ANTHROPOLOGY EXAM 2
Gifts given by groom's family to bride's family
bridewealth
Wild Wheat/Barley -->
brittle axis, hard husks
by 7,000 bp people were abandoning ____ ____- economies in favor of economies based on a few domesticated sources of food
broad spectrum
15,000 Bp to 12,000 was the beginning of the
broad spectrum revolution
the period beginning around 15,000 bp in the middle east in europe in 12,00 bp, during which a wider range of plant and animal life was hunted, gathered, collected, caught, and fished
broad spectrum revolution
the idea of a "missing link:" between chimps and humans is based on a
false accusation
the family in which one is born and grows up
family of orientation
formed when one marries and has children
family of procreation
Kinship Symbols: a colored circle
female
Kinship Symbols: gray circle
female ego whose kin are being shown
examples of analogies: Dolphins with ___ birds and _____
fish bats
What does the word Platyrrhines mean
flat-nosed
descent groups are not constituted with
flexibility, high mobility, and easy access kin-group in mind
the movement of people, animals, and products between zones was a precondition for the emergence of
food production
where are descent groups rare
foraging and modern, industrial, capitalist economies
until 10,000 years ago there was no difference between making a living and
foraging for food
an effective strategy when resources are scarce
fraternal polyandry
what do orangutans eat
fruit, bark, leaves, and insects
Ancient Middle Eastern foragers migrated seasonally in pursuit of ___. They also collected wild plant foods as they ripened at different altitudes. As they moved about, these foragers tom grains from the ___ zone, where they grew wild to adjacent areas. Humans became ____, preferring plants with certain attributes. ___ spilled over from the hilly flanks into adjacent areas like the piedmont steppe. In such marginal zones, people started ___ plants, They were trying to ____ the dense wild grains of the hilly flanks.
game/ hilly flanks/ agents of selection/ population/ cultivating/ duplicate
polygyny is more prevalent when there is a
gender disparity within a given society
___ and other apes are more closely related to each other than either is to monkeys
humans
where did ardipithecus' live
humid woodland habitat
ecological niches and their diets
hunters, scavenger, and foragers
the result of larger brains and better tools of H.erectus led to an increased reliance on
hunting and animal protein
the skulls of newborns are not fully formed, are actually elastic, and continue to grow outside the womb
immature birth
sexual relations with a close relative
incest
is any cultural rule or norm that prohibits sexual relations between closely related persons
incest taboo
the way primates evolve has been increasingly subject to _____ and _____ strategies, in addition to the selection of individuals based on differential ___ success. This trend has led to the heavy reliance on ____ as found among humans
inclusive fitness and group selection reproductive culture
the proportion of brain tissue concerned with memory thought and association has ___ in primates
increased
Kinship Symbols: circle or triangle with slash through it
individual is deceased
Kinship Symbols: colored square
individual regardless of sex
infant and young primates have more ______ than other mammals because they require constant attention and supervision
learning opportunities
Tarsiers have been historically clasified as
lemurs and lorises
H. erectus cranial morphology and denition
less robust
widow marries one of her deceased husband's brothers
levirate
the direct line of consanguinity is the relationship between persons one whom is a descendant of the other
lineal kinship
the ____ of the central andes was the largest domesticated animal in the new world
llama
movement towards bipedalism
locomotion
Anatomy of h. habilis
long arms and small body
for most americans, marriage is supposed to be based on
love sex choice
Functional Explanation for Marriage
love, sex, choice. a system of alliances between families and descent groups
Major domesticated plants and animals in Mesoamerica
maize, beans, squash, dogs, turkey, guinea fowl
In the New World, the most important domesticates were
maize, potatoes, and manioc
Kinship Symbols: A colored triangle
male
Kinship Symbols: gray triangle
male ego whose kin are being shown
we have very sensitive pads on our fingers and our nose this is very different from other ___ which have sensitive tactile skin on their noses or whiskers
mammals
marriage and exchange
outside of industrial societies, marriage is often more a relationship between groups than between individuals people dont just take a spouse; they assume obligations to a group of in laws
homo habilis lived alongside ___ for half a million years
p. boisei
when the sex of your parents sibiling is the same as there mother's sister father's brother their sibilings kids
parallel cousins
Robus Australopiths
paranthropus robusts
example of generalized reciprocity
parent- child giving- most common amongst foragers
descent: lineal includes
parents, grandparents, children, grandchildren; direct line
membership based on relatedness through male ancestors
patrilineal
Moving to the husband's community, children grow up in their father's village.
