AP Euro Midterm

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The Scientific Revolution overturned the accepted ideas of which of the following? A) Aristotle B) Vesalius C) Copernicus D) Galileo E) Euclid

English entrepreneurs financed the establishment of New World colonies primarily through A) subsidies and loans from the royal family B) private funds from the creation of joint-stock companies C) investment funds from European national banks D) profits received from pirate activities and attacks on Spanish fleets E) money and materials borrowed from the Dutch

All of the following were common subjects of Italian Renaissance works of art EXCEPT A) equestrian statues B) nude figures C) portraits D) figures from mythology E) peasant life

In addition to the conquest of the last Muslim outpost in Spain at Granada and Columbus' voyage to the Americas, which of the following occurred in 1492 ? A) Isabella of Castile married Ferdinand of Aragon. B) Portugal was united with Spain. C) The Spanish defeated the Turks at Lepanto. D) The plague broke out in Spain. E) The Jewish population was expelled from Spain.

Rene Descartes and Francis Bacon contributed to scientific development in the seventeenth century by A) making observations of planetary movements B) perfecting the metric system C) conducting experiments about gravitational forces D) introducing logarithms E) articulating theories of the scientific method

Which of the following is an accurate characterization of England in the period 1688-1715 ? A) A Puritan theocracy B) An absolute monarchy C) A democracy practicing religious toleration D) A merchant republic increasingly under Dutch dominance E) A constitutional monarchy controlled by an aristocratic oligarchy

Sixteenth- and seventeenth-century European political leaders generally viewed religious toleration as A) leading to dangerous civil disorder B) resulting in economic prosperity C) restricted to Christians and Jews D) commanded by God in the Bible E) promoted by Protestant denominations

Which of the following was the most important factor behind the Price Revolution of the sixteenth century? A) Steady population growth and rising food costs B) The massive emigration of Europeans to the New World C) The militarization of society and massive war taxes D) Governmental control of the economy E) The rapid growth of manufacturing and the depopulation of the countryside

https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/media.academicmerit.com/7ba7b95e5b793e5b53566663b934730a/original.png (Copy and paste image address to see the picture!) The image provides the most reliable information about which of the following? A) European attitudes toward non-European peoples B) Stylistic features of Native American art and artifacts C) The exact geographic location of Columbus' first landing in America D) The willingness of Native Americans to welcome the arrival of Europeans

"And so, my dear brothers, if we are to rise up out of this mire and become true pupils of God, taught by God himself (John 6, Matthew 23),* we will need the vast resources of his strength, sent down to us from above, in order to punish unspeakable wickedness . . . Therefore, my dearest, most revered rulers, learn true judgment from the mouth of God himself. Do not let yourself be seduced by your hypocritical priests into a restraint based on counterfeit clemency and kindness. . . . Now if you are to be true rulers, you must seize the very roots of government, following the command of Christ. Drive his enemies away from the elect; you are the instruments to do this. My friend, don't let us have any of this lame posing about the power of God achieving everything without resort to your sword . . . Do not, therefore, allow the evil-doers, who may turn us away from God, to continue living (Deuteronomy 13),* for a godless man has no right to live if he is hindering the pious. . . . Hence the sword, too, is necessary to eliminate the godless (Romans 13).* To ensure, however, that this proceeds in a fair and orderly manner, our revered fathers, the princes, who with us confess Christ, should carry it out. But if they do not carry it out, the sword will be taken from them. . . . For the godless have no right to live, unless by the sufferance of the elect, as is written in the book of Exodus, chapter 23."* The political support by various German princes for Luther and the Protestant Reformation is best explained by which of the following? A) The difficulty princes faced in dealing with social dislocations resulting from growing cities B) The desire of many princes to more strictly regulate public morals C) The opportunity religious conflict gave the princes to challenge the authority of the pope and Habsburgs D) The fears created by the rise in accusations of witchcraft across Germany

C Some princes in Germany, unhappy under Habsburg rule, saw popular support for Lutheranism as a way to gain popular support for more political autonomy and/or power for themselves. However, they rejected calls for overturning the social order advanced by more radical Protestant preachers (including Müntzer) during the Peasants' War.

"Religion supplies the pretext and gold the motive." This statement was a contemporary characterization of A) the launching of the Spanish Armada B) the execution of Charles I C) the posting of the Ninety-five Theses D) new religious orders such as the Ursulines and Jesuits E) Spanish and Portuguese expansion in the New World

"And so, my dear brothers, if we are to rise up out of this mire and become true pupils of God, taught by God himself (John 6, Matthew 23),* we will need the vast resources of his strength, sent down to us from above, in order to punish unspeakable wickedness . . . Therefore, my dearest, most revered rulers, learn true judgment from the mouth of God himself. Do not let yourself be seduced by your hypocritical priests into a restraint based on counterfeit clemency and kindness. . . . Now if you are to be true rulers, you must seize the very roots of government, following the command of Christ. Drive his enemies away from the elect; you are the instruments to do this. My friend, don't let us have any of this lame posing about the power of God achieving everything without resort to your sword . . . Do not, therefore, allow the evil-doers, who may turn us away from God, to continue living (Deuteronomy 13),* for a godless man has no right to live if he is hindering the pious. . . . Hence the sword, too, is necessary to eliminate the godless (Romans 13).* To ensure, however, that this proceeds in a fair and orderly manner, our revered fathers, the princes, who with us confess Christ, should carry it out. But if they do not carry it out, the sword will be taken from them. . . . For the godless have no right to live, unless by the sufferance of the elect, as is written in the book of Exodus, chapter 23."* Müntzer's appeal to the princes to overthrow the political order is best explained by which of the following developments? A) The increasing use of Luther's religious ideas to challenge political authority B) The abandonment of the Catholic Church's efforts to reassert authority over the German states C) The increasing threat the expanding Ottoman Empire posed to the Holy Roman Empire D) The acceptance of religious pluralism in some states in northern Europe after the Reformation

A Luther's religious ideas, in challenging the authority of the Catholic Church, led some of his followers to believe that the political order of Europe, which was supported by the Church, should be challenged as well.

"I may well presume, most Holy Father, that certain people, as soon as they hear that in this book I assert the Earth moves, will cry out that, holding such views, I should at once be hissed off the stage. Many centuries have consented to the establishment of the contrary judgment, namely that the Earth is placed immovably as the central point in the middle of the universe . . . How I came to dare to conceive such motion of the Earth, contrary to the received opinion of the mathematicians and indeed contrary to the impression of the senses, is what your Holiness will expect to hear. So I should like your Holiness to know that I was led to think of a method of computing the motions of the spheres by nothing else than the knowledge that the mathematicians are inconsistent in these investigations. . . . I therefore took pains to read again the works of all the philosophers whose works I could find to seek out whether any of them had ever supposed that the motions of the spheres were other than those demanded by the mathematical schools. I found first in Cicero* that Hicetas* had realized that the Earth moved. Afterwards I found in Plutarch* that certain others had held the same opinion." Which of the following later developments would best support Copernicus' claim regarding the motion of the spheres? A) Galileo's observations of sunspots as well as craters on the moon B) Newton's research into optical refraction C) Kepler's formulation of the laws of planetary motion D) Brahe's assertion that novas were not comets, but in fact newly visible stars

C Copernicus states that Earth is not stationary, but revolves around the Sun, contrary to the common belief of most of his contemporaries that Earth was the center of the universe and that everything revolved around it. Copernicus constructed a heliocentric (sun-centered) model of the solar system, which was later modified by Johannes Kepler after careful observation of planetary motions. Kepler's laws of planetary motion would establish a precise mathematical basis for predicting the orbits of the planets, including Earth, around the Sun.

Religious change in the seventeenth-century Netherlands led to A) a great vitality in intellectual and artistic life B) an emphasis on decorative rather than fine arts C) a rebirth of fresco painting in the churches D) the exclusion of women artists from portrait painting E) the establishment of official censorship to purge Catholic influences from the arts

https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/VH900644.g03.png (Copy and paste the image address to see the picture!) The graph most strongly indicates which of the following about the likelihood of those accused of witchcraft being executed in the period 1550 to 1700 ? A) The likelihood of those accused of witchcraft being executed remained approximately the same throughout the period. B) The likelihood of those accused of witchcraft being executed increased significantly after 1600. C) The likelihood of those accused of witchcraft being executed was higher in periods where the number of accusations was increasing. D) The likelihood of those accused of witchcraft being executed was significantly lower after the end of the Thirty Years' War.

A Although the number of prosecutions and executions varied, the rate at which those accused of witchcraft were actually executed stays approximately the same. A close examination of the graph reveals that less than half of those accused were executed, a ratio that stays roughly the same throughout the period.

The following question refers to the topic of new political theories and monarchies in the Renaissance. In which of the following ways did monarchs in the 1400s and 1500s seek to create more centralized states? A) By curbing the traditional power of the nobility to administer justice B) By establishing new representative assemblies C) By redistributing land to poor peasants D) By encouraging the expansion of militias and local defense forces

A Monarchs in the 1400s and 1500s were able to consolidate power and create more centralized states by taking away some of the power held by the nobility in feudal systems of government. The nobility had the right to administer justice in territory that they controlled in feudal governments, and when monarchs took that right away, those monarchs were more easily able to unite a country under a uniform set of laws.

Portuguese commercial expansion overseas in the sixteenth century resulted in A) military conflicts with Arab explorers over the religious conversion of indigenous peoples B) seizure of Muslim coastal forts to serve as Portuguese trading posts and military bases C) the discovery of the Christian ruler of Ethiopia, Prester John D) the sacking of Istanbul by Portuguese explorers E) the destruction of the Dutch East India Company

Renaissance humanism drew its main inspiration from A) religious asceticism B) classical languages and literature C) the curricula of medieval universities D) political reforms of the Holy Roman Empire E) the ideas of Dante's Inferno

Which of the following explorers, sailing under the flag of Portugal, reached the west coast of India in 1498 after rounding the Cape of Good Hope and crossing the Indian Ocean? A) John Cabot B) Vasco da Gama C) Bartolomeu Dias D) Amerigo Vespucci E) Ferdinand Magellan

Martin Luther initially criticized the Roman Catholic church on the grounds that it A) supported priests as religious teachers B) sponsored translations of the Bible into vernacular languages C) reduced the number of sacraments D) used indulgences as a fund-raising device E) formed close associations with secular rulers

Which of the following best describes the French Edict of Nantes (1598) ? A) It provided limited political and religious liberties for French Huguenots. B) It signaled the end of French territorial expansion for a century. C) It led to the establishment of French colonies in North America. D) It granted legal equality to all classes in France, E) It led to fifty years of violent peasant rebellions.

The following question refers to the topic of new monarchies. The development of new monarchies in the 1400s and 1500s occurred at the same time as the growth in power and influence of A) merchant and professional groups B) the peasantry C) the traditional aristocracy D) members of religious orders

A Most areas in western Europe saw a growth in the power and influence of merchant and professional groups (such as lawyers). In many cases, new monarchs sought the support of these groups as they expanded their own authority.

Image 1: Jan Steen, Dutch painter, The Burgher of Delft and his Daughter, 1655 https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/VH950189.g09.png The portrait most likely depicts the corn merchant Adolf Croeser and his daughter, Catharina. The burgher hears the plea of a begging widow and her son. Image 2: Jan Steen, Dutch painter, The Dissolute Household, 1663-1664 https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/VH950189.g10.png (Copy and paste the image address(es) to see the picture(s)!) Concern over which of the following best explains Steen's decision to portray The Dissolute Household as shown in image 2 ? A) The effects of conflicts between Catholics and Protestants in the Netherlands B) The effects of Dutch material prosperity on morality in the Netherlands C) The effects of constitutional rule on traditional hierarchies in the Netherlands D) The effects of cultural interactions with trading partners in Asia and Africa

B In The Dissolute Household, Steen shows a Dutch merchant household succumbing to the dangers of excessive luxury (a theme Steen treated in other paintings as well). He shows unattended children and pets causing mischief, a messy room strewn with clothing, food, and refuse, and evidence of gambling and overindulgence in food and alcohol. Steen's choice of such imagery was most likely influenced by a concern that Dutch material prosperity could lead to moral decline.

https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/media.academicmerit.com/b53ffe33b167af9c0b5e8c302afe2007/original.png (Copy and paste the image address to see the picture!) According to the map above, during the eighteenth century, Russia expanded in Europe primarily by gaining territory from A) Austria B) the Ottoman Empire C) Poland D) Prussia E) Sweden

The following question refers to the topic of new monarchies. In 1558 Queen Elizabeth issued a decree that attempted to restrict and control the manner of preaching and religious teachings in England. Her action best represents which of the following? A) Efforts to strengthen the central government by curbing the power of the aristocracy B) Cultural changes as a result of contact with non-European societies during the voyages of exploration C) Growing secularization in political philosophy as influenced by Machiavelli and other writers D) Monarchical reforms designed to give governments greater control over religion and morality

D Elizabeth's attempt to restrict preaching was a clear example of monarchs attempting to take more control over religion in their states. Lessening religious conflict was an important goal for Elizabeth and other new monarchs of early modern Europe.

The Edict of Nantes issued by Henry IV of France did which of the following? A) Recognized the rights of French Protestants. B) Made public the king's conversion to Roman Catholicism. C) Settled the Bourbons on the French throne. D) Ordered the Spanish out of France. E) Announced French entry into the war between the Spanish and the Dutch.

Which of the following is true of the German Peasants' Revolt of 1524-1525 ? A) The revolt led to the emancipation of the German serfs. B) The revolt was organized by Martin Luther to break papal power in the German states. C) The peasants were supported by French armies during the revolt. D) The revolt was the first in Europe in which economic egalitarianism was a major rallying point. E) The revolt resulted from a combination of new religious ideas and peasant demands

Image 1 Raphael, Italian artist, Portrait of Pope Julius II, 1511 : https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/VH944850.g03.png Image 2 Raphael, Italian artist, portrait of Heraclitus of Ephesus, an ancient Greek philosopher, part of a larger painting called The School of Athens, 1511 : https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/VH944850.g04.png (Copy and Paste the image addresses to see the pictures!) The portrait of Heraclitus best reflects which of the following features of the Italian Renaissance? A) The challenge to the power of universities B) The continued interest in religious themes C) The revival of interest in classical works D) The development of Christian humanism

C During the Renaissance, humanist thought became prominent among writers and artists. Raphael's portrait of Heraclitus is an example of humanist interest in classical works and thinkers.

A Louis XIV, with his centralization of state power through increased taxation, creation of large standing armies, and pursuit of military conquests, is associated with the rise of absolutist monarchy in the seventeenth century.

The following question refers to the topic of economic developments in the 1700s. Which of the following best explains the increase in food supply in Europe in the 1700s? A) The increase in the urban population of Europe B) The development of early forms of factory-based mass production C) The migration of Europeans to overseas colonies D) The transfer of plant species from the Americas to Europe

D During the 1700s many New World crops became mainstays in European diets. Crops like potatoes, corn, tomatoes, and others were adopted by Europeans over wide areas of the continent. In many instances, these crops could be grown on marginal land not suited to the production of European staple crops such as wheat. The volume of versatile new food crops created increased food supplies across much of Europe.

