AP Environmental Science: The Atmosphere

1. a. Acidifcation of aquatic ecosystems b. Animals most susceptible: those with gills (fishes & aquatic insects) & those with thin skins (amphibians) c. Reduction in indicator species can eventually disrupt the food web d. Coral reef systems highly disrupted by acid deposition e. Terrestrial animals are not highly affected (maybe worms as exception)

1. What are the effects of acid precipitation on animals?

Smokestacks

A large tall chimney through which combustion gases and smoke can be evacuated

Ozone Layer

A layer in the stratosphere that contains a concentration of ozone sufficient to block most ultraviolet radiation from the sun

Keeling Curve

A plot of CO2 content of the atmosphere taken at the Mona Loa Observatory by NOAA (National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration) from 1958 to present

A. O3, Stratosphere B. UV radiation C. 1. Chlorofluorocarbons 2. Bromofluorocarbons D. depletion 1. thinning 2. Antarctica, revolution

A. Majority of __ lies within the ____________ B. Absorbs the majority of __ _________ from sunlight C. What are the Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS)? D. Appreciable ozone _________ through the 1970s and 1980s 1. Actually a ________ of the ozone layer, not a true "hole" 2. Most pronounced over __________ due to the __________ of Earth

A. troposphere

A. Most particulate matter is found within the ___________

A. acidic 1. CO2, carbonic acid 2. 6.5 B. 1. Rain 2. Snow 3. Sleet & hail 4. Fog (the most damaging because it lingers) C. 1. common 2. industrial, SO2, H2S a. sulfur-containing coal (bituminous) b. volcanism 3. S + O2 -> SO2 2SO2 + O2 -> 2SO3 SO3 + H2O -> H2SO4 (acid rain) D. 1. industrial, nitrogen oxides 2. automobiles 3. N2 + 2O -> 2NO (a combustion) NO + 1/2O2 -> NO2 2NO2 + H2O -> 2HNO3 (acid rain)

A. Normal rain is slightly ______ 1. Atmospheric diffusion of ___ creates _______ ____ (a very weak acid) 2. Typical pH range ~ ___ B. What varieties does acid precipitation come in? C. Sulfur-based precipitation 1. The most ______ 2. Due to __________ emissions of ___ and ___ gases a. Primarily from burning of what? b. Also includes _________ 3. What is the chemical reaction? D. Nitrogen-based precipitation 1. Some _________ from release of various ________ ______ 2. Primarily from exhaust of ___________ 3. What is the chemical reaction?

A. 12 1. 1/2 2. dense 3. weather, clouds 4. drops, drops a. reflected radiant heat from surface b. reflecting c. 1 atm 5. Tropopause

A. Troposphere (up to about __ miles from surface) 1. Comprises over ___ of the total atmosphere 2. Most _____ of the layers 3. Produces the Earth's _______ (including ______) 4. Temperature _____ with elevation in Troposphere; Air pressure _____ with elevation in Troposphere a. What is the troposphere is primarily heated by? b. Albedo is the __________ power of a surface c. What is standard pressure at sea level? 5. Upper boundary between troposphere and stratosphere is the __________

Ozone

An acrid-smelling, bluish gas that absorbs wavelengths such as ultraviolet radiation (UV)

Argon (Ar)

An inert gas

Kyoto Protocol (1997)

An international treaty that commits State parties to reduce GHG emissions to go into effect by 2005

Greenhouse gas (GHG)

Any gas that absorbs radiation and reemits it as heat

Free radical

Atom with an unpaired electron

B. 1. gray air smog 2. combustion, industrial 3. a. SO2, sulfuric acids b. solids, aerosols 4. a. 4 b. 4,000, 100,000 5. developed, environmental regulations a. smokestacks b. scrubbers 6. developing, lax, I.e., China, India, Ukraine

B. Industrial smog 1. Also called "____ ___ ____" due to its color 2. Occurs due to __________ and other __________ processes 3. Primarily involves: a. Release of ___ into lower atmosphere (which can produce ________ ____) b. Suspended ______ (________) 4. The Great London Smog of 1952 a. Severe event of gray-air smog lasting _ days b. Resulted in about ____ deaths and ______ respiratory illnesses 5. Tends to be a minor problem in _________ countries due to ____________ __________ a. Higher ___________ b. Variety of _________ 6. Still a problem in __________ areas and those areas with ___ regulations (what are some examples?)