patrilocality
the requirements of upright bidalism impose limits on the expansion of the human ____ ____
pelvic opening
many similarities between organisms reflect their common
phylogeny
their genetic relatedness based on common ancestry
phylogeny
treeless plain
piedmont steppe
as primates we tend to be social and live with other members of our species and this help provide long term and attentive care to
offspring
share a locomotion that differs from humans and apes limbs are about the same size they move on the ground in a manner similar to a dog
old and new world monkeys
live in africa and asia
old world monkeys
some are arboreal but many are terrestrial
old world monkeys
they are far less likely to have tails at all and if they do they cannot grip
old world monkeys
represent that worlds oldest formally recognized stone tools
oldowan tools
they enabeled some species to expand their diets and become omnivorous
oldowan tools
were used for things like animal butchering
oldowan tools
what tools did h. habilis use
oldowan tools
H. floresiensis was located
on flores near indonesia
genus pongo
orangutans
mostly live in sumatra but also live in borneo
orangutans
the straight and upright stance
orthograde posture
who belongs to the ceboid superfamily
platyrrhines (new world monkeys)
what was australopiths dentition
pointed premolar
one woman, several husbands
polyandry
what is very rare and almost exclusively in south asia
polyandry
having more than one spouse
polygamy
One man, several wives
polygyny
expanded polyandrous households allow brother to
pool resources
neolithic economies fueled
population growth, expansion, and the settlement fo new environments
the challenges of surplus food production were mostly relation to
population size
competitive feast among indians on the north pacific coast of north america
potlach
the sponsering community gave away food and wealth items to visitors from other villages in its network in return for its giveway, the sponsering community recieved prestige
potlatching`
choppers were used for
pounding, breaking, or bashing
take a longer time to develop compared to almost all other mammals
primate babies
We share an evolutionary history with
primates
Natufian settlements show permanent architectural features and evidence for the ____ and ____ of wild grains
processing and storage
the market determines levels of
production and consumption
american economist assume that people make decision rationally, guided by the ___ ___, it is the assumption that individuals try to maximize profits
profit motive
social emphasis is placed on certain kinship ties which in turn
promotes or discourages certain types of residence
____ is more distantly related to humans than monkeys and apes
prosimians
the hypothesis that evolutionary development is marked by isolated episodes of rapid speciation between long periods of little or no change
punctuated equilibrium
in nayar nuclear families are
rare or nonexistent
what are the three principles of exchange
reciprocity, redistribution, markets
eventually flows in reverse, from the center back to the people
redistribution
when goods, services, or their equivalent move from the local level to a center
redistribution
the key feature differentiating early hominins from the apes
reliance on bipedalism
Major domesticated plants and animals in southern China ( Yangtze River corridor)
rice, water buffalo, dogs, pigs
its geography indicated the seperation of chimp and gorilla ancestors from homo ancestors
rift valley
where has an open grassland and savannah ecologies
rift valley
h. erectus head and body was still very
robust
Who were the earliest hominins?
sahelanthropus tchadensis orrorin tugenensis ardipithecus
settled life in villages
sedentism
similar traits and features can also arise if species experience similar ____ and ____ to them in similar ways
selective forces and adapt
individuals may have more than one spouse, but never, legally more than one at the same time
serial monogamy
marriage everywhere involves the legitimation of
sex, procreation, gender, and kinship
anatomical differences between male and females of a species also involves difference of temperament
sexual dimorphism
terrestrial primates also display a greater degree of
sexual dimorphism
what does the word Catarrhines mean
sharp-nosed
the _____ ___ are much sharper and longer in apes than in early hominins
sharper and longer
Descent: collateral includes
siblings, aunts, uncles, nieces, nephews
almost all primates give birth to a ____ _____ rather than to a ____
single offspring/litter
True or false cultivation in south america began at about the same time that food production arose in the middle east -- around 10,000 years ago
true
the kula ring system is based on t
trust, obligation, and shame
male orangutans weigh more than ______ that of females
twice
How many infraorders does Haplorrhines have
two
How many parvorders does Simian have
two
the Primate order has ___ suborders
two1
Descent rule only uses one line (so either patrilineal OR matrilineal)
unilineal
what permitted the use of tools and weapons against predators and competitors
upright bipedalism
as our societies became more urban, industrial, and stratified, we have conceptualized these other ways of life as a form of
utopia
Consisting of four geographically close but very different environmental zones
vertical economy
four thousands of years the middle east has had this it exploits environmental zones that, although close together in space, contrast with one another in altitude, rainfall, overall climate, vegetation, and other resources
vertical economyq
cronk argues that potlatching was a substitue for
war
Major domesticated plants and animals in the Middle East
wheat, barley, sheep, goats, cattle, pigs
satisfaction of the most basic material survival needs (food, clothing, and shelter)
"making a living"
one way of reducing the tension in situations of potential negative reciprocy is to engage in
"silent trade"
homo neandertalensis tools
(mousterian) improved on the Achuelian variety
the lakher
Half-step sibling relationships are acceptable with a mother's lineage but not with the father's lineage because they share the same last name
what is the last common ancestor that we share with chimpanzees and gorillas that lived around 8 mya
Hogopan
consists of what are called new world monkeys
Platyrrhines
What is the Simian's two parvorders
Platyrrhines and catarrhines
involved the alteration of both plants and animals
domestication
neolithic refers to the period when the first signs of ___ appeared
domestication
Gifts given by bride's family to grooms' family
dowry
genus ardipithecus is possibly the
earlies hominin but not definitve
we study primates because they provide the standard to assess
human uniqueness
a taboo against incest is a
human universal
examples of behavioral modernity
lascaux cave, france cueva da manos, argentina
what is an important part of primate adaptation
learned behavior
Time of Australopithecus
4.2-1 mya
State Class Stratification
Surplus Takers, Production Organizers, and Food Producers