"He desired glory and excellence beyond that of anyone else. He showed favor to vernacular poetry and all the fine arts. Under him the city was not free, but it would have been impossible for it to have had a better or more pleasing tyrant." The passage above most accurately describes A) Lorenzo de' Medici B) John Calvin C) William of Orange D) Frederick William I E) Philip II

Which of the following affected the status of women during the Reformation? A) The suppression of nunneries and the institution of a married clergy B) Papal agreement allowing the ordination of women C) Permission from secular rulers permitting women to own property D) The abolition of primogeniture and the institution of equal inheritance for men and women E) The establishment of equal access to education for men and women

Advocates of northern humanism believed which of the following? A) The fusion of Christian and Classical ideals provides the best definition of virtuous conduct. B) The conventions of romantic love enhance social respect for women. C) Education and scholarship should be equally open to men and women. D) The new poetic forms, such as the sonnet, could be used to articulate their beliefs. E) Political rights should be extended to all men.

https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/VH902041.g05.png (Copy and Paste the image address to see the picture) Two female figures representing peace and plenty look into a mirror held by an angel. The woman in armor next to the mirror represents Bellona, the Roman goddess of war and victory. Figures representing war lie prostrate in the foreground. The text below reads: "Thus Peace sends forth her horn of plenty, her favors through the [Holy Roman] Empire, Spain, and France. The kings stand united, and the people are obedient under you, o great Philip [Philip IV, King of Spain], and your flourishing race. Soon war will perish and the former age will shake off all evils, and give way to a golden age." The artist's statement that the kings of France, Spain, and the Holy Roman Empire "stand united" most clearly suggests that A) he hoped the Peace of Westphalia would bring the rival Catholic powers back together B) he wanted dynastic conflicts between the Habsburgs and rival royal houses to resume C) he saw all of the major European powers as collapsing under the strain of the conflict D) he thought rulers of Europe needed to stand together against the expanding Ottoman Empire

A During the Thirty Years' War, France, a Catholic power, had sided with Sweden, a Protestant power, against the Catholic Habsburg rulers of Spain and the Holy Roman Empire. Hollar's phrasing suggests the hope that the major Catholic rulers would put aside their differences now that peace had been concluded.

Demographic changes in late sixteenth- and early seventeenth-century Europe contributed to A) state budget surpluses B) price inflation and a decrease in real wages C) greater equity in patterns of land ownership D) market agriculture and a decline in commerce E) higher population densities in eastern Europe than in western Europe

One of the main aims of the reforms in Russia under Peter the Great (1689-1725) was to make high social status more dependent on A) aristocratic lineage B) service to the state C) wealth D) ethnic origin E) membership in the Orthodox Church

The political strength of the Medici family in Florence was initially based on A) a close alliance with the papacy B) the influence and wealth of their bank C) the support of the lower classes D) the support of a powerful citizen militia E) their tenure in various municipal offices

The following question refers to the topic of new monarchies. In which of the following ways did new monarchs such as Queen Elizabeth of England move to centralize government authority in the 1500s and 1600s? A) By granting more power to the nobility B) By monopolizing taxation and the use of military force C) By recognizing the pope as the leader of Christian Europe D) By allowing religious diversity within their states

B By creating standing armies with regular pay, financed by improved taxation which allowed for greater state expenditure, monarchs were able to reduce their dependence on the aristocracy for military service and financial backing during this period.

The following question refers to the topic of the Northern Renaissance. Like those of the Italian Renaissance, the ideas of the Northern Renaissance were strongly influenced by humanists' interest in A) New World cultures B) classical antiquity C) medieval theology D) democratic reform

B Humanism is the school of thought that focuses more on the achievement of humans and finds interest in the works of ancient Romans and Greeks. The Northern Renaissance artists and thinkers shared many beliefs with their Italian humanist counterparts, and humanists received inspiration for many of their works from classical antiquity.

The following question refers to the topic of new political theories and monarchies in the Renaissance. Which of the following features of Renaissance Italy had the most influence on the development of new political theories there? A) The threat of Ottoman expansion into Italy B) The division of Italy into numerous city-states C) The predominance of Catholicism in Italy D) The use of several closely related dialects in Italy

B The division of Italy into numerous city-states that were often at war with each other and that also experienced frequent civil wars and political instability was an important influence on the development of Renaissance political theories. Given the unstable, competitive political environment of Renaissance Italy, theorists such as Machiavelli emphasized the importance of careful calculation, constant preparation, and, when necessary, strategic deception, for rulers who wished to survive.

Couples in early modern Europe generally put off marriage until they were, on average, in their mid- to late twenties because A) sexual maturation was delayed until the mid-twenties because of poor nutrition B) they were concerned about scarcity of housing C) they needed to acquire land or learn a trade before they could support a family D) the customs and mores of a society dominated by religion promoted sexual restraint E) laws prohibited marriage without parental permission before the age of majority

Which of the following most accurately describes the political system of the Dutch republic of the seventeenth century? A) Popular democracy B) Rule by an absolute monarch C) Rule by wealthy merchants D) Control by feudal lords E) Rule by yeoman farmers

The following question refers to the topic of the printing press. Which of the following most facilitated the rapid adoption of the printing press in Europe in the last half of the 1400s? A) Subsidies from new monarchs for the establishment of official government printing presses B) Interest in new geographic discoveries being made by European explorers C) Increases in literacy and decreases in the cost of paper D) Demand for vernacular versions of the Christian Bible

C At the time the printing press had been invented, literacy had already increased across Europe, and the decrease in the cost of paper allowed books to become cheaper. These elements, when combined with the decreased cost of book production that the printing press itself made possible, resulted in an increased demand for books, which the printing press supplied.

"The whole tribe [of clergy] is so universally loathed that even a chance meeting is thought to be ill-omened—and yet they are gloriously self-satisfied. In the first place, they believe it is the highest form of piety to be so uneducated that they can't even read. Then when they bray like donkeys in church, repeating by rote the psalms they haven't understood, they imagine they are charming the ears of their heavenly audience with infinite delight. Many of them too make a good living out of their squalor and beggary, bellowing for bread from door to door, and indeed making a nuisance of themselves in every inn, carriage, or boat, to the great loss of all other beggars. This is the way in which these smooth individuals, in all their filth and ignorance, their boorish and shameless behavior, claim to bring back the apostles into our midst! . . . As if indeed the deadliest enemies of the Church were not these impious pontiffs [popes] who allow Christ to be forgotten through their silence, fetter him with their mercenary laws, misrepresent him with their forced interpretations of his teaching, and slay him with their noxious way of life!" Participants in the Northern Renaissance, such as Erasmus, differed from participants in the Italian Renaissance in which of the following ways? A) They focused more on emulating Greek and Roman political traditions. B) They focused more on paintings and architecture that followed classical styles. C) They focused more on humanism as a mechanism for religious reform. D) They focused more on commissioning artworks to enhance their prestige.

C One key distinction between the Italian Renaissance and the Northern Renaissance was the Northern Renaissance's emphasis on religious matters and applying humanist principles as a means of advocating for religious reform.

The most influential religious order associated with the Catholic Reformation (Counter-Reformation) was the A) Brothers and Sisters of the Common Life B) Dominican C) Franciscan D) Jesuit E) Oratory of Divine Love

The term "humanism," when applied to Renaissance Italy, refers primarily to the A) renewed interest in the scientific method at many Italian universities B) capitalist values advanced by leading Italian merchant bankers C) anti-religious movement among leading Italian intellectuals D) scholarly interest in the study of the classical cultures of Greece and Rome E) non-Christian themes that became prominent in Italian art and literature

The following question refers to the topic of sixteenth-century art. The development of the artistic style known as baroque was most closely associated with which of the following developments? A) The exploration of the Americas B) The invention of the printing press C) The Commercial Revolution D) The Catholic Reformation

D The Catholic Reformation occurred concurrently with the emergence of baroque artwork. As the Catholic Reformation was a theological response to the Protestant Reformation, baroque was a response to humanism and naturalism. Baroque architecture was adopted by the Catholic Church in an attempt to appeal to common audiences in order to counteract the effects of the Protestant Reformation, and the baroque style began appearing in artwork commissioned by the Catholic Church and its supporters.

Renaissance humanism is primarily defined as A) a curriculum based on the study of the classics, rhetoric, and history B) an anti-religious program dedicated to the destruction of the Church C) an artistic style that portrayed the depraved state of human beings D) a philosophical movement that emphasized the beauty of nature E) a religious movement that attempted to make Christianity relevant to daily experience

The most important goal of the Council of Trent was the A) strengthening of internal Church discipline B) organization of military opposition to the Reformation C) establishment of new religious orders D) reduction of papal control of doctrine E) preparation of a revised prayer book

The following question refers to the topic of the printing press. The development of the printing press had which of the following effects on the Renaissance? A) It aided the spread of Renaissance ideas beyond Italy. B) It diminished interest in Greek and Roman classics. C) It encouraged universities to focus exclusively on theology. D) It discouraged the spread of new scientific ideas.

A Printed materials were a significant factor in spreading humanist ideas from Italy to the rest of Europe in the late 1400s and 1500s.

https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/media.academicmerit.com/c8f6ca2a277934c29ed02bed01cce103/original.jpg (Copy and paste image address to see the picture!) The inscription reads: "I, Albrecht Dürer of Nuremberg painted myself thus, with undying colors, in my twenty-eighth year." Based upon the image and its historical context, which of the following groups would have been most likely to commission paintings similar to Dürer's Self-Portrait? A) Commercial elites who sponsored art that emphasized everyday life and naturalist style B) Religious authorities who wished to emphasize the emotional aspects of Christian faith C) Government officials who sought to be portrayed as figures from classical mythology D) Protestant religious dissidents who favored art that broke with traditional Catholic motifs

A Renaissance humanism was fed by an economic recovery in the fifteenth century. Commercial elites patronized the arts in order to exhibit their status and cultural refinement in works much like Dürer's.

The system of intendants was established in seventeenth-century France primarily to A) empower the French nobility B) implement royal policies locally C) make the peasantry return to the land D) collect taxes from the towns E) improve France's ability to fight foreign wars

The following question refers to the topic of economic development in the 1700s. The increased European consumption of luxury goods in the 1700s resulted most directly from which of the following economic developments? A) The growth in factory-driven mass production techniques B) The expansion of trade between Europe and other regions of the world C) The revival of serfdom and other forms of coerced labor in parts of Europe D) The increased effectiveness of government accounting and tax-collection practices

B During the 1700s, European imports of luxury goods, such as coffee, tea, porcelain, and sugar, increased dramatically, fueled by European naval dominance of long-distance trade routes and the creation of joint-stock companies that encouraged investment in overseas trade.

The following question refers to the topic of new political theories and monarchies in the Renaissance. New political theories developed during the Renaissance were characterized by an emphasis on A) the formation of mass political parties B) the creation of a unified European governing body C) the establishment of a system of checks and balances to restrain monarchical excesses D) the improvement of centralized forms of government

D During the Renaissance the modern concept of a state began to form and monarchies and other forms of government began to consolidate power. Political theorists such as Machiavelli emphasized techniques for improving centralized forms of government and de-emphasized the role of religion and morality in statecraft.

The following question refers to the topic of the Northern Renaissance. The tendency of Northern Renaissance artists to focus on contemporary individuals as well as themes of everyday life is most closely connected to which of the following developments in northern Europe during the sixteenth century? A) The growing prosperity of new commercial groups B) The spread of knowledge about European exploration of Africa, Asia, and the Americas C) The attempts by new monarchs to create more centralized states D) The increasing production of vernacular texts

A In the Northern Renaissance, different groups began to grow in prosperity, and Europe began to see the development of a middle class. This includes merchants, bankers, artists, writers, and other professions. The Dutch in particular began to prosper thanks to trade, and the discovery of the New World created opportunities for some where none had been present before. Therefore, thinkers and artists of the Northern Renaissance found patrons in these new commercial elites and the artists tailored their work to their newfound audience.

"At about this time there came to my notice the harm and havoc that were being wrought in France by these Lutherans [Protestants] and the way in which their unhappy sect was increasing. This troubled me very much, and, as though I could do anything, or be of any help in the matter, I wept before the Lord and entreated Him to remedy this great evil. I felt that I would have laid down a thousand lives to save a single one of all the souls that were being lost there. And, seeing that I was a woman, and a sinner, and incapable of doing all I should like in the Lord's service, and as my whole yearning was, and still is, that, as He has so many enemies and so few friends, these last should be trusty ones, I determined to do the little that was in me—namely, to follow the evangelical counsels as perfectly as I could, and to see that these few nuns who are here should do the same, confiding in the great goodness of God, Who never fails to help those who resolve to forsake everything for his sake. . . . Thou, o God, did not despise women, but did always help them and show great compassion. Thou did find more faith and no less love in them than in men, and one of them was Thy most sacred Mother, from whose merits we derive merit, and whose habit we wear, though our sins make us unworthy to do so." Which of the following was the likely purpose of St. Teresa's Way of Perfection? A) To justify the reform of a Catholic religious order, the Carmelites B) To support the establishment of the Jesuit religious order by St. Ignatius of Loyola C) To argue for the exclusion of women from the hierarchy of the Catholic Church D) To appeal to French Protestants to revert to Catholicism

A The passage, written by St. Teresa of Ávila, is the response of a nun to the effects of Protestant influences in France. In the passage, St. Teresa describes her efforts to reform an order of nuns (the Carmelites) as a means of combating the spread of what she regards as a dangerous heresy.

The following question refers to the topic of economic developments in the 1700s. The expansion of the transatlantic slave trade in the 1700s is best explained by which of the following developments? A) Great Britain's increasing dominance of the world trading economy B) Growth in European demand for New World agricultural products C) Growing shortages of labor in Europe D) Decrease in the cost of labor in Europe

B During the 1700s, the European demand for New World agricultural products such as sugar, coffee, tobacco, and cotton was high enough for plantation owners to use slave labor to increase output and keep costs down. The increasing demand for commodities grown on New World plantations led directly to an increase in the transatlantic slave trade.

https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/VH900970.g01.png (Copy and paste the image address to see the picture!) Notes: A "quarter" was a traditional English grain measure equal to eight bushels. A shilling was an English monetary unit equal to one-twentieth of a pound sterling.Malt barley was primarily used for making beer. Which of the following is an accurate description of the trend in wheat prices shown on the graph? A) Wheat prices remained largely unchanged in the period 1650 to 1705. B) Wheat prices showed considerable variation but declined overall in the period 1650 to 1705. C) Wheat prices showed considerable variation but rose overall in the period 1650 to 1705. D) Wheat prices steadily declined in the period 1650 to 1705.

B The graph shows variations in price, but the overall trend is a decline in the price of wheat over the period 1650 to 1705.

The establishment and growth of St. Petersburg during the early eighteenth century was part of Peter the Great' s attempt to do which of the following? A) Strengthen his alliances with the Baltic states B) Improve relations with the Orthodox church C) Remake Russian institutions to be as effective as those in western Europe D) Reduce the high cost of government in the old capital of Moscow E) Discourage further Russian expansion eastward into Asia

https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/media.academicmerit.com/099285f2a4dbabb7d14f5d93557aedb5/original.jpg (Copy and Paste image address to see the picture!) Vasari's painting depicts an episode of government-sanctioned mob violence against Protestants in France, sometimes called the Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre (1572). Vasari's interpretation of the events depicted in the painting would most likely have been shared by which of the following groups in the sixteenth century? A) High clergy in the Church of England B) The rebels in the German Peasants' War C) The delegates at the Council of Trent D) Christian humanists such as Erasmus of Rotterdam

C Given that the clerics gathered at the Catholic Council of Trent (1545-1563) reinforced traditional doctrine and practice, they would have been most likely to support the actions of their coreligionists in defense of the faith.

