation continuum

Most cultivators incorporate practices and tools from both horticulture and agricutlure

Agriculture

Part of Cultivation: Requires more labor. Uses land intensively and continuously. Use animals as means of production. Long-term yield per area is far greater and more dependable than horticulture. Society tend to be more densely populated than horticultural ones. Gender inequality. Specialized economies. Often creates issues between gov't and people. Uses Terracing [More profitable]

Horticulture

Part of Cultivation: Use of simple tools. No permanent cultivation - fallowing, Slash-and-burn cultivation. Less mobile society. Live in larger group sizes. Status differences amongst group. (Specialization, Gendered labor, Some gender inequality) [Less profitable]

Transhumance

Part of group moves with herd; most stay in home village

Betsileo

People in Madagascar. Their educated youth are turning away from rice farming and often stealing cattle for export. (to feed their cash addiction)

Black English Vernacular

Phonological and grammitcal differences exist between the same culture.

Authority

Power sanctioned by society

Non-human primate communication

Recent experiments show that apes can learn to use, if not speak, true language. Chimpanzee eventually acquired a vocabulary of more than 100 hand signs. Koko, a gorilla, regularly uses 400 ASL signs.

Diglossia

Regular style shifts between "high and "low" variants of the same language. [Linguistic Diversity]

Cultural Generality

Regularities that occur in different times and place but not in all cultures: Diffusion, Invention, Nuclear family. Many cultures share a common language.

Foraging

Relies on natural resources for subsistence, rather than controlling plant and animal reproduction. Has survived mainly in environments that are not conducive to food production. Our species subsistence until 10,000 years ago. Typically, foraging groups are mobile. Live in Band-organized [small groups] societies. Egalitarian Society

Cultural Rights

Rights vested in ethnic or religious groups, not individuals.

Adaptive Strategy

System of economic production. Means of making a living; productive system.

Fiscal Control

Taxation, Redistribution, and who can/cannot produce. [Part of a state system]

Antonio Gramsci

Termed Hegemony

Honorifics

Terms of respect; used to honor the recipients. Americans tend to be less formal than other nations. The british have more highly developed set of honorifics

Agency

The ability to act. "yes I will or no I won't" The individual has power. [Part of the Practice Theory]

Displacement

The ability to talk about things that are not present

Syntax

The arrangement and order of words in phrases and sentences. [Structure of Language]

Productivity

The combining of two or more signs to create new expressions

Domestication

The conscious manipulation of plant and animal species by humans in order to sustain themselves. Squash seeds were found in early Andean Cultivation from 10,000 years ago.

Redistribution

The flow of goods into a center, then back out; characteristic of chiefdoms

Foraging band

The leader of this type of group has no means of forcing people to follow their decisions.

Cultural Particularity

Traits unique to a given culture. Cultural features not shares with others.

Anthropologist Elman Service

Typology of political organizations into bands, tribes, chiefdoms, and states; none of them can be studied as self-contained form of political organization, because all exist within nation-states.

Superordinate

Upper, privileged, group in a stratified society

Call systems

Use a limited number of sounds that are produced in response to specific stimuli

Irrigation

Using water to feed a crop through man made canals. Not waiting for rain.

Style Shifts

Varying speech in different contexts [Linguistic Diversity]

Mode of Production

Way of organizing production; "set of social relations through which labor is deployed to wrest energy from nature using tools, skills, organization, and knowledge" (wolf, 1982) Non-Industrial and Industrial Modes

Smaller

What happened to animals after domestication. They got ____.

Larger

What happened to plants after domestication. They got ____.

Judiciary Control

What the laws are, how they are enforced, and who the judges are. Requires a system of enforcement and collection. [Part of a state system]

Independent Invention

When two or more cultures independently solve common problem in a similar fashion. [Mechanism of Cultural Change]

Egalitarianism

Which of the following is a characteristic of most foraging societies?

Hidden Transcript

a critique of power that goes offstage, where the power holders can't see it.

Industrialism

an economic system built on large industries rather than on agriculture or craftsmanship

Microliths

small stone tools usually produced from narrow blades punched from a core. Allowed them to go after different types of game. [Used in mesolithic period]

Phonetics

the study of speech - what people actually say in different languages.