in 2015 researchers found stone tools that were ____ mya in kenya
3.3
the first stone tools appeared about ____ mya
3.3
reasons for polygyny
- Men marrying later than women - Inheritance of widow from a deceased brother - To increase prestige or household productivity - an Infertile wife
characteristics of markets
- all purpose money - supply and demand - fludity, diversity, and diversity of exchange
what were the advantages of food production
- discoveries and inventions - people learned to spin and weave; make pottery, bricks, and arched masonryl and to smelt cast and metals - they developed trade and commerce by land and sea - created sculpture, mural art, writing systems, weights, measures, mathematics, and new forms of political and social organization
hardships of food production
- food producers typically work harder than forgers do for a less adequate diet - herds, fields, and irrigation systems need car - weeding can require hours of arduous bending - pens and corrals must be built and maintained for livestock - trade takes men, and sometimes women away from home, leaving burdens for those who stay behind - bc food producers tend to have more children than foragers do this means greater child care demands - child labor - division of economic labor grows more complex so that children and older people have assigned economic roles - public health declined - diets less varied, less nutritious, and less healthful than foragers' diet - physical well being of population declined - communicable diseases, protein deficiency, and dental caries increas - food producers tend to be sedentary, with denser population, which makes it easier to transmit and maintain disease - malaria, sickle-cell anemia, and small pox - population concentrations are breeding grounds for pathogens - social inequality and povery increased - elaborate systems of social stratification eventually replaced the egalitarianism of the past - resources were no longer common goods, open to all - slavery and other forms of human bondage eventually invented - crime, war, and human sacrifice became widespread
what was included in the broad spectrum revolution
- global warming - receding glaciers - expansion of human range - foragers pursued a more generalized economy
why are there changes in north american kinship nuclear families only accounted for 19% of american households
- more women joining workforce - later age of first marriage - higher divorce rate - increased single parent families - % of married adults decreased - trend toward smaller families
characteristics of the Natufians
- worked out the initial adaptation to this array of climates - built permanent villages in the hilly flanks - became sedentary to remain close to their grain - surplus
Domesticated Wheat/Barley
-Hard axis, brittle husks
Iroquois Kinship Terms
-matrilateral distinctions -Ego's mother's sister is also referred to mother, and her offsprings will be Ego's brother and sister too
The Kula Ring characteristics
1. "once in the kula, always in the Kula" - referring to participants and object s 2. kula objects must be passed on taking 2-10 years to make the full cycle
H. erectus 1. dates 2. known distribution 3. important sites 4. brain size
1. 1.9 mya - 400,000 bp 2. africa, europe, asia 3. east/west turkana, olduvai, dmanisi, zhoukoudian, java, ceprano 4. 900
H. habilis 1. dates 2. known distribution 3. important sites 4. brain size
1. 1.9-1.44 mya 2. east africa 3. Olduvai, East Turkana 4. 650
Neanderthals 1. dates 2. known distribution 3. important sites 4. brain size
1. 130,000- 28,000 bp 2. europe, southwestern asia 3. la chapelle-aux-saint 4. 1,430 cm
Anatomically modern humans 1. dates 2. known distribution 3. important sites 4. brain size
1. 195,000 b.p - present 2. worldwide 3. omo kibish, herto, border cave, klasies river, skuhul, qafzeh, cro-magnon 4. 1,350 cm`
H. rudolfensis 1. dates 2. known distribution 3. important sites 4. brain size
1. 2.03-1.78 mya 2. east africa 3. east africa, east turkana 4. 775
H. floresiensis 1. dates 2. known distribution 3. important sites 4. brain size
1. 700,000-50,000 bp 2. flores island, indonesia 3. liang bua cave 4. 400
H. heidelbergensis 1. dates 2. known distribution 3. important sites 4. brain size
1. 850,000-200,000 bp 2. africa, europe, asia 3. Kabwe, Petralona, Dali 4. 1,135
Australopithecus afarensis evolutionary traits 1. location 2. time 3. body size 4. locomotion 5. cranial capacity 6. tool use 7. dentition 8. cranial morphology 9. diet
1. Tanzania and Ethiopia 2. 3.8-3.0 mya 3. females 3-4 ft males: around 5 ft adult males may have weighed almost twice as much as females 4. bipedal 5.barely is larger than chimps 6.rudimentary tools and weapans 7. longer and shaper than in homo, canines were reduced, lower premolar was pointed and projecting molars are larger 8. head balanced directly on top of the neck foramen magnum located right underneath the skull skulls grew after birth 9. mainly vegetarian including leaves, seeds, fruits, and nuts soft, sugar rich foods but could also process hard, brittle foods
what are the hominin evolutionary trends
1. body size 2. locomotion 3. cranial capacity 4. tool use 5. dentition 6. cranial morphology 7. diet
Cohen's correlations and features with foraging and examples?
1. depends of naturally available food 2. small populations 3. mobile 4. relatively egalitarian 5. gendered divison of labor EX: Dobe Ju'Hoansi (Lee); Hadza of Tanzania, Australian Aborgines
what are the four adaptive stategies
1. foraging ( hunting and gathering) 2. horticulture 3. agriculture 4. pastoralism
what are the primate tendencies
1. grasping ability 2. reliance on sight over smell 3. reliance on hand over nose 4. brain complexity 5. parental investment 6. sociality
surplus production presented what challenges?
1. greater organization of harvest 2. greater limitation of access 3. increased routinization of distribution 4. new limits on consumption
what were the four geographic places in a vertical economy
1. high plateau 2. hilly flanks 3. piedmont steppes 4. alluvial plain
explanations for the incest taboo
1. inbreeding avoidance, instinctive or otherwise 2. familiarity breeds contempt 3. prevention of domestic chaos 4. marry out or die out
key attributes of early cities/states
1. larger and more densely populated than previous settlements 2. productive farming economies supporting dense populations, often including cities 3. taxation (accumulate resources to support specialists, increased control and power) 4. monumental architecture (signify the rights and status of the rulers) 5. had some form of record-keeping, usually a written script (like cuneiform) 6. social stratification (unequal access to wealth and power)
Compared to monkeys and other primates, apes have:
1. larger bodies 2. longer lifespans 3. longer intervals between births of infants, and a longer period of infant dependency 4. a tendency towards upright posture (knuckle walk; not fully upright like humans) 5. larger brains 6. shorter faces 7. no nails
How are we similar to primates?