"At about this time there came to my notice the harm and havoc that were being wrought in France by these Lutherans [Protestants] and the way in which their unhappy sect was increasing. This troubled me very much, and, as though I could do anything, or be of any help in the matter, I wept before the Lord and entreated Him to remedy this great evil. I felt that I would have laid down a thousand lives to save a single one of all the souls that were being lost there. And, seeing that I was a woman, and a sinner, and incapable of doing all I should like in the Lord's service, and as my whole yearning was, and still is, that, as He has so many enemies and so few friends, these last should be trusty ones, I determined to do the little that was in me—namely, to follow the evangelical counsels as perfectly as I could, and to see that these few nuns who are here should do the same, confiding in the great goodness of God, Who never fails to help those who resolve to forsake everything for his sake. . . . Thou, o God, did not despise women, but did always help them and show great compassion. Thou did find more faith and no less love in them than in men, and one of them was Thy most sacred Mother, from whose merits we derive merit, and whose habit we wear, though our sins make us unworthy to do so." St. Teresa's discussion of God's attitude toward women best reflects A) Protestant views of the community of believers B) the doctrine that scripture is the sole source of religious authority C) debates during the Reformation regarding proper gender roles D) the continued exclusion of women from positions of political authority

C St. Teresa's ideas of God's view of women most likely reflect ongoing debates about the proper role of women in religious matters that were taking place within the Roman Catholic Church and the various Protestant churches. St. Teresa restates common beliefs about the weakness of women, but at the same time claims that God and the Virgin Mary show devout women the same favor and protection granted to devout men.

Which of the following cities dominated European trade and finance in the early seventeenth century? A) Venice B) Paris C) London D) Amsterdam E) Madrid

The following question refers to the topic of Protestant reform and religious conflict. Which of the following best explains why the printing press was a significant factor in spreading Protestant ideas? A) It was initially developed in a region of Germany that later became divided between Catholics and Protestants. B) It was initially used to create books that were designed to replicate the appearance of handwritten works. C) It enabled the reproduction of images as well as text. D) It greatly decreased the cost and increased the quantity of written materials.

D The creation of the printing press allowed for quick printing of written materials at a much lower cost than the cost of hand-copied manuscripts. The quantity of books increased, and the cost of production went down; therefore, more books with Reformation ideas spread quickly across Europe.

Image 1 Francesco Mazzola, Italian Artist, Madonna with the Long Neck, 1534: https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/VH901494.g03.png Image 2 Quentin Massys, Dutch artist, Madonna and Child, circa 1520: https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/VH901494.g04.png (Copy and paste the image addresses to see the pictures!) Mannerist works, such as Madonna with the Long Neck, tended to employ which of the following elements? A) Depictions based on the influence of newly discovered Asian and African art B) Realistic depictions of individuals modeled on Roman and Greek classics C) Abstract depictions meant to satirize the subject of the artwork D) Distorted and dramatic depictions employed to heighten emotion

D The key feature of Mannerist art was the use of distortion to heighten the drama and emotional impact of artworks created in this style.

https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/media.academicmerit.com/099285f2a4dbabb7d14f5d93557aedb5/original.jpg (Copy and Paste image address to see the picture!) Vasari's painting depicts an episode of government-sanctioned mob violence against Protestants in France, sometimes called the Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre (1572). Incidents such as the one depicted in Vasari's painting contributed most directly to which of the following? A) The exacerbation of conflicts between the Valois monarchy and various noble factions B) The establishment of royal absolutism under Louis XIII and Louis XIV C) The entry of France in the Thirty Years' War on the side of the Protestants D) The intensification of the grievances of the Third Estate against the nobility and the clergy

A Vasari's painting depicts a key episode of the French religious wars, in which the Catholic Valois monarchy attempted to eliminate noble Huguenot (Protestant) rivals. This event sharpened religious divisions and fomented further opposition to the French monarchy.

https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/media.academicmerit.com/ae62000fee8d0463cd0e463e450c667b/original.png (Copy and paste the image address to see the picture!) The cartoon above from seventeenth-century England is an attempt to ridicule A) support of William and Mary by the Dutch B) fighting between royalist and parliamentary armies during the English Civil War C) the movement of Puritans to the New World D) the widespread practice of wagering on dog fights E) the refusal of Quakers to bear arms and fight

Martin Luther believed that the most important role for a Christian woman was to A) minister to the sick and poor B) preach the word of God in church on Sunday C) become a wife and mother D) lead a life devoted primarily to prayer and contemplation E) teach reading and writing in a religious school

The Roman Catholic Council of Trent (1545-1563) had as its primary result A) a compromise with Protestants to reunite Christians B) a political compromise with the Protestant princes of central Europe C) reform within the Catholic church and reaffirmation of Catholic doctrine D) the firm reestablishment of conciliar power over the papacy E) creation of a balance of power between the papacy and the heads of the great Catholic states

The following question refers to the topic of economic development in the 1700s. The overall increase of European wealth best explains which of the following demographic developments in the 1700s? A) The emigration of Europeans to overseas colonies B) The increase in the percentage of births outside of marriage C) The growth of urban commercial centers D) The tendency of people to marry at younger ages

C As agriculture became more productive and commercial activity grew, cities became magnets for internal migrations within European countries, starting a trend toward urbanization that would both facilitate and be continued by industrialization in the 1800s.

"You should know that the said King of Portugal has leased this island to Christians for ten years, so that no one can enter the bay to trade with the Arabs save those who hold the license. These Christians have dwellings on the island and factories where they buy and sell with the said Arabs who come to the coast to trade for merchandise of various kinds, such as woolen cloths, cotton, silver and coarse cloth, that is cloaks, carpets, and similar articles and above all grain, for they are always short of food. The Arabs give in exchange slaves whom the Arabs bring from the land of the Blacks, and gold dust. The King therefore caused a castle to be built on the island to protect this trade forever. For this reason, Portuguese caravels come and go all year long to this island." The Portuguese slave trade described in the passage led most directly to which of the following ? A) Columbus' voyages of exploration B) The development of new navigational technology C) The establishment of a European-dominated system of plantation agriculture D) The foundation of East Indies trading companies

C European involvement in the African slave trade, along with control of the Americas and Caribbean, led directly to the establishment of plantation economies focused on production of sugar, cotton, rice, and other agricultural products.

Image 1 Francesco Mazzola, Italian Artist, Madonna with the Long Neck, 1534: https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/VH901494.g03.png Image 2 Quentin Massys, Dutch artist, Madonna and Child, circa 1520: https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/VH901494.g04.png (Copy and paste the image addresses to see the pictures!) Mannerist works differed from works of the Northern Renaissance such as Massys' Madonna and Child in which of the following ways? A) Mannerist works mostly avoided religious subjects, while Northern Renaissance works were mainly focused on religious subjects. B) Northern Renaissance works rejected classical style and subjects, while Mannerist works sought to duplicate classical works. C) While both Mannerist and Northern Renaissance works depicted religious subjects, Northern Renaissance works placed more emphasis on human-centered naturalism. D) While both Mannerist and Northern Renaissance works used illusion and distortion, Northern Renaissance works mostly rejected humanist themes.

C Northern Renaissance art was characterized by an emphasis on human-centered naturalism, as seen in Massys' painting of the Madonna and child.

Lorenzo Valla's demonstration that the Donation of Constantine was fraudulent weakened the papacy's claim A) that Lutheranism was a heresy B) of supremacy over the Orthodox Church C) that good works were necessary for salvation D) to extensive territories in Italy E) to supremacy over church councils

Which of the following was generally supported by the mercantilists A) Formation of new guilds B) Destruction of factories C) Creation of a universal monetary standard D) Development of colonies E) Decentralization of government

https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/VH900970.g01.png (Copy and paste the image address to see the picture!) Notes: A "quarter" was a traditional English grain measure equal to eight bushels.A shilling was an English monetary unit equal to one-twentieth of a pound sterling.Malt barley was primarily used for making beer. Which of the following is an accurate description of the trend in malt barley prices shown on the graph? A) Malt barley prices increased slightly in the period 1650 to 1705. B) Malt barley prices showed a steady decline in the period 1650 to 1705. C) Malt barley prices showed considerable variation but no long-term change in the period 1650 to 1705. D) Malt barley prices showed considerable variation but overall slightly declined in the period 1650 to 1705.

D The graph shows variations in price, but the overall trend is a decline in the price of malt barley over the period 1650 to 1705.

"I was called to England to be the arbitrator and mediator between King James and his subjects. . . . Had King James not formed the design of imposing his own religion upon all his subjects, it may be said that he would still be on the throne, but the ambition of making himself absolute and of imitating the actions of a powerful King, without possessing the same means and the same force, brought down upon himself those terrible misfortunes. . . . At the same time, these rebellious people, seeking a powerful Protector and a disinterested mediator, unfortunately cast their eyes upon me, and solicited my presence in England, and my help in securing their religious freedom. I was in Holland, at the head of a powerful force. . . . In a short time, I found myself in London, absolute master of all things, not one of King James's subjects having had the courage or the fidelity to strike a blow in his favor. Under these conditions, in the midst of a furious people, burning with wrath against their King, I sent him secret notice to save himself, out of an excess of consideration and tenderness. I favored his flight and facilitated his departure [from England] and then, ignoring the services I had rendered him, he excited [the king of France] against me. The Convention [Parliament] offered me the scepter, and forced me to accept it. It also forced me, in spite of myself, to allow myself to be proclaimed King, and constrained me to obey the irregularity of its election. I found myself the recipient of a crown which I am ready to renounce for the public tranquility, and for nearly five years I have reigned with that understanding." William's letter to Pope Innocent is best explained as an attempt to justify which of the following? A) The outbreak of the English Civil War B) The development of absolutism in England C) The rebellion of the Netherlands against the Habsburg Empire D) The outcome of the Glorious Revolution

D The letter from William III to Pope Innocent XII describes how James II was deposed during the Glorious Revolution and how William was installed as king of England in 1688, an event that became known as the Glorious Revolution. William portrays himself to the pope as a reluctant mediator who was forced by James II's ill-considered actions to accept the crown in order to save Britain from religious turmoil.

Which of the following beliefs was central to Martin Luther's religious philosophy? A) Salvation by faith alone B) Saints as intermediaries between the individual Christian and God C) The sacrament of penance D) The priesthood defined as distinct from the laity E) The equality of men and women

A Monarchs and other rulers, such as the leaders of Italian city-states, were the primary commissioners of Mannerist art, along with Catholic religious authorities.

"Anno Domini 1618, a great comet appeared in November. To see the thing was terrible and strange, and it moved me and changed my disposition so that I started to write, because I thought that it meant something big would occur, as then really did happen. . . . Anno Domini 1619, Ferdinand became the Holy Roman Emperor, under whom a great persecution happened through war, unrest, and the spilling of the blood of Christians. . . . First, he started a big war in Bohemia, which he then oppressed and subjugated under his religion, then almost the whole of Germany was conquered, all of which I can hardly describe and explain." The conflict that Herberle describes in his chronicle resulted in which of the following? A) The establishment of several religiously pluralistic and tolerant states within the German-speaking regions B) The weakening of the Holy Roman Empire and the strengthening of smaller sovereign states within its boundaries C) The virtual extinction of all Christian denominations except Lutheranism and Roman Catholicism within the German-speaking regions D) The political unification of most of the German-speaking regions under a Protestant, rather than a Catholic monarch

Which of the following was a major characteristic of the English monarchy in the eighteenth century? A) A return to its "divine right" position of the seventeenth century B) A steadily widening discrepancy between its theoretical and its real powers C) Its growth in power because of its many victories over the French D) Its refusal to support the emerging cabinet system E) Its growing wealth due to effective taxation policies

https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/VH900644.g03.png (Copy and paste the image address to see the picture!) The patterns in the graph most strongly support which of the following conclusions about witchcraft prosecutions in the early modern period? A) Witchcraft prosecutions are closely associated with economic stress. B) Witchcraft prosecutions are closely associated with religious conflict. C) Witchcraft prosecutions are closely associated with state centralization. D) Witchcraft prosecutions are closely associated with immigration.

B As the graph shows, the religious conflicts of the Reformation period correlate to a rise in witchcraft prosecutions, as they appear to increase sharply after the Council of Trent introduced the Catholic Reformation.

"If the French get the Spanish Crown*, we are beaten out of the Field as to Trade, and are besieged in our own Island, and [we cannot rely for safety on] our Fleet. I presume to lay this down as a fundamental principle, at least as the Wars go of late, that 'tis not the longest Sword, but the longest Purse that conquers. If the French get Spain they get the greatest Trade in the World in their Hands; they that have the most Trade, will have the most Money, and they that have the most Money, will have the most Ships, the best Fleet, and the best Armies; and if once the French master us at Sea, where are we then?" *A reference to the coronation of the grandson of Louis XIV of France as king of Spain, which many British people feared would lead to the unification of France and Spain Which of the following best describes a major argument in the passage? A) Maintaining fleets was the most expensive part of national defense. B) Economic power determined military capability. C) French trade already had a greater volume than British trade. D) Technological developments had rendered swords obsolete.

B Defoe's warning about the danger of the unification of France and Spain is based on his argument that greater national wealth leads to military superiority, as shown by his statement that it is the "longest Purse that conquers."

https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/VH901995.g05.png (Copy and paste the image address to see the picture!) Which of the following is the most likely explanation for Maes's inclusion of a map of the world in the painting? A) It reflected the ongoing Dutch military campaign against the Habsburgs. B) It reflected the growing importance of overseas trade to Dutch society. C) It reflected the increasing influence of Asian cultural contacts on Dutch art. D) It reflected the territorial settlements of the Peace of Westphalia.

B Overseas trade, particularly with the Baltic region and the East Indies, made a major contribution to the economic prosperity of the Dutch Republic in the seventeenth century. Paintings like Maes's often included reminders of this fact in the form of world maps or portrayals of goods and artifacts imported to the Netherlands from foreign countries.

"A royal, or legitimate, monarchy, is that in which the subjects obey the laws of the monarch, and the monarch obeys the laws of nature, granting his subjects their natural liberty and private property. A despotic monarchy is that in which the prince is lord of all goods and all persons by virtue of conquest . . . and governs his subjects as a father of a household rules his slaves. A tyrannical monarchy is that in which the monarch, contemptuous of the laws of nature, abuses a free people and treats them like slaves, appropriating their goods as his own." Bodin's discussion of monarchical power best reflects the early stages of which of the following? A) The growth of religious pluralism in Europe B) The social dislocations emerging from increasing commercialization C) The development of absolutist systems of government D) The shift from religious to secular regulation of public morals

C Bodin's description of the legitimate or "royal" monarch, whose laws are obeyed and who in turn obeys the laws of nature, would be developed into a full-blown theory of absolute monarchy. Proponents of this theory held that the monarch was the sole legitimate source of law and authority and that his acts could not be questioned or resisted.

The following question refers to the topic of sixteenth-century art. Mannerist painters differed from earlier Renaissance artists primarily in their A) frequent portrayal of religious scenes B) reliance on the patronage of wealthy individuals, monarchs, or church leaders C) deliberate use of distortion and elongation D) use of geometric perspective

C Mannerism developed during the late Renaissance period, after humanism and naturalism. Whereas High Renaissance artisans sought to recreate humans and other visuals as closely as possible to their natural appearance, Mannerists attempted to innovate and become different by using elongations and distortions, creating asymmetrical creations in order to present their work as something unique.