Carbon neutral

Carbon input = carbon output

CH4

Naturally occuring due to decomposition; amount greatly increased by flatulence of livestock and leakage of natural gas; greenhouse absorption is 24X greater than CO2 per unit; Clathrate Gun Hypothesis

Nitrous oxide (N2O)

Naturally occurring due to decomposition; increased amounts due to burning of fossil fuels (i.e., gasoline); greenhouse absorption is 360X greater than CO2 per unit

CO2

Naturally occurring; amount greatly increased by combustion of fossil fuels and deforestation; primary culprit in global climate change

Oxygen (O2 & O3)

Responsible for aerobic respiration

Stratosphere

Second layer of the atmosphere (from 12 miles to 31 miles above surface)

Mesosphere

Third layer of the atmosphere (typically 30 miles to 53 miles)

Aerosols

Tiny solid particles suspended in the atmosphere

Stratopause

Upper boundary between stratosphere and mesosphere

CO2, H20 vapor, CH4, Nitrous oxide (N2O), Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

What are the common GHGs in the atmosphere?

c. subtropical deserts, droughts

c. Expansion of ___________ _______ due to increased _______

Scrubbers

Chemically convert or physically remove pollutants before they leave smokestacks

NItrogen (N2)

Dilutes oxygen and prevents combustion; largest sink of nitrogen

Clathrate

Frozen methane found on the ocean floor and in polar ice

1 atm

Standard pressure at sea level

2. a. 0.3, 1.7 b. 2.6, 4.8

2. A dire forecast a. Current models indicate that surface temperatures are likely to rise a further ___ to ___ degrees Celsius for the lowest emissions scenario b. and rise ___ to ___ degrees Celsisus without any severe action

2. a. Destruction of protective cuticle (leads to susceptibility to fungal infections) b. Disruption of photosynthesis c. Evergreens (conifers) seem most susceptible

2. What are the effects of acid precipitation on plants?

3. a. Primarily cause structural damage to man-made objects b. Architecture & Art: limestone and marble react heavily with acidification CaCO3 + H2SO4 -> CaSO4 + H2O + CO2 *Note: soils made of non-carbonaceous particles are likely to not be susceptible

3. What are the effects of acid precipitation on humans?

a. Rise in sea levels b. Alteration of local and global weather patterns c. Expansion of subtropical deserts due to increased droughts d. Spread of disease e. Acidification of ocean as increased H2CO3 occurs due to more dissolved CO2 in a warmer water f. Lowering of biodiversity worldwide as habitats change

3. What are the potential effects of global warming of the atmosphere?

A. 1. brown air smog 2. sunlight 3. nitrogen oxides, NOx a. NO b. 2NO + O2 -> 2NO2 a. NO2, nitric acid, acid precipitation b. NO2, UV, NO, oxygen i. NO2 -> NO + O ii. oxygen, O2, low atmosphere ozone, O3 4. respiratory irritant 5. density 6. longer, hotter 7. large, warmer, vehicles a. Los Angeles, Denver, Salt Lake City b. Mexico City c. Sydney d. Sao Paulo, Buenos Aires

A. Photochemical smog 1. Also called "_____ ___ ____" due to its color 2. Occurs due to photochemical reactions as ________ drives certain chemical reactions to occur 3. Primarily involves ________ ______ (___) in the atmosphere a. Car exhaust creates __ which enters the atmosphere b. What is the first equation? (a brownish gas) a. Some ___ will be converted into ______ ____ (and form ___ ____________) b. Some ___ will be induced by __ to create __ and ______ i. What is this equation? ii. The single ______ atom can react with __ to form ___ __________ _____ (__) 4. Photochemical smog acts as a ___________ ________ 5. Due to _______, tends to hang above cities 6. Will be greater on ______, ______ days 7. A greater problem in _____ cities (in ______ climates) with lots of ________ a. USA? b. Mexico? c. Australia? d. South America?