1. learning 2. tool use 3. hunting 4. symbolic communication
Pan troglodytes 1. dates 2. known distribution 3. important sites 4. brain size
1. modern 2. central africa 3. Gombe, Mahale 4. 390
Cohen's correlations and features in agriculture
1. more complex tools 2. permanent plots and fields 3. sedentary lifestyle; higher population density 4. increased specialization 5. higher productivity 6. individual ownership
Australopithecus anamensis evolutionary traits 1. location 2. time 3. body size 4. locomotion 5. cranial capacity 6. tool use 7. dentition 8. cranial morphology 9. diet
1. northern kenya 2. 4.2-3.9 mya 3. 110 pounds larger than earlier ardis or later au. afarensis male: 5 ft female: 4'3 4. bipedal 5. unkown- prob small brain 6. simple tools 7. apelike canines, strong jaws, heavily enameled teeth 8. higher forehad and less pronounced brow ridge 9. preferred fruits and nuts but sometimes ate hard, abrasive foods
Cohen's typology disclaimers
1. not perfect: some groups possess some correlated features but not all 2. not all evolutionary schema 3. not mutually exclusive
scientist agree that about 6 mya... by 3.3 mya... by 1.7 mya... sometime around 200,000 mya
1. our hominin ancestors origniated in africa as apelike creatures they became bipedal 2. while still in africa, hominins were making crude (oldowan) stone tools 3. hominins had spread from africa to asia and eventually europe 4. anatomically modern humans evolved from ancestors who had remained in africa. like homo erectus before them, they spread out of africa
what is the transition of food production in the middle east
1. semi-nomadic hunting and gathering (Natufians) 2. early dry farming and caprine domestication 3. increased specialization in food production 4. origin of state (sumer)
distinction in kinship terminology 1. uncle vs aunt 2. cousin = same generation 3. mother vs mother in law 4. when terms for mother's relatives differ from those for father's relatives 5. older vs younger sibilings 6. parallel vs cross cousins
1. sex 2. generation 3. affinity 4. bifurcation 5. relative age 6. sex of linking relative
What characteristics are distinctly human?
1. share food widely and routinely 2. cooperate in planning and carrying out complex multistage tasks 3. use spoken language 4. classify others as kin of various types and interact with them for life
Cohen's correlations between subsistence strategies and:
1. social/political organization 2. environment/geography 3. population density 4. diet
Cohen's correlation and features with horticulture and examples
1. swiddens; slash and burn 2. hand- held tools (ex: hoes and digging sticks) 3. low yields 4. inequalities appear EX: Kawelka of Papua New Guinea; Kuikuru of central Brazil; Guarani of Paragua
what three things will kinship signify
1. the totality of relationships based on ideas of shared substance and mutuality that link individuals in a web of special rights and obligations 2. the kinds of groups formed in a society based on these ideas and relationships 3. the system of terms used to classify relatives and distinguish them from each other and from people who are not relatives
Ardi's 1. body size 2. locomotion 3. cranial capacity 4. tool use 5. dentition 6. cranial morphology 7. diet
1. weighed 120 pounds, close to 4 ft tall- males were only slightly taller than females 2. bipedal- pelvis suited for climbing and modidied for bipedal locomotion 3. slightly greater than a chimp average 4. simple tools similar to those used by modern chimps 5. ramidus teeth, canines resemble modern humans but are more tusklike, piercing upper canines of chimps and gorillas relatively large cannines and molars 6. basicranial morphology 7. omnivorous diet of plants, nuts, and small mammals
When did agriculture begin?
10,000-12,000 years ago
earliest date of food production in middle east
11,000-10,000 bp
By what year was the Neolithic under way in the Middle East
11,700 BP
cranial capacity of neadertals
1430 cc more than modern humans
H. habilis appears about ___ mya
2
genus homo came on the scene roughly ___ mya
2
the hominins evolved into several speices about ____ mya
2-5
the 5th adaptive strategy that developed in only the last 10,000 years and is the backdrop against which we have been defining these adaptive strategies is the economy in which we live in
5. industrialism
Time of ardipithecus'
5.8-4.4 mya
Uruk the capital of Sumer had a population of ___ people by 4,800 BP
50,000
our last common ancestor that we share with monkey species existed about ____ mya
50-60
H. habilis cranial capacity
600-800cc
as humans we share more than __% of our DNA with chimpanzees and gorillas
98
cohen's typologies were based on correlations that =
= factors that are linked and interrelated = typically found together = when change happens to one, the other tends to experience change as well
Hominin Taxonomy
A. anamensis (4.2-3.9mya) Kenya A. afarensis (3.8-3.0) East Africa A. africanus (3.0-2.0) South Africa A. garhi (2.5) Ethiopia A. robustus (2.0-1.0) East/South Africa A. boisei (2.6-1.2) East Africa *Homo habilis lived alongside A. boisei for about a million years.
H. habilis coexisted with ______ for about half a million years
A. boisei
Advantages and disadvantages of food production in short
A: inventions and discoveries D: harder work, poorer health, crime, war, social inequality, and environmental degradation
distinguishing collateral relatives both from lineal relatives of the same generation and from one another on the basis of the sex of connecting relatives
Bifurcate Collateral Kinship
-identifying collateral relatives with lineal relatives of the same sex and generation when the connecting relative is of the same sex but distinguishing them when the connecting relative is of the opposite sex in a bifurcate merging terminology a father's brother would be identified as father but a mother's brother as uncle
Bifurcate Merging Kinship
With glacial retreat, foragers pursued a more generalized economy, focusing less on large animals. This was the beginning of what Kent Flannery (1969) has called the
Broad-spectrum revolution
the Chauvet Cave in southern france, which contains the oldest human-painted images yet discovered
Cave of Forgotten Dreams
____ suggests that neandertal split from archaic homo sapiens about 600,000 years ago, i.e their last common ancestor
DNA
roughly 100,000 years later, H. habilis had evolved into or coexisted alongside
H. erectus
had larger brains and better tools
H. erectus (acheulian)
split from ancestral neandertals around 400,000 years ago
Denisovans
was the gradual result of attempts to recreate the Hilly Flanks economy in new climates
Domestication
Location of Ardipithecus
Ethiopia
incest taboo
Every culture in the world has taboo against incest. But how cultures define their relatives, and those incest, is variable and culturally specific
which two texts place humans in an original "state of nature" which is preferable, in many ways, to the kinds of societies we live in now
Genesis 3:17-19 Kottak 11:253
Why and why did food production begin?
In the middle east either because of the climate change or the need to subsist in marginal areas-- necessity was the mother of invention
The system emphasizes the nuclear family, identifying directly only the mother, father, brother, and sister. All other relatives are grouped together into categories. It uses both classificatory and descriptive terms, differentiating between gender, generation, lineal relatives (relatives in the direct line of descent), and collateral relatives (blood relatives not in the direct line of descent). Parental siblings are distinguished only by their sex (Aunt, Uncle). All children of these individuals are lumped together regardless of sex (Cousins). Ego's parents are clearly distinguished from their siblings.