The following question refers to the topic of the printing press. The development of the printing press had which of the following general effects on Europe in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries? A) It significantly enhanced the authority of the Catholic Church in all parts of Europe. B) It significantly diminished the ability of monarchs to effectively centralize their states. C) It significantly contributed to the spread of new ideas across Europe. D) It significantly fueled rivalries between European states for overseas colonies.

C The development of the printing press allowed for cheaper production of written materials, such as books, pamphlets, and broadsheets. Together with a rise in literacy, the printing press enabled new ideas to be spread among the public much more rapidly and effectively than before.

Image 1: Tsar Peter the Great founding the city of Saint Petersburg in 1703, anonymous engraving, Russia, eighteenth century https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/VH950358.g05.png The tsar stands at the left center of the image, examining the map of the planned city while his advisers and other members of the nobility look on. Image 2: Louis XIV and his engineers and architects at the construction site of the aqueduct at Maintenon, anonymous engraving, France, 1689 https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/VH950358.g06.png Louis XIV is at the center on horseback pointing to the plans for the aqueduct while his advisers and other nobility look on. (Copy and paste the image address(es) to see the picture(s)!) The activities of Peter the Great shown in image 1 were most directly the result of which of the following? A) Peter's reforms of the Eastern Orthodox Church B) Peter's efforts to westernize Russia C) Peter's campaigns against the Ottoman Empire D) Peter's suppression of rebellious nobility

B During Peter the Great's reign, he made efforts to westernize Russia to be competitive with other nations in Europe. As part of this process, Peter ordered the construction of Saint Petersburg to serve as a new capital, a military base, and a seaport with access to the Baltic Sea and western Europe.

The following question refers to the topic of the Northern Renaissance. The emphasis of Northern Renaissance humanists on religious themes was most closely connected to their A) concern over the threat posed by the expansion of the Islamic Ottoman Empire B) desire to reform what they saw as shortcomings of the Roman Catholic Church C) attempts to revive belief in the ancient Greek and Roman gods D) hope to create a new religion based on reason rather than tradition

B Many humanist thinkers of the Northern Renaissance emphasized religious themes in their written and artistic works to point out shortcomings they found in the Catholic Church. While Northern Europe was Catholic at the onset of the Renaissance, the Protestant Reformation would start and spread in the north because prior critiques of the Catholic Church and its policies paved the way for religious leaders in Northern Europe to take further measures.

The following question refers to the topic of the printing press. The printing press encouraged the growth of vernacular (non-Latin) literature. Which of the following best explains the long-term effect this development had on Europe? A) It encouraged the adoption of a single literary language across most of Europe. B) It encouraged the development of distinct national cultures in Europe based on shared languages. C) It discouraged the efforts of religious reformers across Europe. D) It discouraged the spread of secular education across Europe.

B The development of distinct national cultures, such as those of the German, French, and English, was significantly aided by the printing and distribution of vernacular literature, such as Shakespeare's plays, which in turn shaped cultural ideas of nationality.

"You should know that the said King of Portugal has leased this island to Christians for ten years, so that no one can enter the bay to trade with the Arabs save those who hold the license. These Christians have dwellings on the island and factories where they buy and sell with the said Arabs who come to the coast to trade for merchandise of various kinds, such as woolen cloths, cotton, silver and coarse cloth, that is cloaks, carpets, and similar articles and above all grain, for they are always short of food. The Arabs give in exchange slaves whom the Arabs bring from the land of the Blacks, and gold dust. The King therefore caused a castle to be built on the island to protect this trade forever. For this reason, Portuguese caravels come and go all year long to this island." The licensing of trade described in the passage is an example of which of the following state policies? A) The monopolization of force by the state B) The preservation of regional autonomy and tax collection C) The implementation of mercantilism to promote the state's economic interests D) The development of new banking techniques to enhance commerce

The following question refers to the topic of economic developments in the 1700s. Which of the following best explains European states' ability to dominate the world trade system in the 1700s? A) The superior quality of European manufactured goods produced for export B) Coordinated efforts by Europe's rulers to minimize economic competition C) The creation of large European land empires in Asia and Africa D) Europe's continued superiority in naval and maritime technology

D During the 1700s, European trading nations continued to have a significant technological advantage over other parts of the world in terms of maritime technology. European ships were generally better armed, faster, and more robust, and they could carry more cargo. Because maritime transport was the preferred method of shipping, Europeans maintained dominance through use of their superior navies and merchant fleets.

https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/VH902041.g05.png (Copy and Paste the image address to see the picture) Two female figures representing peace and plenty look into a mirror held by an angel. The woman in armor next to the mirror represents Bellona, the Roman goddess of war and victory. Figures representing war lie prostrate in the foreground. The text below reads: "Thus Peace sends forth her horn of plenty, her favors through the [Holy Roman] Empire, Spain, and France. The kings stand united, and the people are obedient under you, o great Philip [Philip IV, King of Spain], and your flourishing race. Soon war will perish and the former age will shake off all evils, and give way to a golden age." Which of the following best describes the claim communicated by the artist about the Peace of Westphalia? A) The treaty was a catastrophe for the Catholic side. B) The treaty would be only a temporary break from religious conflicts. C) The treaty would bring an end to the Protestant Reformation. D) The treaty would lead to a new period of peace and prosperity.

D The inclusion of figures representing peace and plenty and the positive tone of the caption indicate that Hollar saw the treaty as a positive development that would usher in a new "golden age."

"I traveled to Montpellier [in southern France] and associated there with several Protestants who have close contacts with Spain in order to learn if they ship books to Spain or know any heretics there. In order to gather this information...I pretended to be a heretic myself and proposed to take some books, such as the works of John Calvin and Theodore Beza, to Spain....A bookseller and a merchant volunteered to bring the books secretly to Barcelona to the home of one of their friends who was, as they said, of their faith. A thousand deceptions were necessary to gather this information....I learned the names of all [Protestants] from the merchant, for he told me that they were of his religion. I am staying here...in the service of God and Your Majesty." Which of the following is best supported by the passage? A) The Spanish government used agents of the Inquisition as ambassadors to neighboring countries. B) Barcelona was the center of Protestant activity in Spain. C) The Spanish government was producing religious treatises for the Catholic Reformation and sending them abroad. D) Owning and reading Protestant religious literature was illegal in Spain.

D The subterfuge to which the agent has to resort and his employment by the Spanish Inquisition — an organization charged with upholding Catholic orthodoxy — both support the conclusion that owning Protestant literature was illegal in Spain.

The massacre of Saint Bartholomew's Day (1572) was directed against A) Catherine de Médicis and her followers in Paris B) Anabaptists in the Netherlands C) Roman Catholics throughout the German states D) peasant rebels in the southern German states E) Huguenots in France

Ferdinand and Isabella supported the expulsion or conversion of Muslims and Jews in Spain because A) Ferdinand and Isabella were hostile to religious faiths other than Christianity B) Ferdinand and Isabella feared that if they did nothing many Christians would leave Spain C) Spanish Muslims and Jews were believed to hinder the economic development of Spain D) Spanish Muslims and Jews outnumbered Christians in most large cities in the kingdom E) Spanish Muslims and Jews were protected by foreign powers hostile to Spain

Which of the following was an important consequence of the Glorious Revolution of 1688-1689 ? A) Limits were put on the power of the English monarchy. B) The franchise was expanded to members of the lower classes. C) French influence in England was expanded. D) Roman Catholicism was reintroduced into England. E) England gained control of Spanish colonial possessions in the New World.

https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/media.academicmerit.com/7ba7b95e5b793e5b53566663b934730a/original.png (Copy and paste image address to see the picture!) The image provides the clearest evidence for which of the following features of European expansion in the early modern period? A) The spread of Christianity as a justification for the subjugation of indigenous peoples B) The reliance of European colonists on indigenous peoples as sources of information about new territories C) The rapid adoption of some European technologies by indigenous peoples D) The creation of hybrid cultures that incorporated both European and indigenous elements

"You should note well that the noble spirit of this Prince [Henry of Portugal], by a sort of natural constraint, was ever urging him both to begin and to carry out very great deeds. For which reason, after the taking of Ceuta [a port in Morocco] he always kept ships well armed against the Muslims, both for war, and because he had also a wish to know the land that lay beyond the Canary Islands and Cape Bojador . . . since it seemed to him that if he or some other lord did not endeavor to gain that knowledge, no mariners or merchants would ever attempt it . . . seeing also that no other prince took any pains in this matter, he sent out his own ships toward those parts, to have manifest certainty of them all. And to this he was stirred up by his zeal for the service of God and of the King Edward his lord and brother, who then reigned. . . . [Another] reason was that if there chanced to be in those lands some population of Christians, or some havens, into which it would be possible to sail without peril, many kinds of merchandise might be brought to this realm . . . and also the products of this realm might be taken there, which traffic would bring great profit to our countrymen. . . . [Another] reason was his great desire to make increase in the faith of our Lord Jesus Christ and to bring to him all the souls that should be saved." Which of the following claims does de Azurara make in the first paragraph regarding Henry's motives for keeping armed ships? A) Henry kept a fleet for war against the Muslims and for exploration. B) Henry kept a fleet to defend Portuguese claims against other European colonial powers. C) Henry kept a fleet because Portuguese merchants would not build ships. D) Henry kept a fleet to capture the city of Ceuta.

A In the passage de Azurara states that after Henry's forces took the port of Ceuta, he kept the ships well armed because of the possible threat by Muslim forces and for exploration of places "beyond the Canary Islands and Cape Bojador." Therefore, according to Azurara, Henry's fleet served two purposes: to be ready in case of war and to discover lands unknown to Europeans at that time.

"1. We should put away completely our own opinion and keep our minds ready and eager to give our entire obedience to our holy Mother the Church. 4. We should speak with particular approval of those who join religious orders, and the states of virginity and celibacy, not rating marriage as highly as any of these. 6. We should approve of the relics of the saints, showing reverence for them and praying to the saints themselves. 7. We should approve of the laws of fasting and abstinence. 9. All the Church's commandments should be spoken of favorably, our minds always eager to find arguments in her defense, never in criticism. 13. To arrive at complete certainty, this is the attitude of mind we should maintain: I will believe that the white object I see is black if that is the decision of the Church." Loyola's "Rules" were created to most directly support which of the following? A) The Catholic Reformation B) The Protestant Reformation C) The spread of Christianity to the New World D) The Peace of Westphalia

A Loyola's Jesuit order was created to promote the Catholic Church and act as agents of the Catholic Reformation.

"Assume, O men of the German lands, that ancient spirit of yours with which you so often confounded and terrified the Romans and turn your eyes to the frontiers of Germany; collect her torn and broken territories. Let us be ashamed, ashamed I say, to have placed upon our nation the yoke of slavery. . . . O free and powerful people, O noble and valiant race. . . . To such an extent are we corrupted by Italian sensuality and by fierce cruelty in extracting filthy profit that it would have been far more holy and reverent for us to practice that rude and rustic life of old, living within the bounds of self-control, than to have imported the paraphernalia of sensuality and greed which are never sated, and to have adopted foreign customs." The passage above most clearly shows the influence of which of the following trends in fifteenth-century Europe? A) The development of natural philosophy based on inductive and deductive reasoning B) The revival of classical learning and the development of Northern humanism C) The continued reliance on traditional supernatural explanations of the world D) The development of Baroque dramatic forms to enhance the stature of elites

Source 1: "Let London manufacture those fabrics of hers to her heart's content; Holland her chambrays [a fine lightweight woven fabric]; Florence her cloth; the Indies their beaver and vicuña [wool]; Milan her brocades; Italy and Flanders their linens, so long as our capital can enjoy them. The only thing it proves is that all nations train journeymen for Madrid and that Madrid is the queen of Parliaments, for all the world serves her and she serves nobody." Source 2: "The Spanish nation today possesses the greatest wealth and the largest income of all the Christians. But the love of luxury and the comforts of civilization have overcome them, and you will rarely find one of this nation who engages in trade or travels abroad for commerce as do the other Christian nations such as the Dutch, the English, the French, the Genoese and their like. Similarly, the handicrafts practiced by the lower classes and common people are despised by this nation, which regards itself as superior to the other Christian nations. Most of those who practice these crafts in Spain are Frenchmen who flock to Spain to look for work and in a short time make great fortunes." Which of the following statements would the Moroccan ambassador have most likely agreed with? A) The practice of mercantilism is harmful to a developing economy. B) Manufacturing products is better than resource extraction for economic development. C) Free trade allows for the growth of capital and the economy. D) The equitable distribution of wealth among all classes should be the goal of the state.

https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/media.academicmerit.com/7ba7b95e5b793e5b53566663b934730a/original.png (Copy and paste image address to see the picture!) By the time the engraving was produced, the event portrayed had resulted in which of the following? A) The large-scale migration of Native American peoples to Europe B) The transfer of plants, animals, and diseases between Europe and the Americas C) The establishment of colonies in the Americas by all major European powers D) The creation of an extensive plantation system in the West Indies that relied on Native American coerced labor

The following question refers to the topic of Protestant reform and religious conflict. Which of the following best explains why Protestant reformers sometimes came into conflict with Protestant rulers of the states in which they lived? A) Some reformers were concerned that secular rulers were overly confrontational when dealing with the papacy. B) Some reformers believed that the church should not be subject to the secular state. C) Most reformers wished to create a universal church that would replace secular governments entirely. D) Most reformers sought to reduce or eliminate sacraments, rituals, and other religious practices they regarded as superstitious.

B Although many Protestant reformers (such as Luther) saw a role for secular authority, some wished to see the reformed church freed from all restraints imposed by secular authorities, even monarchs who had converted to Protestantism. This belief caused them to come into conflict with Protestant monarchs, for example during the English Civil War.

https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/media.academicmerit.com/76e84478e62122bee21a10f3296dfa90/original.jpg (Copy and paste image address to see the picture!) Which of the following best accounts for the consistent difference between the male and the female literacy rates recorded in the tables? A) The growth of monastic orders for women during the Catholic Reformation, such as the Ursulines B) The expectation that women would engage in different social and economic activities than men C) The weakening of traditional Catholic institutions as a result of the Protestant Reformation D) The practice of delaying marriage and postponing having children to improve economic prospects

B Based on gender attitudes and economic pressures, early modern Europeans expected that women would focus on basic productive activities, such as spinning wool or threshing grain, and take the primary role in child rearing, none of which seemed to require the ability to read and/or write.

Image 1: Tsar Peter the Great founding the city of Saint Petersburg in 1703, anonymous engraving, Russia, eighteenth century https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/VH950358.g05.png The tsar stands at the left center of the image, examining the map of the planned city while his advisers and other members of the nobility look on. Image 2: Louis XIV and his engineers and architects at the construction site of the aqueduct at Maintenon, anonymous engraving, France, 1689 https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/VH950358.g06.png Louis XIV is at the center on horseback pointing to the plans for the aqueduct while his advisers and other nobility look on. (Copy and paste the image address(es) to see the picture(s)!) The activities shown in image 2 were most directly a result of which of the following developments in France? A) Louis's modernization of the French military through the expansion of the paid standing army B) Louis's expansion of monarchical administrative and financial control over France C) Louis's suppression of a revolt of the nobility known as the Fronde D) Louis's revocation of the Edict of Nantes

B Image 2 depicts Louis XIV and his advisers reviewing the architectural plans for an aqueduct being built as part of an infrastructural project. Such projects formed an important part of the king's efforts to increase the power and reach of the French state under his absolute rule. The engraving suggests the central role that the king played in the government of France.