A. 2, 5, higher B. indoor, cancers C. energy-efficient, increased D. 1. Cigarette smoke 2. Formaldehyde 3. Radon gas emissions E. 1. Asbestos fibers 2. Carbon monoxide fumes 3. Pesticides tracked into house from outside F. 1. health, comfort 2. cannot 3. molds, ozone, viruses, volatile organic compounds, lack of fresh air 4. office

A. Pollutant concentrations are often _-_ times ______ indoors than outdoors B. EPA determined that ______ air pollution was a significant factor in the development of many _______ C. The use of ________________ homes (tighter windows and seals) has greatly _________ the concentration of indoor air pollutants D. What are the top 3 indoor air pollutants? E. What are other air pollutants? F. Sick Building Syndrome 1. Occurrence in which building occupants tend to experience acute ______ and _______ effects 2. Causal factors ______ be quantifiably verified 3. What does it include? 4. Prominent in ______ buildings

B. 12, 31 1. prevailing winds 2. convection, turbulence 3. Ozone Layer (O3) a. Ozone, Ultraviolet radiation (UV) b. UV, kinetic energy, temperature c. UV i. Protects plants from interruption of photosynthesis ii. Protects animals from skin cancers, sunburns, and cataracts iii. Prevents atmospheric oxygen in troposphere from being converted into ozone d. increases 4. clouds 5. low 6. Stratopause

B. Stratosphere (from __ miles to __ miles above surface) 1. Heavily influenced by __________ _____ 2. Little __________ occurs (which leads to little __________ when flying) 3. Contains the _____ _____ (__) a. _____ is an acrid-smelling, bluish gas that absorbs wavelengths such as ___________ _________ ____ b. __ absorption increases _______ ______ within the layer, increasing its ___________ c. Greatly reduces the amount of __ incident at Earth's surface What does this protect against? d. Temperature _________ with altitude in the Stratosphere 4. Some high altitude ______ may occur in layer 5. Atmosphere density is ___, this layer is the typical upper boundary at which man-made craft can fly 6. Upper boundary between stratosphere and mesosphere is the ___________

Montreal Protocol

Banned many ODSs

C. 1. winds 2. Hills, mountains 3. Higher, brown-air smog D. 1. Precipitation 2. Winds, turbulence E. 1. warm, cool, mixing 2. higher

C. Factors that can increase smog in an area? 1. Large urban buildings can reduce _____ within the city 2. _____ and _________ can reduce winds rurally 3. ______ temperatures will increase production of _________ ____ D. Factors that can decrease smog in an area 1. _____________ can "pull" particulates out of the atmosphere 2. _____ will distribute the pollution and dilute it (especially __________) E. Temperature Inversion 1. Phenomenon in which a layer of ____ air lies atop a layer of ____ air, preventing ______ 2. Causes ______ concentrations of pollutants closer to the surface

C. 30, 53 1. decreases *coldest 2. burn, frictional heating 3. sprites

C. Mesosphere (typically __ miles to __ miles) 1. Temperature _________ with altitude within the mesosphere *Upper mesosphere is the _______ area of the Earth's atmosphere 2. Most meteors and other space objects ____ up in the mesosphere (due to __________ _______) 3. Occasional electrical discharges (lightning) occur called "_______"

C. life 1. -18, 15 2. greenhouse gases

C. Natural greenhouse effect is necessary for ____ on Earth 1. Estimated that Earth's surface temperature would be ___ degrees Celsius (rather than average __ degrees Celsius in reality) 2. Global warming refers to the excessive warming effect that occurs due to abnormally high concentrations of __________ _____

C. 1. a. refrigerants, aerosol propellants, Freon b. free radical, ozone, diatomic oxygen i. CCl3F -> CCl2F + Cl- ***Cl- is a free radical that is highly reactive ii. Cl- + O3 -> ClO + O2 iii. ClO + O3 -> Cl- + 2O2 c. lengthy 2. Bromofluorocarbons

C. Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS) 1. Chlorofluorocarbons a. Group of industrial organic halides used primarily as ____________, _______ ___________, and in dry cleaning chemicals (I.e., _____) b. Creates a ____ _______ reaction that breaks _____ down into ________ ______ What is the equation? c. A single molecule of CFC can remain in the atmosphere for _______ periods 2. _________________ also do the same thing