Lineal "eskimo"
Nayar Descent
Matrilineal society in which extended families live in compounds called ''terawads' each headed by a senior female, without emphasis on biological paternity -many Nayar children did not know who their biological father was and not considered to be relatives of their biological father -total disregard to paternity -this shows that the nuclear family is NOT universal
By approximately 4,000 BP urban life has been established along the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in
Mesopotamia, the Nile River in Egypt, the Indus and Ganges Rivers in India/Pakistan, and the Yellow River in China
where were the early states
Middle East, China, Egypt, and India/Pakistan
the first hominins appeared late in which epoch
Miocene
a prime example of early sedentism is the widespread of
Natufian culture
what suborder of primates are lemurs, lorises, and tarsiers
Strepsirrhines
what are the primates two suborders
Strepsirrhines and Haplorrhines
The origin of state took place where and what was its capital
Sumer capital: Uruk
primate tool use
Termite fishing by Chimpanzees
the homo sapien sapien is aka
The Chosen Primate
the nuer
The daughter steps in as a son to keep the family line going in the absence of a male heir
the region where the first settled agricultural communities of the middle east and mediterranean basin are thought to have originated the birthplace of agriculture
The fertile crescent
living with relatives of the bride
Uxorilocality
living with relatives of the groom
Virilocality
who are the australopoths
a. anamensis, A. afarensis, a. africanus, paranthropus robustus, p. boisei
hyperrobust australopith
a. boisei
When did the agricultural revolution begin
about 12,000 years ago
species associated with lower paleolithic
acheulian and h. erectus b
before the industrial revolution, the vast majority of the worlds population livinf in economies based on the four
adaptive stategies
are the methods for meeting the needs to "making a living"
adaptive strategies
cohen argued that the most important reason for similarities between two or more unrelated societies is their possession of a similar
adaptive strategy
the larger surpluses required greater ___ and ___
administration and oversight
of a family relationship by marriage of a relative
affinal
Kin through marriage
affines/affinal
chimpanzees and bonoboos live in parts of
africa
where do gorillas live
africa
location of austalithecus
africa east and south
in east africa and is the place where almost all remaining early hominin evolution took place
africas rift valley
the neolithic is considered revolutionary bc
after millions of years of foraging as the sole human subsistence stategy, it would transform small, mobile groups into large societies living permanent settlements-- villages, towns, and eventually cities
compared with contemporaty humans, early hominins had very small ____
brains
the low lying area watered by the tigris and Euphrates river and was rich in soil
alluvial desert
the first states developed in the ____ of what is now Iraq and Iran between 6,000 and 5,500 BP
alluvial plains
Descent rule that recognizes either the female or male line, which a person can choose
ambilineal
for most americans, marriage should not be
an explicitly economic decision a decision made by parents, against the will of the espoused, for the reason ther than love, for the impersonal reasons
similarities arising as a result of similar selective forces; traits produced by convergent evolution
analogies
Sahelanthropus tchadensis bipedalism
anterior foramen magnum
the primate tendencies are most developed in
anthropoids
what were the australopoths like?
ape like from top down, human like from ground top
Sahelanthropus tchadensis blends what two characteristics
apelike and human like
since NWM seperation from OWM they have split from the ____
apes
ALL new world monkeys are
arboreal
4.4 mya and most complete early hominid specimen but could potentially be a hominin
ardi
what species were found in the rift valley
ardi and australopoth
who is recognized as the earliest knonw hominin
ardi kadabba
earliest widely accepted hominin genus
ardipithecus
who falls in genus ardipithecus
ardipithecus kadabba and adipithecus ramidus
how did humans become agents of selection
as people traveled and traded they removed plants from the zones, where they grew wild in the hilly flanks
Gracile Australopiths
au africanus and au sediba
what species is has the earliest found evidence of animal butchery and tool use
au. garhi
what are the two genera in australopiths
australopithecus and paranthropus
_____ was physically smaller than later speices, they had relatively robus features
australopiths
Exchange with anticipation of equal return
balanced reciprocity
why are orangutans difficult to study compared to more terrestrial ape species>?
bc they live in jungles and feed in trees
why was the broad spectrum revolutionary
because in the middle east it led to food production
why is the "free market" "free"?
because no traditional restrictions determine distribution ( not linked to social status)
many of our _______ are found among other primates
behavioral adaptations
relying on symbolic thought, elaborating cultural creativity, and as a result becoming fully human in behavior as well as in anatomy
behavioral modernity
has been viewed as an adpatation to open grassland or savanna country
bidepalism
characteristics of genus ardipithecus
bidpedal, but apelike in size, anatomy, and habitat
what is one example of a hominin trait that has been lost during subsequent human evoltuion
big back teeth
cranial capacity of h. erectus
bigger brain between 900-1250 cc
kinship system that do not have descent groups (relatives on mother's and father's side are considered to be the same kind of relatives)
bilateral
as humans became more____ we have eliminated the grasping ability of our feet
bipedal
a. afarensis locomotion? cranial capacity?