"Meanwhile in 1517 Luther attained a sudden fame by bluntly attacking the papal Indulgences then being preached and sold not far from Wittenberg by the Dominican Johann Tetzel. In view of Tetzel's long experience of such fund raising, he gave vent to some amazingly incautious phrases, saying that God must forgive sins if the pope did so; and that as soon as the coin rang in the chest, the soul for which it was paid would pass immediately from purgatory to heaven. . . . The whole background of Tetzel's campaign of 1517 looked unsavory to informed minds. . . . Tetzel was openly accompanied by an accountant from the banking house of Fugger, charged to collect the cash of the faithful, prior to the transfer of the necessary credits to Rome. . . . Luther's revolt thus occurred as a protest against an especially obnoxious example of the long-standing tendency to reduce salvation to a business transaction. His initial protest had less to do with the theory of indulgences than with their practical effects upon simple men and women. In accordance with academic custom, he issued his Ninety-five theses, yet they were in effect aimed at the whole German public, for which they were rapidly translated and printed." Which of the following pieces of evidence in the passage does NOT support the claim that Tetzel's treatment of indulgences was viewed as corrupt? A) The view that God must forgive sin if the pope did so B) Luther's following of academic custom in publishing his Ninety-Five Theses C) Tetzel's claim that donations immediately released souls from purgatory D) The presence of a Fugger accountant during Tetzel's campaign

B Luther's choice to follow academic custom in publishing his theses is not directly relevant to many contemporaries' perception that Tetzel's sale of indulgences was corrupt.

The following question refers to the topic of sixteenth-century art. Which of the following was a nearly universal motivation for royal patronage of the arts in the early modern period? A) The desire to spread Protestant ideas B) The desire to enhance prestige and authority C) The desire to provide employment for artists and artisans D) The desire to promote new artistic styles to replace traditional representational art

B Monarchs who ruled during the early modern period were enthusiastic patrons of the arts because of the opportunities art created to showcase a ruler's power and prestige. The ability to commission artwork indicated wealth and influence, and during the same time period monarchs were beginning to consolidate power and create strong centralized states. Therefore, commissioning artwork allowed them to present themselves as wealthy and powerful.

https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/media.academicmerit.com/099285f2a4dbabb7d14f5d93557aedb5/original.jpg (Copy and Paste image address to see the picture!) Vasari's painting depicts an episode of government-sanctioned mob violence against Protestants in France, sometimes called the Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre (1572). Which of the following was most directly intended to resolve the conflict illustrated in Vasari's painting? A) The Peace of Augsburg B) The Edict of Nantes C) The Pragmatic Sanction D) The Civil Constitution of the Clergy

B The Huguenots won legal recognition to practice their faith and protect their towns with the compromise Edict of Nantes (1598), issued by Henry IV, a former Huguenot who converted to the majority Catholic faith to win over public support for his new Bourbon monarchy. These actions ended the French religious wars.

https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/VH900970.g01.png (Copy and paste the image address to see the picture!) Notes: A "quarter" was a traditional English grain measure equal to eight bushels.A shilling was an English monetary unit equal to one-twentieth of a pound sterling.Malt barley was primarily used for making beer. Which of the following is an accurate description of the relationship between wheat prices and malt barley prices shown on the graph? A) Wheat prices generally rose as malt barley prices fell. B) Wheat prices and malt barley prices generally rose and fell together. C) Wheat prices generally fell before malt barley prices did. D) Increases and decreases in wheat and malt barley prices generally had little relationship with each other.

B The pattern of the graph shows that the prices of wheat and malt barley largely moved in tandem, such as when wheat increased from 34 to 53 shillings between 1690 and 1695, malt barley moved from 19 to 32 shillings in the same five-year period.

Jan Steen, Dutch painter, Beware of Luxury, 1663 https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/media.academicmerit.com/7f03acc2bd083572e683bc7e0134f80c/original.jpg (Copy and paste the image address to see the picture!) The features of seventeenth-century Dutch life reflected in the painting were largely a result of which of the following? A) Dutch territorial gains in the Thirty Years' War B) Dutch financial innovation and overseas trade C) The accession of a member of the Dutch House of Orange to the throne of England D) The successful raids of Dutch privateers against Spanish treasure fleets

B Without substantial natural resources, a strong central government, or a feared military, the Dutch arose as the leading commercial power in the first half of the seventeenth century. The Dutch skillfully deployed new financial and commercial techniques to attain an envied position of prosperity among European nations.

"Albeit we have at all times borne with that which we could not amend in this book [the Anglican Book of Common Prayer]...yet we must needs say as followeth, that this book is an unperfect book, culled and picked out of that popish dunghill, the Mass book full of all abominations. For...many of the contents therein be such as are against the word of God [the Bible], as by His grace shall be proved unto you....By the word of God, [ministry] is an office of preaching, yet they [the Anglicans] make it an office of reading. In the Scriptures there is attributed unto the minister of God the knowledge of the heavenly mysteries, and therefore as the greatest token of God's love they are enjoined to feed God's lambs, and yet with these [Anglican clergymen], such as are admitted and accepted...are only mere readers [of the Book of Common Prayer] that are able to say service and minister a sacrament. And that this is not the feeding that Christ spake of, the scriptures are plain.... These are empty feeders... [and] messengers that cannot call." In the seventeenth century, adherents to the beliefs expressed in the passage most strongly supported which of the following? A) The establishment of the Stuart dynasty in England in 1603 B) The attempts by Charles I to establish an absolutist government C) The parliamentary rebellion that started the English Civil War D) Opposition to the Glorious Revolution of 1688

The next questions refer to the ordinances below. "Concerning the Times of Assembling at Church: That the churches be closed for the rest of the time [outside the time of services], in order that no one shall enter therein out of hours, impelled there to by superstition; and if anyone be found engaged in any special act of devotion therein or nearby he shall be admonished for it; if it be found to be of a superstitious nature for which simple correction is inadequate, then he shall be chastised. Drunkenness: That taverns shall be closed during the sermon, under penalty that the tavern-keeper shall pay three sous, and whoever may be found therein shall pay the same amount. If anyone be found intoxicated he shall pay for the first offense three sous and shall be remanded to the consistory [church council or governing body]. That no one shall make roiaumes [popular festivals] under penalty of 10 sous. Songs and Dances: If anyone sings immoral, dissolute or outrageous songs, or dances the virollet or otherdance, he shall be put in prison for three days and then sent to the consistory. Usury: That no one shall take interest or profit of more than five percent, upon penalty of confiscation of the principal and of being condemned to make restitution as the case may demand." The ordinances in the passage best exemplify which of the following aspects of Calvinism? A) The rejection of Roman Catholic sacraments B) The recognition of the desirability of religious toleration in mixed-faith communities C) The belief that laws must be based on religious principles D)The belief in the predestination of the elect to salvation

Which of the following was an economic policy of Louis XIV's finance minister, Jean-Baptiste Colbert? A) Raising money through internal tariffs B) Encouraging international competition through lower tariffs and free-trade policies C) Establishing detailed manufacturing codes to improve the quality of French export goods D) Opening France's colonies to foreign merchants and trade E) Reducing military spending

https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/media.academicmerit.com/33cd5b7ad6d1b05d427a399ab44529a6/original.png (Copy and paste image address to see the picture!) The Russian woodcut above (about 1698) symbolizes Peter the Great's A)victory over the Swedes in the Great Northern War B) elimination of the Cossacks as a political force within Russia C) imposition of Western values on the Russian nobility D) initiation of the partition of Poland E) struggle with his son, Alexis, for control of Russia

"A royal, or legitimate, monarchy, is that in which the subjects obey the laws of the monarch, and the monarch obeys the laws of nature, granting his subjects their natural liberty and private property. A despotic monarchy is that in which the prince is lord of all goods and all persons by virtue of conquest . . . and governs his subjects as a father of a household rules his slaves. A tyrannical monarchy is that in which the monarch, contemptuous of the laws of nature, abuses a free people and treats them like slaves, appropriating their goods as his own." Bodin's assertions about a legitimate monarchy are best understood as an example of which of the following developments in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries? A) The ongoing rebellion of cultural minorities against the European governments B) The creation of alternative political systems that rejected monarchy C) The development of new ideas concerning the value of secular systems of government D) The continuing calls for the creation of a unified monarchy to rule over western Europe

C Bodin's discussion of the laws of the monarch and the law of nature was part of a trend in European political theory that created a justification for governmental authority on secular rather than religious grounds.

"The whole tribe [of clergy] is so universally loathed that even a chance meeting is thought to be ill-omened—and yet they are gloriously self-satisfied. In the first place, they believe it is the highest form of piety to be so uneducated that they can't even read. Then when they bray like donkeys in church, repeating by rote the psalms they haven't understood, they imagine they are charming the ears of their heavenly audience with infinite delight. Many of them too make a good living out of their squalor and beggary, bellowing for bread from door to door, and indeed making a nuisance of themselves in every inn, carriage, or boat, to the great loss of all other beggars. This is the way in which these smooth individuals, in all their filth and ignorance, their boorish and shameless behavior, claim to bring back the apostles into our midst! . . . As if indeed the deadliest enemies of the Church were not these impious pontiffs [popes] who allow Christ to be forgotten through their silence, fetter him with their mercenary laws, misrepresent him with their forced interpretations of his teaching, and slay him with their noxious way of life!" Erasmus' critique of the clergy were most clearly influenced by which of the following historical developments at the time he wrote In Praise of Folly ? A) The continued focus of universities on religious inquiry B) The spread of cheap printed materials as a result of the development of Gutenberg's printing press C) The revival of interest in secular models for political and individual behavior D) The humanist challenge to the institutional power of the Catholic Church

D Erasmus' critique was based on humanist principles and beliefs regarding individual behavior and morality and were a direct challenge to the authority of the Catholic Church.

https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/VH900644.g03.png (Copy and paste the image address to see the picture!) Which of the following most accurately describes a significant trend in witchcraft prosecutions shown by the graph? A) The number of prosecutions increased sharply in the late 1500s and decreased sharply in the late 1600s. B) The number of prosecutions increased continually throughout the period covered by the graph. C) The number of prosecutions increased steadily from 1550 to 1650. D) The number of prosecutions from 1450 to 1600 remained largely the same each decade.

A As the graph clearly shows, the annual number prosecutions rises from a couple hundred per decade to a peak of close to 6,000 per decade before declining back to the hundreds by 1700.

"But to what purpose are the apostles, priests and scholars of the church, who according to the Scriptures are ordained of God, if the distribution and interpretation of holy writings or the treatment of sacred books are left to common men or women, who are regarded as equal to them? God has given to his church its heralds and ambassadors. They are the only voice it is necessary for us to hear, and not the voices of these illegitimates, strangers or unknowns, trumpets of sedition, and furies which hell has vomited forth to drown this miserable century in murders, impieties, filth and sacrilege." The author's view of the sixteenth century was most likely influenced by which of the following? A) The ongoing divisions and conflicts with Christianity in spite of the Catholic Reformation B) The spread of new diseases in Europe after the discovery of the Americas C) The loss of power by some traditional aristocracies D) The end of the Thirty Years' War

A The passage reflects de Raemond's view that the Reformation had caused nothing but conflict and disorder.

"But to what purpose are the apostles, priests and scholars of the church, who according to the Scriptures are ordained of God, if the distribution and interpretation of holy writings or the treatment of sacred books are left to common men or women, who are regarded as equal to them? God has given to his church its heralds and ambassadors. They are the only voice it is necessary for us to hear, and not the voices of these illegitimates, strangers or unknowns, trumpets of sedition, and furies which hell has vomited forth to drown this miserable century in murders, impieties, filth and sacrilege." De Raemond's purpose in the passage is to criticize which of the following Protestant beliefs? A) That papal indulgences are corrupt B) That the Bible should be directly accessible to all believers C) That wealth is a sign of God's favor and a reward for hard work D) That salvation could be achieved by faith alone

B De Raemond's complaint about "common men and women" was a reference to the Protestant belief that the scripture should be directly accessible to all.

Galileo was found guilty of heresy and condemned by the Inquisition on the grounds that he A) left the Roman Catholic Church and became a Protestant B) used his telescope to explore the heavens C) actively supported the Gallican cause in France against papal supremacy D) publicly advocated Copernicus' heliocentric system E) discovered the law of universal gravitation

John Calvin established the center of his reformed church in A) Lyon B) London C) Wittenberg D) Geneva E) Basel

Vesalius and other sixteenth-century physicians, who made important contributions to medical knowledge, had which of the following in common? A) A realization that microscopic infection caused disease B) A heavy reliance on hospitals to treat serious injuries C) Knowledge of a primitive system of vaccination D) Anatomical knowledge based on dissection of apes E) A willingness to challenge Greco-Roman medical authority

The following question refers to the topic of economic development in the 1700s. European monarchs of the 1700s mostly attempted to promote trade and consumption in luxury items by following A) mercantilist policies that protected domestic industries and encouraged the creation of colonies B) free trade policies that allowed countries to specialize in producing goods for which they had a competitive advantage C) policies that emphasized economic self-sufficiency and avoided dependence on goods or resources from other countries D) policies that created state-owned industries and wealth-redistribution programs

A Most European countries practiced mercantilism, which encouraged the use of colonies as sources of consumables and markets for the home country's manufactures while blocking trade between the home country's colonies and other nations.

https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/media.academicmerit.com/7ba7b95e5b793e5b53566663b934730a/original.png (Copy and paste image address to see the picture!) The image could best be used to illustrate which of the following general aspects of the initial encounters between Europeans and Native Americans? A) European explorers were often outnumbered by Native Americans. B) Advances in military and maritime technology usually gave Europeans an advantage over Native Americans. C) Lack of knowledge of Native American languages hindered the Europeans' ability to understand Native American cultures. D) The arrival of Europeans often threatened existing hierarchies in Native American societies.

Image 1 Raphael, Italian artist, Portrait of Pope Julius II, 1511 : https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/VH944850.g03.png Image 2 Raphael, Italian artist, portrait of Heraclitus of Ephesus, an ancient Greek philosopher, part of a larger painting called The School of Athens, 1511 : https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/VH944850.g04.png (Copy and Paste the image addresses to see the pictures!) The commissioning of Image 1 best represents which of the following trends of the Italian Renaissance? A) The growing power of merchants and secular elites B) The admiration for classical Greek and Roman works C) The use of art to enhance the prestige of the elites D) The use of print to disseminate religious ideas

C Image 1 is a portrait of Pope Julius II. During the Renaissance, members of religious and political elites commissioned artists to paint portraits of them. This patronage served to show off the wealth and power of these elites, and to demonstrate the prestige of the patron.

"I traveled to Montpellier [in southern France] and associated there with several Protestants who have close contacts with Spain in order to learn if they ship books to Spain or know any heretics there. In order to gather this information...I pretended to be a heretic myself and proposed to take some books, such as the works of John Calvin and Theodore Beza, to Spain....A bookseller and a merchant volunteered to bring the books secretly to Barcelona to the home of one of their friends who was, as they said, of their faith. A thousand deceptions were necessary to gather this information....I learned the names of all [Protestants] from the merchant, for he told me that they were of his religion. I am staying here...in the service of God and Your Majesty." How did Philip II's religious policies illustrated in the passage compare to the policies pursued by other fifteenth- and sixteenth-century European monarchs? A) Philip's policies were unique among European monarchs because Philip strongly supported Catholicism. B) Philip's policies enforcing religious uniformity were similar to the policies of other Habsburg rulers but different from the policies of most other ruling dynasties. C) Philip's policies controlling religious beliefs and practices were similar to the policies of most other monarchs at the time. D) Philip's policies were unusual among European monarchs because he did not proclaim himself the head of a national church.