N2 + 2O -> 2NO (a combustion) NO + 1/2O2 -> NO2 2NO2 + H2O -> 2HNO3 (acid rain)

Chemical reaction of nitrogen-based precipitation

S + O2 -> SO2 2SO2 + O2 -> 2SO3 SO3 + H2O -> H2SO4 (acid rain)

Chemical reaction of sulfur-based precipitation

D. 1. rising, industrial development a. CO2, NOAA, National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration b. rising, proportional c. 90, GHGs, human d. 1, polar

D. Potential Climate Change due to GHGs in the atmosphere 1. The amount of CO2 is steadily ______ due to _________ ___________ a. The Keeling Curve is a plot of ___ content of the atmosphere taken at the Mona Loa Observaatory by ____ (________ ____________ ___ ___________ ______________) from 1958 to present b. The mean atmospheric temperature is ______ at a ____________ rate c. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (UN) reported in 2010 that it was __% certain that most of global warming was being caused by increases concentrations of ____ due to ______ influences d. The average temperature of the atmosphere has risen almost _ degree Celsius (which has the greatest effect upon _____ areas)

D. 56, 600 1. space, ISS, low-altitude satellites 2. dense 3. X-ryas, UV rays a. increase b. 2000 c. rises d. hotter 4. solar winds, auroras, ionosphere

D. Thermosphere (typically __ miles to ___ miles above Earth's surface) 1. Technically considered "_____"; the ___ and ____________ _________ orbit within the Thermosphere 2. Not very _____ 3. Particular absorption of ______ and __ _____ occur in this layer a. Results in great ________ of temperature b. Temperatures may reach ____ degrees Celsius in upper reaches c. Temperature _____ with altitude in this layer d. Daylight temperatures will be ______ than night temperatures 4. Significant interaction with particles such as the _____ _____ to create phenomena such as _______ within the "__________" portion

E. 1. fossil fuels a. GHG i. 190 ii. 191 1. a. Afghanistan b. Southern Sudan c. Andorra d. Vatican City e. Taiwan f. United States iii. Doha Agreement 2. deforestation, trees 3. meat-eating 4. alternative technologies, carbon footprint

E. Mitigation 1. Decrease the use of ______ _____ a. Kyoto Protocol (1997) was an international treaty that commits State parties to reduce ___ emissions to go into effect by 2005 i. Currently ___ parties ii. Originally signed by ___ countries (Canada has since withdrawn as of 2012) 1. What countries did NOT ratify the protocol? iii. ____ _________ was suggested in 2012 but failed 2. Decrease the _____________ of global _____ 3. Reduce growing transition of cultures to ___________ 4. Switch to __________ __________ to reduce ______ _________

E. 1. Reduction of use of CFCs (i.e., alternative products) 2. Reduction of use of aerosols (I.e., alternative products) 3. Stricter regulations concerning the disposal of air conditioners, refrigerators, etc. 4. Montreal Protocol 5. We have seen some leveling off of the depletion; ozone will replenish itself if given time

E. What are the methods of mitigation for ozone depletion?

F. 1. Northeastern US, coal-burning 2. Eastern Canada, due to prevailing weather patterns out of US

F. Misc. of Acid Precipitation and Deposition 1. Biggest problem in ____________ __ (due to predominance of ____________ facilities) 2. Larger problem for _______ ______ (why?) *International dispute over compensation

Thermosphere

Fourth layer of the atmosphere (typically 56 miles to 600 miles above Earth's surface)

G. 1. Reduction in asbestos-containing products 2. Increase venting of fresh air 3. Increase use of exhaust hoods 4. Place office machines in well-vented areas 5. Create a radon barrier 6. Stricter standards for formaldehyde, etc. 7. Improve filtering technology*

G. What are methods of mitigation for indoor air pollution?

G. 1. Reduction in burning of sulfur-based coal 2. Addition of scrubbers and smokestacks 3. Catalytic converters on car exhausts (now mandatory) 4. Reduction in cars/fuel/miles driven

G. What are the methods for mitigation of acid precipitation?

Clathrate Gun Hypothesis

Higher ocean temperatures can melt clathrate, releasing CH4 into the atmosphere, greatly adding the GHG and further increasing the greenhouse effect