bipedal cc barely surpassed the chimp average
preceded stone tool manufacture and the expansion of the hominin brain
bipedal locomotion
larger skulls demand larger
births canals
what tools were associated with upper paleolithic
blade tools
the proportion of brain tissue concerned with memory thought and association
brain complexity
Anthropoids have larger
brains
both old world monkeys and hominoids (apes)
catarrhines
example of negative reciprocity
cattle raiders
consists of old world monkeys
cercopithecoids
in the kula ring exchange is accompanied by
ceremony, magic
where were Sahelanthropus tchadensis discovered
chad in 2001
subspecies of genus pan (troglodyte and paniscus)
chimpanzees and bonobos
smaller and more agil than gorillas and show much less sexual dimorphism than gorillas
chimps and bonobos
Ancestral hominids evolved into
chimps, gorillas, and humans
examples of balanced reciprocity
christmas gifts, bartering, cooperative work
there began to be a difference between making a living and foraging for food with the advent of ____ and the new forms of ____ ___ based on farming
domestication/ food production
an individuals siblings and their descendants
collateral kin
the relationship between people who descend from a common ancestor but are not in a direct line
collateral kinship
many species lived together for extended periods of time and ____ with one another for _____
competed/resources
human adaptions became increasingly ___ and ___ after about 35,000 bp
complex and unstable
kin through blood
consanguines/consanguineal
being from the same kinship as another personal/ the quality of being descended from the same ancestor as another person
consanguinity
women seem to be doing more of the work of kinship in the nuclear family in what socities
contemporary western societies
what enabled homo erectus to spread into temperate climates and ultimately leave africa
controlled fire
analogies are produced by
convergent evolution
when unrelated species have adapted to similar environmental pressures over time
convergent evolution
the ability to make and control fire enabled humans to
cook vegetables and meat, feed younger and older members softer foods, and eliminated certain parasites from their diets
what were the traded resources in the vertical economy of ancient middle east
copper, obsidian, and asphalt,
Cohen and adaptive strategies was based on
correlation
brow ridge, sagittal crest, zygomatic arches
cranial morphology
when the sex of your parents sibiling is the opposite of their sex my father's sister my mother's brother their sibilings kids
cross cousins
flakers were used for
cutting
what do bridewealth and dowry create between descent groups? What are they?
debt and durable alliances/ compensatory acts
what were new problems
decline in public health, disease and epidemics, poverty, inequality, and crime, large-scale warfare, and environmental degradation
population increase and the need to expand farming spurred
deforestation
have wisdom tooth and fragment and their teeth are unlike either neantertal or AMH teeth
denisovans
tooth size and type
dentition
permanent social units whose members claim common ancestry
descent groups
between 6,000 and 7,000 Bp, people learned how to bring water into areas that
did not have enough water fro agricultion
the transition from mesolithic to neolithic occured when groups became dependent of ________ ____ for more than 50% of their diet
domesticated foods
by 10,00 BP people in the middle east were subsiting on ____crops and animals and were living in ____ settlements
domesticated/permanent
in contrast with broad spectrum foraging, ____ was more specialized and focused on a smaller number of food sources
domestication
once a population reached carrying capacity it would spill out into new
ecological niches and marginal zones
it is part of the disciple that debates issues of human nature that relate directly to the decisions of daily life and making a living
economic anthropology
the study of economics in comparative perspective
economic anthropology
cohen used the term adaptive strategy to describe a society's main system of
economic production
capitalism is viewed as the only form of
economic rationality
the study of the system of production, distribution, and consumption of resources
economics
a system of production, distribution, and consumption of resources
economy
Kinship Symbols: gray square
ego regardless of sex
seeking a mate within one's own group
endogamy
middle eastern food production arose in the context of four distinct but linked
environmental zones
what are the six majpr kinship systems
eskimo, hawaiian, iroquois, crow, omaha, and sudanese
the neandertals lived in
europe
because food production increased economic production and led to new social, scientific, and creatives forms it is often considered an
evolutionary afance
the primate ratio of brain size to body size ____ that of most mammals
exceeds
the principles of exchange are not mutually ___. in fact they all operate within out
exclusive/society
seeking a mate outside one's own group
exogamy
marriage is always a relationship based on exchange or refusal to exchange in cases of
exogamy and endogamy
a household that includes a group of relatives other than, or in addition to, a married couple and their children
expanded family household
in many societies, ___ are the primary unit of social organization
extended families
when an expanded family household included three or more generations
extended family household
neandertals face structure
face pulled forward and long broad noses
exchange with no expectation of immediate return
generalized reciprocity
who were the potential earliest hominins
genus ardipithecus: ardipithecus kadabba and ardipithecus ramidus
the species that are commonly understood to be the first hominins
genus australopithecus
have longer arms than legs, which is adaptive for brachiation and an arboreal lifestyle
gibbons
live in south asia, china, indonesia
gibbons
Major domesticated plants and animals in eastern united states
goosefoot, marsh elder, sunflower, squash
spend essentially all their time on the ground in large social groups (10-20 members)
gorillas
indicates that the australopiths in that category were slighter and less rugged, with smaller teeth and faces
gracile
primates have five digits on our feet and hands that are suited for
grasping
culture became something of an acquired characteristic, passed down directly and indirectly to one's offspring
group selection
shift from darwanian to increasingly lamarckian selection
group selection
lived from 1.9 mya to 400,000 bp
h. erectus
human-like but with very small brains
h. flor
lived from 95,000 to 12,000 BP
h. flor
what are the members of genus homo
h. habilis, h. erectus, h. heidelbergensis, neandertals, h. sapiens, denisovans, and h. floresiensis
the average gorilla adult female weights ____ as much as a male
hald
what are advantages of plant domestication in wild wheat and barley to domesticated ones
hard axis stays on the stalk, makes it easier to cut and transport brittle husks make it easier for people to break into-- makes it easier for people to access the grain
in the view of many scholars the people most likely to adopt a new subsistence strategy, such as cultivation would be those
having the hardest time maintaining their traditional subsistence base
the simplest classificatory system of kinship. In it, differences are distinguished by generation and by gender. There is a parental generation and a generation of children. In this system, a person (called Ego in anthropology) refers to all females of his parents' generation as "Mother" and all of the males as "Father". In the generation of children, all brothers and male cousins are referred to as "Brother", all sisters and female cousins as "Sister".