C Philip was the foremost supporter of Catholicism politically, but in attempting to control religion internally and enforce state control of religion, he shared many of the same attitudes and policies as contemporaries such as Elizabeth I of England.

Which of the following describes a major difference between northern humanists and Italian humanists? A) Italian humanists focused on human intellect and achievements, whereas northern humanists concentrated on nature and emotion. B) Italian humanists focused on national consciousness, whereas northern humanists rejected politics. C) Italian humanists viewed human nature as corrupt and weak, whereas northern humanists viewed human nature as generally good. D) Both concentrated on spiritual concerns, but northern humanists also focused on secular matters E) Both looked to classical sources, but northern humanists also emphasized Christian sources.

"Michael Ferrer was tried for speaking malicious words against the King on the 21st of November, 1689. First, he stated that while King William set forth in his Declaration that he came to preserve the laws, he had altered them instead, which he would suddenly repent of. Secondly, he stated that King William claimed he came to maintain our rights, but instead of that he came for the Crown. Thirdly, he stated that King James was overturned unfairly, and that his rights had not been respected, etc. The evidence presented was the testimony of one Terry, who said that Michael spoke these words to him at the Royal Exchange. The prisoner called very credible evidence to testify to his reputation, how he had always been a good Protestant, and had relinquished his office and lands in Ireland, rather than turn Catholic. So, upon the whole, the Court was well satisfied, whereupon he was acquitted." The outcome of the trial best illustrates which of the following? A) The protection of the rights of the gentry and aristocracy from monarchical power B) The continued influence of folk ideals and superstition in criminal accusations C) The enforcement of community values through rituals of public humiliation D) The increasing role of city governments in enforcing public morals

A Although Ferrer was brought up on charges by the British royal government, he was acquitted, and the record suggests that his social status as a landholder and former official may have played a part in the outcome of his case.

The next questions refer to the following illustration from René Descartes' Treatise of Man, written circa 1630, published posthumously in 1662. https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/media.academicmerit.com/4b9f28c86c3c6982d89a9dabf97cd806/original.png (Copy and paste the image address to see the picture!) The illustration shows the physical response to a painful stimulus (ﬁre). The sensation of heat at the foot sends a signal to the brain, which causes the arm to move to brush away the ﬁre. Descartes' understanding of the human body, as shown in the image, is most similar to which of the following? A) Newton's notion of a mechanistic universe B) Astrological notions of the impact of celestial bodies on human affairs C) Positivist notions about the perfectibility of human society through scientific progress D) Einstein's notion of the relativity of time and space

A The illustration presents the body as a biological machine, made of parts and predictable patterns of interaction, much like the Newtonian conception of the universe.

"Albeit we have at all times borne with that which we could not amend in this book [the Anglican Book of Common Prayer]...yet we must needs say as followeth, that this book is an unperfect book, culled and picked out of that popish dunghill, the Mass book full of all abominations. For...many of the contents therein be such as are against the word of God [the Bible], as by His grace shall be proved unto you....By the word of God, [ministry] is an office of preaching, yet they [the Anglicans] make it an office of reading. In the Scriptures there is attributed unto the minister of God the knowledge of the heavenly mysteries, and therefore as the greatest token of God's love they are enjoined to feed God's lambs, and yet with these [Anglican clergymen], such as are admitted and accepted...are only mere readers [of the Book of Common Prayer] that are able to say service and minister a sacrament. And that this is not the feeding that Christ spake of, the scriptures are plain.... These are empty feeders... [and] messengers that cannot call." The petitioners' accusation that Anglican preachers are "mere readers [of the Book of Common Prayer]" is a reflection of which of the following Protestant beliefs? A) The doctrine that some individuals are predestined for salvation and others are not B) The belief that the Bible conveys the message of salvation C) The condemnation of corrupt practices, such as the sale of indulgences D) The position that only baptism and the Eucharist are valid sacraments

Image 1 Raphael, Italian artist, Portrait of Pope Julius II, 1511 : https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/VH944850.g03.png Image 2 Raphael, Italian artist, portrait of Heraclitus of Ephesus, an ancient Greek philosopher, part of a larger painting called The School of Athens, 1511 : https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/VH944850.g04.png (Copy and Paste the image addresses to see the pictures!) Taken together, the two portraits best represent which of the following artistic developments of the Italian Renaissance? A) The growing emphasis on secularism B) The growing emphasis on naturalism and humanism C) The growing emphasis on rationality and empiricism D) The growing emphasis on portraying common people

B The two portraits by Raphael are meticulously rendered, realistic portrayals of recognizable individuals (the portrait of Heraclitus is actually based on Raphael's fellow painter Michelangelo). In these portraits, Raphael attempts to convey not only the subjects' outward appearance, but also their emotions and state of mind. Renaissance artists' interest in conveying individual character and their reverence for the art and philosophy of classical antiquity are known as humanism. The attempt to create realistic, rather than idealized, portrayals is known as naturalism.

"You should know that the said King of Portugal has leased this island to Christians for ten years, so that no one can enter the bay to trade with the Arabs save those who hold the license. These Christians have dwellings on the island and factories where they buy and sell with the said Arabs who come to the coast to trade for merchandise of various kinds, such as woolen cloths, cotton, silver and coarse cloth, that is cloaks, carpets, and similar articles and above all grain, for they are always short of food. The Arabs give in exchange slaves whom the Arabs bring from the land of the Blacks, and gold dust. The King therefore caused a castle to be built on the island to protect this trade forever. For this reason, Portuguese caravels come and go all year long to this island." The long-term economic effect in Europe of the establishment of trading networks and colonies such as the one described in the passage was A) the increased power of trading centers in the Italian city-states B) a shift in the center of economic power from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic states C) the industrialization of Great Britain D) an increase in the cost of imported luxury goods

B With the Atlantic states' direct access to overseas trade, the economic importance of Mediterranean trade networks gradually declined.

"On another occasion I spoke with you about a shorter sea route to the land of spices than that which you take for Guinea [West Africa]. Now your Most Serene King requests of me some statement or sketch that would make the route understandable and comprehensible, even to men of slight education. . . . Accordingly, I am sending His Majesty a chart done with my own hands. In this chart are illustrated your shores and islands from which you should sail ever westward, and after how many miles you should reach the most fertile lands of all spices and gems, and you must not be surprised that I call the regions in which spices are found 'western,' although they are usually called 'eastern.' From the city of Lisbon westward in a straight line to the very noble and splendid city of Quinsay [China], 26 spaces are indicated on the chart, each of which covers 250 miles. . . . So there is not a great space to be traversed over unknown waters. More details should, perhaps, be set forth with greater clarity, but the diligent reader will be able to infer the rest for himself." Which of the following best describes Toscanelli's argument in his letter? A) The potential profits from trade with China had been exaggerated. B) Only highly educated men could understand the route Toscanelli was proposing. C) A direct westward route to China would be shorter than the route the Portuguese were exploring. D) A direct route west to China would be too difficult to pursue with existing technology.

C Toscanelli asserts that his proposed sea route westward from Portugal over the Atlantic would be shorter than traveling south and east around Africa, which was the route being explored by the Portuguese at the time.

Image 1: Tsar Peter the Great founding the city of Saint Petersburg in 1703, anonymous engraving, Russia, eighteenth century https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/VH950358.g05.png The tsar stands at the left center of the image, examining the map of the planned city while his advisers and other members of the nobility look on. Image 2: Louis XIV and his engineers and architects at the construction site of the aqueduct at Maintenon, anonymous engraving, France, 1689 https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/VH950358.g06.png Louis XIV is at the center on horseback pointing to the plans for the aqueduct while his advisers and other nobility look on. (Copy and paste the image address(es) to see the picture(s)!) The presence of the aristocracy in both of the images most directly reflects a continuation of which of the following processes? A) The assertion of the traditional rights of the landed nobility against a centralized monarchy B) The development of a new commercial aristocracy as a result of growing overseas trade C) The modernization of the military through meritocracy and new technologies D) The preservation of the nobility's social status despite the absolutist authority of monarchs

D During this period when monarchs were centralizing the state and consolidating power, one of the main sources of possible opposition to the monarch was the nobility. Absolutist monarchs such as Louis XIV and Peter the Great sought to co-opt the nobility by preserving many of their traditional privileges and awarding them with positions of power and prestige within the royal government. In these images, members of the French and Russian nobility are shown closely associated with the monarch. Such images reinforced the message that absolutist monarchs sought to work with the nobility while maintaining a superior position.

"And so, my dear brothers, if we are to rise up out of this mire and become true pupils of God, taught by God himself (John 6, Matthew 23),* we will need the vast resources of his strength, sent down to us from above, in order to punish unspeakable wickedness . . . Therefore, my dearest, most revered rulers, learn true judgment from the mouth of God himself. Do not let yourself be seduced by your hypocritical priests into a restraint based on counterfeit clemency and kindness. . . . Now if you are to be true rulers, you must seize the very roots of government, following the command of Christ. Drive his enemies away from the elect; you are the instruments to do this. My friend, don't let us have any of this lame posing about the power of God achieving everything without resort to your sword . . . Do not, therefore, allow the evil-doers, who may turn us away from God, to continue living (Deuteronomy 13),* for a godless man has no right to live if he is hindering the pious. . . . Hence the sword, too, is necessary to eliminate the godless (Romans 13).* To ensure, however, that this proceeds in a fair and orderly manner, our revered fathers, the princes, who with us confess Christ, should carry it out. But if they do not carry it out, the sword will be taken from them. . . . For the godless have no right to live, unless by the sufferance of the elect, as is written in the book of Exodus, chapter 23."* Müntzer makes his argument that the princes should rise up against the Catholic Holy Roman Emperor and his followers primarily by A) appealing to the princes' political self-interest B) appealing to the greed and economic interests of the princes C) telling them to listen to the advice of the Catholic priests and the papacy D) telling them it is the will of God as shown in scripture

D Müntzer's citations and references to scripture were clearly meant to convince the recipients of the letter that it is God's command that they rise up against the Holy Roman Emperor and his followers.

"Let us consider the history of forage grasses, because these . . . were vital to the spread of European livestock and therefore to Europeans themselves. There are about 10,000 grass species, but a mere 40 account for 99 percent of the sown grass pastures in the world. Few, if any, of the 40 are native to the great grasslands outside the Old World [Europe, Asia, and Africa]. Twenty-four of the forty occur naturally and have apparently grown for a very long time in an area comprising Europe . . . plus North Africa and the Middle East. . . . The Old World quadrupeds [large grazing animals], when transported to America, Australia, and New Zealand, stripped away the local grasses. . . . Old World [forage grasses], particularly those from Europe and nearby parts of Asia and Africa, swept in and occupied the bare ground. They were tolerant of open sunlight, bare soil, and close cropping and of being constantly trod upon, and they possessed a number of means of propagation and spread. . . . When the [imported] livestock returned for a meal the next season, [the grasses were still] there. When the stockman went out in search of his stock, they were there too, and healthy." What evidence supplied by Crosby most directly supports the claim that Old World forage grasses were particularly important to livestock used by European colonists? A) Old World animals used as livestock were able to consume the local grasses in the Americas, Australia, and New Zealand. B) Old World forage grasses were not imported deliberately by European settlers in the New World. C) Old World forage grasses constituted only a tiny percentage of the natural variety of grasses. D) Old World forage grasses were tolerant of close cropping and being constantly trod upon by animals.

D The connection that Crosby makes between the spread of certain species of Old World forage grasses and the success of European colonies depends on the idea that these grasses were a particularly important food for European livestock. The observation that these forage grasses can tolerate being eaten down to a short height (i.e., "closely cropped") and stepped on suggests that once they appeared in an area populated by livestock, they were likely to survive and form a major source of food for the animals.

"Meanwhile in 1517 Luther attained a sudden fame by bluntly attacking the papal Indulgences then being preached and sold not far from Wittenberg by the Dominican Johann Tetzel. In view of Tetzel's long experience of such fund raising, he gave vent to some amazingly incautious phrases, saying that God must forgive sins if the pope did so; and that as soon as the coin rang in the chest, the soul for which it was paid would pass immediately from purgatory to heaven. . . . The whole background of Tetzel's campaign of 1517 looked unsavory to informed minds. . . . Tetzel was openly accompanied by an accountant from the banking house of Fugger, charged to collect the cash of the faithful, prior to the transfer of the necessary credits to Rome. . . . Luther's revolt thus occurred as a protest against an especially obnoxious example of the long-standing tendency to reduce salvation to a business transaction. His initial protest had less to do with the theory of indulgences than with their practical effects upon simple men and women. In accordance with academic custom, he issued his Ninety-five theses, yet they were in effect aimed at the whole German public, for which they were rapidly translated and printed." The ability of Luther's Ninety-Five Theses to have a significant effect on Europe is best explained by which of the following? A) The refusal of some Protestants to subordinate the church to the state B) The nobility using religious dissent to challenge monarchs' power C) The belief that increasing material prosperity in some Protestant countries was a sign of God's favor D) The use of the newly developed printing press to rapidly spread Protestant ideas

D The spread of Luther's ideas, and those of other Protestant reformers such as Calvin and Zwingli, was enabled by the printing press and the growth in literacy across Europe in the 1500s.

Image 1: Jan Steen, Dutch painter, The Burgher of Delft and his Daughter, 1655 https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/VH950189.g09.png The portrait most likely depicts the corn merchant Adolf Croeser and his daughter, Catharina. The burgher hears the plea of a begging widow and her son. Image 2: Jan Steen, Dutch painter, The Dissolute Household, 1663-1664 https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/VH950189.g10.png (Copy and paste the image address(es) to see the picture(s)!) The choice of subject matter in the two paintings is best explained by which of the following historical developments during the artist's life? A) The Netherlands' achievement of independence from the Habsburg Empire after the Thirty Years' War B) The establishment of religious toleration in the Netherlands after the Reformation C) The poor harvests and other effects of the Little Ice Age in the seventeenth century D) The growth of a wealthy trading elite in the Netherlands

D The subject matter of the two paintings reflects the material prosperity enjoyed by members of the Dutch mercantile classes during the seventeenth century. The first painting depicts a prosperous merchant (accompanied by his well-dressed daughter) hearing the pleas of beggars. The second painting depicts a disorderly household that nevertheless features many luxury items, such as clocks, exotic pets, paintings, and other valuable goods. Portraits featuring the wealth and comfort of members of the mercantile classes were characteristic of the Dutch Golden Age.

The following question refers to the topic of the printing press. Which of the following best explains why the spread of the printing press encouraged the spread of new religious ideas? A) The printing press required specialized knowledge and training to operate efficiently. B) The printing press spread relatively quickly to many areas of Europe beyond the Rhineland region where it was first developed. C) The Catholic Church attempted to control the production of religious texts by establishing approval procedures and lists of forbidden books. D) The printing press allowed people to bypass the Catholic Church's traditional monopoly on the production of religious texts.