Water vapor (H2O)

Highly variable; a notable greenhouse gas

H2O vapor

Naturally occurring; primary influence on natural greenhouse effect; greenhouse absorption is several times that of CO2 per unit; man cannot significantly alter the abundance of water vapor in the atmosphere due to precipitation

Sprites

Occasional electrical discharges (lightning) that occur in the mesosphere

Sick Building Syndrome

Occurence in which building occupants tend to experience acute health and comfort effects

Industrial smog (gray air smog)

Occurs due to combustion and other industrial processes

Photochemical smog (brown air smog)

Occurs due to photochemical reactions as sunlight drives certain chemical reactions to occur

Temperature inversion

Phenomenon in which a layer of warm air lies atop a layer of cool air which prevents mixing, causing higher concentrations of pollutants closer to the surface

Global warming

Refers to the excessive warming effect that occurs due to abnormally high concentrations of greenhouse gases

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Responsible for photosynthesis and high impact on greenhouse effect

The Great London Smog of 1952

Severe event of gray-air smog lasting 4 days that resulted in about 4,000 deaths and 100,000 respiratory illnesses

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

Synthetic gas used in refrigerants and some plastic foams; although a greater threat to ozone depletion, does hold significant energy from radiant heat; greenhouse absorption is 1000s of times greater than CO2 per unit

Ice calving

The breaking of ice chunks from the edge of a glacier

Ross Ice Shelf

The largest ice shelf of Antarctica

Troposphere

The lower atmosphere (up to about 12 miles from surface)

Greenhouse Effect

The natural warming of the atmosphere due to the differential absorption of radiant energy by a variety of greenhouse gases

Albedo

The reflecting power of a surface

Carbon footprint

The total carbon dioxide emissions produced by an individual, group, or location

Exosphere

The upper layer of the atmosphere which has no set boundary

Neon, Helium, Krypton

Trace gases

Tropopause

Upper boundary between troposphere and stratosphere

Catalytic converters

Used in a car to convert toxins such as CO, NO, NO2 and hydrocarbons to harmless gases, like nitrogen and carbon dioxide

A. Troposphere B. Stratosphere C. Mesosphere D. Thermosphere E. Exosphere

What are the layers of the atmosphere?

a. i. Thermal expansion ii. global ice, polar ice caps, glaciers 1. Greenland, Antarctica a. Ross Ice Shelf, Antarctica, calving b. Greenland 2. lower, more 3. Positive feedback loop, increases 4. a. methane b. GHG, greenhouse effect iii. 3 iv. 1. Loss of shoreline (environmental and economic problems) including displacement of over 1/2 of the world's population 2. Lowering of salinity of ocean and effect upon biodiversity 3. Interruption of the Great Ocean Conveyer Belt and subsequent cooling of Europe

a. Rise in sea levels i. _______ _________ of water ii. Melting of ______ ___ (_____ ___ ____, retreat of ________, etc) 1. Especially _________ and __________ a. ____ ___ _____ (__________) has reported large incidents of ice _______ occur b. _________ now has exposed ground that has not been uncovered in millennia 2. Will _____ Earth's albedo (soil absorbs ____ heat than ice) 3. _______ ________ ____ that further _________ heat retention 4. Clathrate Gun Hypothesis a. Clathrate is frozen _______ found on the ocean floor and in polar ice b. Higher ocean temperatures can melt clathrate, releasing CH4 into the atmosphere, greatly adding the ___ and further increasing the _________ ______ iii. Currently increasing at _ mm per year iv. What may this result in?

b. i. weather phenomena, tropical storms, hurricanes, typhoons, tornadoes, droughts ii. growing seasons, food production

b. Alteration of local and global weather patterns i. Higher incidence of extreme _______ _________ (________ ______, __________ & ________, _________, ________) all of which we are currently experiencing at a higher incidence than at any other time in recorded history ii. Some areas may become more conducive to longer _______ _______ (and an increase in ____ __________)

d. i. Warmer ii. deases, Yellow Fever, Malaria, Encephalitis

d. Spread of diease i. ______ climates may allow for disease vectors (such as __________) to extend their range ii. Results in wider range of ________ such as ______ _____, _______, ____________, etc.