hawaiian kinship (generational system)
neandertals cranial morphology
heavy brow ridges, slanting foreheads, massive faces, large jaws
Social statification in early cities/states high- middle- low-
high- surplus takers middle- production organizers low- food producers
long ago the archeologist robert J Braidwood assumed that food production began in the -___ where wild grains were so abundant
hilly flanks at Jarmo
split into different ecological niches and their diets became specialized
hogopan
brain size has increased during ____ evolution
hominin
ancestors of humans and only humans
hominins
apes and humans
hominoids
tool use was most widespread and developed amongst the genus ___
homo
what is our genus
homo
by 300,000 bp h. erectus had evolved into _____ followed by neanderthals
homo heidelbergensis
some evolutionary lines were dead ends while other ultimately resulted in ____
homo sapien sapien
what species resulted in the split with chimpanzees and gorillas
homo sapien sapien
female chimps are roughly 88% the size of their male counterparts which is similar to the ratio of sexual dimorphism in
homo sapiens
species associated with upper paleolithic
homo sapiens sapiens
marrying people who are similar to you
homogamy
in forming taxonomies we strive to only use
homologies
the similarities used to assign organisms to the same taxon
homologies
the way we form groups based on kinshop depends on
how and where we live after we marry
the fact that many of our behavioral adaptations are found among other primates helps us make sense of many behaviors that appear to be distinctly
human
______ split off from chimp and gorilla ancestors about 6 mya
human ancestors
the discipline we call economics developed as part of ____ society, as a way of understanding how ___ and ___ are produced, distributed, and consumed in modern, cash-based market economies
industrial/ goods/ services
based on the machines and chemical processes (fuel), which make the development of manufacturing, mass production, and mechanization possible
industrialism
produces large, mobile, skilled, specialized, and educated labor forces
industrialism
we rely on our sense of touch, as conveyed by our tactical organs, to provide us with
information
distinguishes 'same-sex' and 'cross-sex' parental siblings: the brothers of Ego's father, and the sisters of Ego's mother, are referred to by the same parental kinship terms used for Ego's Father and Mother. The sisters of Ego's father, and the brothers of Ego's mother, on the other hand, are referred to by non-parental kinship terms, commonly translated into English as "Aunt" and "Uncle". The children of one's parents' same-sex siblings, i.e. parallel cousins, are referred to by sibling kinship terms. The children of Aunts or Uncles, i.e. cross cousins, are not considered siblings, and are referred to by kinship terms commonly translated into English as "cousin".
iroquois kinship
non- capitalist societies are falsely seen as
irrational
through the lens of classical economic theory potlatching is ___ and ___ because such a mindset is ____ and fails to consider alternative means and social functinos
irrational and wasteful/ ethnocentric
what also allowed for even larger surpluses
irrigation
what made it possible to live in large towns and cities on the alluvial plain, which had rich soils
irrigation
Kinship Symbols: |
is descended from
Kinship Symbols: = with slash in middle
is divorced from
Kinship Symbols: =
is married to
Kinship Symbols: |------|
is the sibiling of
believed labor links humans to the material world around us and is fundamentally social activity capitalism
karl marx
focused on the importance of human labor in transforming raw materials into desired products
karl marx
who identified the three principles of exchange
karl polanyi
bilateral kinship calculation
kin ties calculated equally through men and women
involves distinguishing between different varieties of relatedness, namely blood, marriage, and descent and it accounts for different forms of connection
kinship calculation
the system through which people in a society reckon kin relationships
kinship calculation
primates have relatively ___ brains compared to other mammals
large
once hominins adapted to the savanna it was adaptively advantegous for early homins to have
large back teeth with thicktooth enamal
Denition and diet
large molar size in correlation to diet; coarse gritty vegetation for heavy chewing on fibrous foods
characteristics of robust australopiths
large postcanine teeth incsiors and canines reduced flatter faces large chewing muscles
neandertals anatomy
large torso/short limb configuration
what is a gorillas diet
largely consists of green bulk vegetation
Haplorrhines tend to be ____ and Strepsirrhines tend to be _______ (size)
larger/smaller
middle eastern food production did begin in the
marginal areas
refers to the customs, rules, and obligations that establish a special relationship between sexually cohabiting adults, typically male and female, between them and any children they produce and between the kin of the spouses
marriage
our american nuclear families also tend to be
matrilaterally skewed
membership based on relatedness through female ancestors
matrilineal
Moving to the brides community children grow up in their mothers village
matrilocality
major productive resources, such as land (territory), labor, technology
means of production
what are the seven world areas where food production was invented independently
middle east, nothern china (yellow river), southern china (yangtze river corridor), Sub-Saharan Africa, Mesoamerica, Eastern United States
by 10,000 BP domesticates were an established part of the broad spectrum of resources used by
middle easterners
Major domesticated plants and animals in northern china (yellow river)
millet, dogs, pigs, and chicken
Sahelanthropus tchadensis live in
mixed environment
ways of organizing production, " a set of social relations through which labor is deployed to wrest energy from nature by means of tools, skills, organization, and knowledge"
mode of production
anatomy of h. erectus
modern body and limbs
different ____ are structured in ways that alter the character of what an individuals want, what they consider scarce or valuable, and how they can get the things they want
modes of production
we share a common ancestor with many __ and __ species
monkey and ape
we are more closely related to all species of ____ than we are to dogs, cats, kangaroos, or buffalo
monkeys
more phylogentic research on tarsiers has placed them with
monkeys and apes
even when polygyny is encouraged, most people tend to be
monogamous
the belief that people most likely to adopt a new subsistence strategy are those having the hardest time maintaining their traditional subsistence base suggest that those ancient Middle Easterners who lives in areas where wild foods were scarer would be
more likely to experiment with new subsistence strategies than people living in the favored zone
species associated with middle paleolithic
mousterian and neandertals
food production is believed to have began in
natufians
what has struck a balance betwen the structural demands of upright posture and tendency toward increased brain size
natural selection
the attempt to get something for nothing
negative reciprocity
the widespread transiton of human socieites from lifestyles based on foraging to lifestyles based on food production - farming and herding
neolithic revolution/agricultural revolution
living apart from relatives of the bride and groom
neolocality
all are arboreal and they brachiate through the trees
new world monkeys
live in the forests of central and south america
new world monkeys
nasal morphology/flatter noses
new world monkeys
since many live on the ground they have evolved to be larger, which is advantageous against terrestrial predators
new world monkeys
their size makes them quick and agile which helps them escape from arboreal predators like snakes and eagles
new world monkeys
they have prehensile tails
new world monkeys
they tend to be smaller which helps them reach a wider range of foods in trees and shrubs and allows them to move around on branches and tree limbs
new world monkeys
Did we evolve from monkeys?