D Throughout the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church had a virtual monopoly on the production of religious texts, which were mostly created by copyists supported by monasteries and other religious institutions. The development of printing allowed for a much wider group to produce and disseminate religious texts.

"The settlement of the New World had a severe effect upon native peoples, whereas in the East, European influence was very slight until much later times. In the early 1520s, the conquistadors brought with them smallpox and typhoid. Between them these European diseases soon decimated the Indian population, particularly the great epidemics of the 1520s, 1540s, and 1570s. In central Mexico, for example, an Indian population which numbered 11,000,000 in 1519 numbered no more than 2,500,000 by the end of the century. In addition, the Indian was beset by enormous grazing herds of cattle which the White settler introduced. He escaped the herd by working for the White settler, but if this led him to the crowded labor settlements, as it quite often did, he stood less chance of escaping infection. The Indian was exploited. But in the law he remained free. Enslavement was practiced, but it was not officially tolerated. Moreover, the Franciscan order, a powerful missionary force in the New World, did its best to save the Indian from the evil ways of the White man. In Bartolomé de Las Casas and Francisco de Vitoria, the Indian found influential defenders; and through their schemes for separate Indian Christian communities, he found a partial escape from the White man. But the Indian mission towns, which were permitted by [the Spanish king] Charles V, were objected to by his successor, Philip II, and they only survived in remote areas." Which of the following does the author use as evidence of the impact of the introduction of European cattle to the New World? A) Migration into labor settlements B) Exposure to smallpox and typhoid C) Philip II's objection to mission towns D) Native Americans' legal freedom

A In discussing the consequences of the introduction of cattle into the New World, Bush describes how Native Americans who sought to escape the herds often had to migrate to labor settlements.

"Ludovico: If it is in any way possible to measure the gravity of human sinfulness, then we should see Eve's sin as worse than Adam's. . . . she suggested and was the cause of Adam's sin—not he of hers. Isotta: But I see things from quite the opposite view. For where there is less intellect and less dedication, there is less sin; and Eve lacked these qualities and therefore sinned less. Adam must also be judged more guilty then Eve because of his greater contempt for God's command. For in Genesis 2 it appears that the Lord commanded Adam, not Eve. When God created man, from the beginning he created him perfect, and the powers of his soul perfect, and gave him a greater understanding and knowledge of truth as well as a greater depth of wisdom. . . . Therefore, it appears that Adam's sin was greater than Eve's. . . . Adam either had free will or he did not. If he did not have free will, he did not sin; if he had free will, then you claim Eve forced the sin upon him, which is impossible. . . . Thus, Adam appeared to accuse God rather than excuse himself when he said: 'The woman you placed at my side gave me fruit from the tree and I ate it.' Let these words be enough from me, an unarmed and poor little woman." The discussion of Adam and Eve's actions is best understood in the context of which of the following developments of the Italian Renaissance? A) The growth of new humanist approaches that emphasized individuality B) The development of new methods of scientific inquiry C) The emphasis on secular models for political behavior D) The concern religious authorities had over their relative prestige

A Isotta Nogarola's approach to the story of Adam and Eve emphasizes their humanity and individual choices, a key feature of Renaissance humanism.

Refer to the following list of demands made by the rebel leaders of the War of the Communities of Castile, a joint commoner-noble revolt against the heavy taxes imposed in Spain by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V in 1520. "Officials: When a Cortes [the traditional advisory council of Castile] must be called, each district shall choose two officials to go to the Cortes, one from the nobility and one from the commoners... and each bishopric shall choose one cleric to go to the Cortes, and the knights shall choose two knights, and the [religious] orders shall choose two members of the orders, one Franciscan and one Dominican; and without all of these [representatives] there can be no Cortes. Justice: The king shall not be able to name a corregidor [district judge] in any place; instead, each city and town shall on the first day of the year nominate three nobles and three commoners, and the king or his governor shall choose one noble and one commoner [from among these nominees]; these two shall then be civil and criminal judges for three years. Money: The king shall not be allowed to take any coins out of the kingdom, nor gold or silver dust, and no coin can circulate or have value in Castile if it was not minted in the kingdom. War: Whenever the king wishes to make war he shall summon a Cortes, and inform its members... explaining the reasons for the war, so that they can see whether it is just or capricious. Without their consent the king cannot fight any war." The rebel leaders' insistence on the importance of the Cortes best exemplifies which of the following processes in early modern Europe? A) Attempts by corporate groups to use existing institutions of shared governance to resist royal encroachment B) Attempts by commercial and professional groups to obtain political power commensurate with their economic and social standing C) Attempts by the peasantry to maintain access to common lands and other resources threatened by privatization by members of the nobility D) Attempts by members of the landed aristocracy to reverse the trend toward greater use of professional or mercenary armies

A It is clear from the source that the various groups that were in revolt drew from traditional institutions (the Cortes) and practices to limit royal power and share in governance. There are no references in the demands to revolutionary ideologies or bodies.

https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/VH901301.g04.png (Copy and paste the image address to see the picture) The engraving shows the French army's siege and capture of the town of Namur, in the Spanish Netherlands, from Spanish and Dutch forces during the Nine Years' War. Louis XIV is shown in the center, surrounded by his son and various members of the nobility. The depiction of the scene in the engraving best illustrates which of the following aspects of the French aristocracy under Louis XIV's rule? A) The maintenance of the aristocracy's privileged social position B) The financial difficulties experienced by many members of the aristocracy in attempting to support their lifestyle C) The displacement of the aristocracy from many key administrative posts D) The continued rivalries among aristocratic factions seeking royal favor

A The presence of Louis' son and other members of the nobility with Louis at the siege reflects the continued role the aristocracy had as advisers and military commanders under Louis XIV.

The following question refers to the topic of the printing press. Which of the following best explains how the printing press contributed to the development of national cultures in Europe? A) The printing press encouraged the spread of vernacular literature. B) The printing press allowed for easier publication of laws and legal findings. C) The printing press led to the creation of guilds and craft associations dedicated to the production of books and pamphlets. D) The printing press encouraged the spread of humanist ideas from Italy to northern Europe.

A The printing press encouraged the development of national cultures by allowing for a much greater volume of vernacular (non-Latin) literature to be produced. Prior to print, vernacular languages in Europe were primarily oral rather than written, and Latin, the main written language, was known only by a small segment of the population. The increased production of vernacular print materials greatly expanded the audience for literature and hastened the development of national cultures tied to common languages such as German or French.

"On another occasion I spoke with you about a shorter sea route to the land of spices than that which you take for Guinea [West Africa]. Now your Most Serene King requests of me some statement or sketch that would make the route understandable and comprehensible, even to men of slight education. . . . Accordingly, I am sending His Majesty a chart done with my own hands. In this chart are illustrated your shores and islands from which you should sail ever westward, and after how many miles you should reach the most fertile lands of all spices and gems, and you must not be surprised that I call the regions in which spices are found 'western,' although they are usually called 'eastern.' From the city of Lisbon westward in a straight line to the very noble and splendid city of Quinsay [China], 26 spaces are indicated on the chart, each of which covers 250 miles. . . . So there is not a great space to be traversed over unknown waters. More details should, perhaps, be set forth with greater clarity, but the diligent reader will be able to infer the rest for himself." Which of the following claims does Toscanelli make about China in the passage? A) It was a source of valuable trading commodities. B) Only Portugal was in a good position to access its wealth. C) Its inhabitants were eager to trade with Europe. D) It could not be reached by sailing around Africa.

A Toscanelli's statements about the fertility of China and its abundant gems and spices suggest that he sees China as a source of valuable trade items.

"Thus, the spice trade came to link Lisbon with Asia; sugar connected the Portuguese capital [Lisbon] with America; and the slave trade forged a chain across the southern Atlantic. From this time on, all struggles for dominance within Europe would take on a global character, as the European states sought to control the oceans and to oust their competitors from points of vantage gained in Asia, America, or Africa. From then on, too, events in one part of the globe would have repercussions in other parts. The several continents would be drawn into one worldwide system of connections. . . . The Dutch, then fighting their prolonged war against Spain, thus found an excuse and an opportunity to oust the Portuguese from their holdings in Asia and America. The Dutch East India Company was founded in 1602 in order to break the Portuguese monopoly over the spice trade. In 1621, a Dutch West India company was created as well." Which of the following best describes the author's main argument in the passage? A) In the seventeenth century, rivalries among European states began to be played out in many areas of the world. B) The creation of the Dutch East India Company was directed against the Portuguese monopoly on the spice trade. C) The slave trade was carried out primarily in the South Atlantic. D) Competition for control of ocean trade routes was the only cause of European rivalries in the seventeenth century.

A Wolf's statement at the beginning of the second paragraph that "all struggles for dominance within Europe would take on a global character" is the main argument of the passage, which he supports with specific references to the creation of the Dutch national trading companies.

"The whole tribe [of clergy] is so universally loathed that even a chance meeting is thought to be ill-omened—and yet they are gloriously self-satisfied. In the first place, they believe it is the highest form of piety to be so uneducated that they can't even read. Then when they bray like donkeys in church, repeating by rote the psalms they haven't understood, they imagine they are charming the ears of their heavenly audience with infinite delight. Many of them too make a good living out of their squalor and beggary, bellowing for bread from door to door, and indeed making a nuisance of themselves in every inn, carriage, or boat, to the great loss of all other beggars. This is the way in which these smooth individuals, in all their filth and ignorance, their boorish and shameless behavior, claim to bring back the apostles into our midst! . . . As if indeed the deadliest enemies of the Church were not these impious pontiffs [popes] who allow Christ to be forgotten through their silence, fetter him with their mercenary laws, misrepresent him with their forced interpretations of his teaching, and slay him with their noxious way of life!" The Italian Renaissance and the Northern Renaissance shared an emphasis on which of the following artistic styles and themes? A) Subjective representations of the painter's emotional state B) Naturalistic representations of human-centered subjects using geometric perspective C) The incorporation of cultural themes from overseas colonies D) The realistic depiction of social problems such as poverty and corruption

B A major development in art during this period was an emphasis on human-centered subjects and naturalistic depictions using geometric perspective. Both the Northern Renaissance and the Italian Renaissance produced art with these characteristics.

https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/VH901995.g05.png (Copy and paste the image address to see the picture!) Based on the painting, Maes most likely held which of the following views? A) Women's labor should be restricted according to traditional guild practices. B) Women were capable of managing the new financial practices. C) Women should have property rights and equal legal status within marriage. D) Women should be allowed to hold political office as members of the Dutch parliament.

B Although we cannot be certain of his views on the subject, Maes's choice of subject matter and his objective, even positive, portrayal of the woman at work as an account keeper strongly suggest that he, like many of the Dutch, believed that women could properly engage in business and commercial activities.

"I may well presume, most Holy Father, that certain people, as soon as they hear that in this book I assert the Earth moves, will cry out that, holding such views, I should at once be hissed off the stage. Many centuries have consented to the establishment of the contrary judgment, namely that the Earth is placed immovably as the central point in the middle of the universe . . . How I came to dare to conceive such motion of the Earth, contrary to the received opinion of the mathematicians and indeed contrary to the impression of the senses, is what your Holiness will expect to hear. So I should like your Holiness to know that I was led to think of a method of computing the motions of the spheres by nothing else than the knowledge that the mathematicians are inconsistent in these investigations. . . . I therefore took pains to read again the works of all the philosophers whose works I could find to seek out whether any of them had ever supposed that the motions of the spheres were other than those demanded by the mathematical schools. I found first in Cicero* that Hicetas* had realized that the Earth moved. Afterwards I found in Plutarch* that certain others had held the same opinion." Which of the following would most directly undermine Copernicus' hope that the papacy would be receptive to his arguments? A) The increase in accusations of witchcraft in the late 1500s B) The trial of Galileo for publishing heretical works C) The establishment of the Inquisition to suppress heresy D) The creation of the Index of Prohibited Books

B Copernicus (who was a member of the Roman Catholic clergy), by dedicating his work to the pope and carefully explaining his reasons for taking what was considered a radical position, was clearly acting in the hope that the papacy would accept, or at least not dismiss outright, his theory. As it happened, Copernicus died shortly after his work was published. Much later, the condemnation of Galileo Galilei by the Inquisition in 1633 for supporting Copernicus' position indicated that the papacy was not receptive to a model of the universe that included Earth moving around the Sun.

"You should note well that the noble spirit of this Prince [Henry of Portugal], by a sort of natural constraint, was ever urging him both to begin and to carry out very great deeds. For which reason, after the taking of Ceuta [a port in Morocco] he always kept ships well armed against the Muslims, both for war, and because he had also a wish to know the land that lay beyond the Canary Islands and Cape Bojador . . . since it seemed to him that if he or some other lord did not endeavor to gain that knowledge, no mariners or merchants would ever attempt it . . . seeing also that no other prince took any pains in this matter, he sent out his own ships toward those parts, to have manifest certainty of them all. And to this he was stirred up by his zeal for the service of God and of the King Edward his lord and brother, who then reigned. . . . [Another] reason was that if there chanced to be in those lands some population of Christians, or some havens, into which it would be possible to sail without peril, many kinds of merchandise might be brought to this realm . . . and also the products of this realm might be taken there, which traffic would bring great profit to our countrymen. . . . [Another] reason was his great desire to make increase in the faith of our Lord Jesus Christ and to bring to him all the souls that should be saved." Which of the following claims does de Azurara make in the passage regarding the possible benefits of sailing beyond Cape Bojador and the Canary Islands? A) It would aid in Portugal's war against the Muslims in North Africa. B) It would aid in trade and in spreading the Christian faith. C) It would make Henry a more powerful ruler. D) It would aid Portugal in its rivalry with Spain.

B De Azurara claims that Henry armed his fleet in case of war and to send ships to explore unknown regions because, as de Azurara claims, Henry believed that if he did not send ships out to explore, no one else would. De Azurara claims that Henry's most important motivations, however, were to spread Christianity outside of Europe and to open up new and profitable trade routes.

"Michael Ferrer was tried for speaking malicious words against the King on the 21st of November, 1689. First, he stated that while King William set forth in his Declaration that he came to preserve the laws, he had altered them instead, which he would suddenly repent of. Secondly, he stated that King William claimed he came to maintain our rights, but instead of that he came for the Crown. Thirdly, he stated that King James was overturned unfairly, and that his rights had not been respected, etc. The evidence presented was the testimony of one Terry, who said that Michael spoke these words to him at the Royal Exchange. The prisoner called very credible evidence to testify to his reputation, how he had always been a good Protestant, and had relinquished his office and lands in Ireland, rather than turn Catholic. So, upon the whole, the Court was well satisfied, whereupon he was acquitted." Michael Ferrer's defense best illustrates which of the following? A) The creation of secular systems of law in European states B) The Protestant victory in the Glorious Revolution C) The success of Protestant missionaries in converting Irish Catholics D) The growing application of scientific evidence to criminal proceedings

B Ferrer defends himself by establishing his adherence to Protestantism despite pressure to convert (presumably during the reign of James II). James II's own conversion to Catholicism and the fear that he would reimpose Catholicism on Britain was a major factor in the Glorious Revolution. William's accession reestablished the dominance of Protestantism and Ferrer's defense reflects the changed religious situation in Britain.