no
Do we know for sure if Sahelanthropus tchadensis is a hominin
no
example of silent trade of the mbuti pygmy foragers
no personal contact during exhanges - a mbnuti hunter left game, honey, or another forest product at a customary site - villagers collected it and left crops in exchange often parties bargained silently if one felt the return was insufficient he or she simply left it at the trading site and if the other party wanted to continue trade, it was increased
Strepsirrhines tend to be Haplorrhines tend to be (sight)
nocturnal/diurnal
our nuclear families are marked by their reliance on
non kinship based institutions to survive
descent groups are more common in what economies
nonindustrial: horticultural, agricultural, pastoral
the names platyrrhines and catarrhines comes from latin terms describing
nostril placement
typical members are parents and their biological children ours is small and impermanent
nuclear family
animal domestication in sheeps and goats--> they were bred to be
smaller, more docile, and to be more efficient producers of wool, hair, milk, fat, and meat
Primates are among the ____ of all living things
smartest
as our brains devoted more real estate to our vision, that dedicated to ____ shrank
smell
the kula ring creates
social networks and marriage options
Strepsirrhines are ____ while Haplorrhines are ____
solitary/gregarious
Major domesticated plants and animals in sub-saharan Africa
sorghum, pearl millet, african rice cattle
Widower marries one of his deceased wifes sisters (or another woman from her group if a sister is not available)
sororate
Denisovans are from
southern siberia
by 7500 bp most middle easterners were moving away from broad spectrum foraging towards more
specialized food producing economies
Major domesticated plants and animals in Andean Region
squah, potato, quinoa, beans, camelids, llama, alpaca, guinea pigs
a form of social and political organization that has a formal, central government and a divison of society into social classes
state
the large surpluses and need of greater administration and oversight led to the emergence of the
state
the industrialism labor forces are controlled by ___ and employed by ____
states./firms
the kula ring reinforces
staus and authortity
apes have ____ vision
stereoscopic vision
tha ability to see in depth and see in color
stereoscopic vision
many species were aided in their competition with other species through their use of
stone tools
what is a chimps tool use?
stone tools to break up nuts put nuts on stump or large flat rock and then use a larger rock as an anvil
primates share ____ and ___ homologies that distinguish them from other mammal taxa like carnivores or rodents
structural and biochemical
in most human soceities the nuclear family is present but is
submerged within larger, more permanent groups
what are the alternative ends
subsistence, rent, replacement, social, ceremonial funds
most complicated of all kinship systems. It maintains a separate designation for almost every one of Ego's kin, based on their distance from Ego, their relation, and their gender. Ego's father is distinguished from Ego's father's brother and from Ego's mother's brother. Ego's mother is similarly distinguished from Ego's mother's sister and from Ego's father's sister. For cousins, there are eight possible terms.
sudanese kinship
what attempts to make sense of human origins just as accounts of divine creation do
theories of evolution
how are orangutans exceptional compared to other apes
they are far less social and often live in solitary existence
marriage is often a ____ ___ ___ between families and descent groups
system of alliances
Give examples of new world monkeys
tamarins, marmosets, etc
because strepsirrhines are nocturnal they have a ______which is a reflective film over their eyes that helps their nocturnal vision
tapetum
What is Haplorrhines two infraorders
tarsiers and simians
Examples of redistribution
taxation, pooling, tribute, etc
assign organisms to categories according to their relatedness and resemblance
taxonomies
are gorillas arboreal or terrestrial
terrestial
adavantages of bipedalism
the ability to see over long grass and scrub vegetation to carry items back to home base to reduce the bodys exposture to solar radiation
whats an example of endogamy
the caste system
what is catarrhines two superfamilies
the cercopithecoids and the hominoids
what encompassed the last stages of braod spectrum foraging
the era of seminomadic hunting and gathering
what were the evolutionary trends
the growing brains were accompained by related anatomical changes growing brains, birth canals, and bipedalism immature birth brains as hard drives
"Profit-oriented principle of exchange that dominates in states, particularly industrial states. Goods and services are bought and sold, and values are determined by supply and demand."
the market principle
Where and why did food production begin?
the middle east - the climate became warmer and moister and favored the expansion of wild plants and animals certain areas (the hilly flanks) became so rich in wild plants and animals that foragers could adopt sedentism
anthropoids
the monkeys and apes
related organims share many features inherited from
the same ancestor
What were the four great early river valley states of the old world
the tigris and euphrates rivers in mesopotamia, the nile river in egypt, the indus and ganges rivers in india/pakistan, and the yellow river in china
human children have a long period of childhood dependency becayse
their brains and skulls grow dramatically
How did Australopith's extinct
they were unable to survive under the competitive living circumstances of the time they were believed to have been overtaken by more efficient herbivores such as the gazelle, oryx, and the horse about . 1.4 mya
fire was used as a
tool
_____ displaced other hominin pushing them into drier, less diverse zones, and some ultimately to extinction
tool users
What is Sahelanthropus tchadensis nickname
toumai
in the rift valley who is the outlier
toumai
the vertical econmies allowed for ___ and what for foragers
trade and allowed foragers to follow game from zone to zone
polyandry restricts number of wives and heirs do that land is
transmitted with minimal fragmentation