"The settlement of the New World had a severe effect upon native peoples, whereas in the East, European influence was very slight until much later times. In the early 1520s, the conquistadors brought with them smallpox and typhoid. Between them these European diseases soon decimated the Indian population, particularly the great epidemics of the 1520s, 1540s, and 1570s. In central Mexico, for example, an Indian population which numbered 11,000,000 in 1519 numbered no more than 2,500,000 by the end of the century. In addition, the Indian was beset by enormous grazing herds of cattle which the White settler introduced. He escaped the herd by working for the White settler, but if this led him to the crowded labor settlements, as it quite often did, he stood less chance of escaping infection. The Indian was exploited. But in the law he remained free. Enslavement was practiced, but it was not officially tolerated. Moreover, the Franciscan order, a powerful missionary force in the New World, did its best to save the Indian from the evil ways of the White man. In Bartolomé de Las Casas and Francisco de Vitoria, the Indian found influential defenders; and through their schemes for separate Indian Christian communities, he found a partial escape from the White man. But the Indian mission towns, which were permitted by [the Spanish king] Charles V, were objected to by his successor, Philip II, and they only survived in remote areas." Which of the following does the author cite in support of the claim that Native Americans had defenders among the Spanish? A) The actions of the conquistadors B) The actions of Bartolomé de Las Casas C) The actions of Philip II D) The actions of cattle ranchers and herders

B In support of the claim that some Spaniards sought to defend Native Americans, Bush cites the example of Las Casas (as well as that of Vitoria). Specifically, Bush mentions the Franciscans' attempts to create separate mission towns where Native Americans would receive some measure of protection from exploitation.

"Ludovico: If it is in any way possible to measure the gravity of human sinfulness, then we should see Eve's sin as worse than Adam's. . . . she suggested and was the cause of Adam's sin—not he of hers. Isotta: But I see things from quite the opposite view. For where there is less intellect and less dedication, there is less sin; and Eve lacked these qualities and therefore sinned less. Adam must also be judged more guilty then Eve because of his greater contempt for God's command. For in Genesis 2 it appears that the Lord commanded Adam, not Eve. When God created man, from the beginning he created him perfect, and the powers of his soul perfect, and gave him a greater understanding and knowledge of truth as well as a greater depth of wisdom. . . . Therefore, it appears that Adam's sin was greater than Eve's. . . . Adam either had free will or he did not. If he did not have free will, he did not sin; if he had free will, then you claim Eve forced the sin upon him, which is impossible. . . . Thus, Adam appeared to accuse God rather than excuse himself when he said: 'The woman you placed at my side gave me fruit from the tree and I ate it.' Let these words be enough from me, an unarmed and poor little woman." Isotta Nogarola's publication of her challenge to Ludovico Foscarini best illustrates which of the following developments of the Italian Renaissance? A) The growth of mass print as a result of the invention of the printing press B) Women adapting humanist approaches to advocate for better treatment in society C) Women's exclusion from positions of authority in the Catholic Church D) The growing challenge to the institutional power of universities

B Isotta Nogarola clearly intended her argument over Eve's relative sin to be a defense of women on humanist grounds, and publishing it took her ideas public.

"I traveled to Montpellier [in southern France] and associated there with several Protestants who have close contacts with Spain in order to learn if they ship books to Spain or know any heretics there. In order to gather this information...I pretended to be a heretic myself and proposed to take some books, such as the works of John Calvin and Theodore Beza, to Spain....A bookseller and a merchant volunteered to bring the books secretly to Barcelona to the home of one of their friends who was, as they said, of their faith. A thousand deceptions were necessary to gather this information....I learned the names of all [Protestants] from the merchant, for he told me that they were of his religion. I am staying here...in the service of God and Your Majesty." Which of the following events marked the effective end of Spain's ability to act as a champion of Catholicism in Europe? A) The Battle of Lepanto against the Ottoman Empire (1571) B) The outcome of the Thirty Years' War (1648) C) The Siege of Vienna (1683) D) The outcome of the Seven Years' War (1763)

B Spain's involvement in the Thirty Years' War furthered its political, military, and economic decline. Along with population stagnation and internal revolt, Spain's inability to secure its objectives in Europe's last major religious war caused it to slip into the second tier of European powers.

https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/VH902041.g05.png (Copy and Paste the image address to see the picture) Two female figures representing peace and plenty look into a mirror held by an angel. The woman in armor next to the mirror represents Bellona, the Roman goddess of war and victory. Figures representing war lie prostrate in the foreground. The text below reads: "Thus Peace sends forth her horn of plenty, her favors through the [Holy Roman] Empire, Spain, and France. The kings stand united, and the people are obedient under you, o great Philip [Philip IV, King of Spain], and your flourishing race. Soon war will perish and the former age will shake off all evils, and give way to a golden age." The presence of Bellona and the statement that "the people are obedient under you, o great Philip" best support the argument that the artist A) favored the independence of the Dutch Republic B) wished to portray the Catholic Habsburgs as the victors C) was unfamiliar with classical humanist thought D) rejected Christian influence on his art

B The caption and the inclusion of Bellona, the goddess of war and victory, strongly suggest that Hollar wished to portray the war as a victory for the Habsburgs, who ruled the territory in which he lived.

https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/VH901301.g04.png (Copy and paste the image address to see the picture) The engraving shows the French army's siege and capture of the town of Namur, in the Spanish Netherlands, from Spanish and Dutch forces during the Nine Years' War. Louis XIV is shown in the center, surrounded by his son and various members of the nobility. Military operations such as the one shown in the engraving were most strongly supported by which of the following features of Louis XIV's government? A) The establishment of a state monopoly on trade with the settlements of New France in North America B) The creation of a strong centralized system of taxation and state finance C) The opening of the senior officer ranks to middle-class men of proven talent and loyalty D) The encouragement of agricultural improvements to increase the food supply

B The creation of large armies with regular pay and specialized equipment, such as those depicted in the siege engraving, required strong systems of taxation and state finance.

"The records show that there was competition [in Europe during the 1600s] . . . between alternate products such as east Indian and European textiles; between identical products from different regions enjoying similar climates, e.g., sugar from Java and Bengal, sugar from Madeira and Sao Tome, and Brazilian and West Indian sugar; or between products grown in different climatic regions [such as] Chinese, Persian and Italian silk; Japanese, Hungarian, Swedish and West Indian copper; the spices of Asia, Africa and America; coffee from Mocha [in Arabia], Java and the West Indies: all of these competed. Study of the volume of trade and the movement of prices at selected locations reveals numerous instances of uniform trends. . . . The best barometer, however, is represented by the prices on the commodity exchange of Amsterdam. The yearly prices of colonial goods in this, the most important market place of northern Europe, mirror global market conditions . . . we see a regular flow of traffic through an immense network of trade routes that were linked together to form a European system of redistribution with Antwerp, Amsterdam, London and Hamburg constituting some of its most important centers." Which of the following best describes the author's main argument in the passage? A) The global market was increasingly dominated by trading monopolies that controlled the distribution of luxury goods. B) The global market increasingly featured market competition among various luxury and bulk goods. C) The global market did not feature European goods in any significant quantity. D) The global market was largely dominated by Asian export economies.

B Throughout the passage, Glamann stresses price competition among an assortment of products from various regions traded in the global market.

"I was called to England to be the arbitrator and mediator between King James and his subjects. . . . Had King James not formed the design of imposing his own religion upon all his subjects, it may be said that he would still be on the throne, but the ambition of making himself absolute and of imitating the actions of a powerful King, without possessing the same means and the same force, brought down upon himself those terrible misfortunes. . . . At the same time, these rebellious people, seeking a powerful Protector and a disinterested mediator, unfortunately cast their eyes upon me, and solicited my presence in England, and my help in securing their religious freedom. I was in Holland, at the head of a powerful force. . . . In a short time, I found myself in London, absolute master of all things, not one of King James's subjects having had the courage or the fidelity to strike a blow in his favor. Under these conditions, in the midst of a furious people, burning with wrath against their King, I sent him secret notice to save himself, out of an excess of consideration and tenderness. I favored his flight and facilitated his departure [from England] and then, ignoring the services I had rendered him, he excited [the king of France] against me. The Convention [Parliament] offered me the scepter, and forced me to accept it. It also forced me, in spite of myself, to allow myself to be proclaimed King, and constrained me to obey the irregularity of its election. I found myself the recipient of a crown which I am ready to renounce for the public tranquility, and for nearly five years I have reigned with that understanding." William's claim regarding James's "design" in the first paragraph is best explained by which of the following developments? A) Attempts to abolish the monarchy in favor of a parliamentary commonwealth B) Conflicts between the Catholic Stuart monarchy and Protestant interests in Parliament C) Powerful commercial and trade interests asserting their influence in politics D) England's policy of not intervening in the Thirty Years' War

B William III states that James II's design to try to impose his own religion and absolute rule upon England led to his downfall. William is referring to the fact that James II was a Catholic and that many people in Britain (which was mostly Protestant) feared that his governmental reforms and lifting of restrictions on the practice of Catholicism were leading to an attempt to reimpose his religion on the entire population.

The next questions refer to the following illustration from René Descartes' Treatise of Man, written circa 1630, published posthumously in 1662. https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/media.academicmerit.com/4b9f28c86c3c6982d89a9dabf97cd806/original.png (Copy and paste the image address to see the picture!) The illustration shows the physical response to a painful stimulus (ﬁre). The sensation of heat at the foot sends a signal to the brain, which causes the arm to move to brush away the ﬁre. The image demonstrates which of the following regarding scientific advances in early modern Europe? A) They were made possible by the rediscovery of ancient Greek medical texts during the Renaissance. B) They used information obtained through dissection to reconceptualize the body as an integrated system. C) They provided experimental proof of the accuracy of Galen's humoral theory of disease. D) They were responsible for the sharp drop in mortality from epidemic diseases, such as the plague, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.

B With the Scientific Revolution, anatomical knowledge came to be based on empirical data derived from direct observation of the human body, including through dissection.

"Peter the Great was allowed to engage several English engineers into his service, as he had done in Holland; but, over and above engineers, he engaged likewise some mathematicians, which he would not so easily have found in Amsterdam. Ferguson, a Scotchman, an excellent geometrician, entered into his service, and was the first person who brought arithmetic into use in the exchequer in Russia, where before that time, they made use only of the Tartarian method of reckoning, with balls strung upon a wire [an abacus]....He took with him two young students from a mathematical school, and this was the beginning of the marine academy.... Peter made himself proficient in astronomy, [and] he perfectly well understood the motions of the heavenly bodies, as well as the laws of gravitation, by which they are directed. This force, now so evidently demonstrated, and before the time of the great Newton so little known, by which all the planets gravitate towards each other, and which retain them in their orbits, had already become familiar to a sovereign of Russia, while other countries amused themselves with imaginary theories, and, in Galileo's nation, one set of ignorant persons ordered others, as ignorant, to believe the earth to be immovable." Based on the passage and historical context, which of the following best explains Peter the Great's motivations for visiting England and Holland? A) He wished to expand Russian trade in Asia. B) He wished to bring together European and Asian scholarship. C) He wished to modernize his empire. D) He wished to retire from political life and become an Enlightenment philosophe.

Source 1: "Let London manufacture those fabrics of hers to her heart's content; Holland her chambrays [a fine lightweight woven fabric]; Florence her cloth; the Indies their beaver and vicuña [wool]; Milan her brocades; Italy and Flanders their linens, so long as our capital can enjoy them. The only thing it proves is that all nations train journeymen for Madrid and that Madrid is the queen of Parliaments, for all the world serves her and she serves nobody." Source 2: "The Spanish nation today possesses the greatest wealth and the largest income of all the Christians. But the love of luxury and the comforts of civilization have overcome them, and you will rarely find one of this nation who engages in trade or travels abroad for commerce as do the other Christian nations such as the Dutch, the English, the French, the Genoese and their like. Similarly, the handicrafts practiced by the lower classes and common people are despised by this nation, which regards itself as superior to the other Christian nations. Most of those who practice these crafts in Spain are Frenchmen who flock to Spain to look for work and in a short time make great fortunes." Which of the following best accounts for Núñez de Castro's confidence in Spain's economic position? A) The Spanish successes as a result of the military revolution of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries B) The outcome of the Thirty Years' War as established by the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 C) The influx of resources from the Spanish colonies in the Americas and the Philippines D) The expansion of the African slave trade

https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/media.academicmerit.com/c1b90b71af166203e0d1ea36fab3ae74/original.png (Copy and paste image address to see the picture! It wouldn't let me put it on the flashcard) The house above, designed by Palladio and constructed in Italy during the sixteenth century, illustrates the architectural influence of A) Egyptian palaces B) Roman baths C) classical temples D) Byzantine monasteries E) medieval castles

"I traveled to Montpellier [in southern France] and associated there with several Protestants who have close contacts with Spain in order to learn if they ship books to Spain or know any heretics there. In order to gather this information...I pretended to be a heretic myself and proposed to take some books, such as the works of John Calvin and Theodore Beza, to Spain....A bookseller and a merchant volunteered to bring the books secretly to Barcelona to the home of one of their friends who was, as they said, of their faith. A thousand deceptions were necessary to gather this information....I learned the names of all [Protestants] from the merchant, for he told me that they were of his religion. I am staying here...in the service of God and Your Majesty." The events described in the passage best illustrate which of the following aspects of the religious conflicts in Europe in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries? A) Catholics responded to the challenge of the Protestant Reformation by creating new religious orders to revitalize the Roman Catholic Church. B) The spread of Protestant ideas in France had already resulted in the French monarchs adopting a policy of religious toleration. C) Protestants made effective use of the increased availability of printing technology to spread their ideas. D) Despite doctrinal differences, Catholics and Protestants continued to live amicably together in many regions of Europe.

C A key reason for the success of Protestantism's spread was the printing press, which is indirectly referenced in the report.

"The settlement of the New World had a severe effect upon native peoples, whereas in the East, European influence was very slight until much later times. In the early 1520s, the conquistadors brought with them smallpox and typhoid. Between them these European diseases soon decimated the Indian population, particularly the great epidemics of the 1520s, 1540s, and 1570s. In central Mexico, for example, an Indian population which numbered 11,000,000 in 1519 numbered no more than 2,500,000 by the end of the century. In addition, the Indian was beset by enormous grazing herds of cattle which the White settler introduced. He escaped the herd by working for the White settler, but if this led him to the crowded labor settlements, as it quite often did, he stood less chance of escaping infection. The Indian was exploited. But in the law he remained free. Enslavement was practiced, but it was not officially tolerated. Moreover, the Franciscan order, a powerful missionary force in the New World, did its best to save the Indian from the evil ways of the White man. In Bartolomé de Las Casas and Francisco de Vitoria, the Indian found influential defenders; and through their schemes for separate Indian Christian communities, he found a partial escape from the White man. But the Indian mission towns, which were permitted by [the Spanish king] Charles V, were objected to by his successor, Philip II, and they only survived in remote areas." Which of the following does the author most directly use as evidence of the effects of European diseases on Native Americans? A) The enslavement of Native Americans B) The introduction of cattle herds C) The change in the population of central Mexico D) The founding of mission towns by Franciscans

C Bush asserts that the introduction of European diseases decimated Native American populations. The most direct piece of evidence that supports Bush's claim is the estimated loss in population, which he claims was around 8.5 million. This means that nearly 80 percent of the population of central Mexico was lost by the end of the sixteenth century.

Refer to the following list of demands made by the rebel leaders of the War of the Communities of Castile, a joint commoner-noble revolt against the heavy taxes imposed in Spain by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V in 1520. "Officials: When a Cortes [the traditional advisory council of Castile] must be called, each district shall choose two officials to go to the Cortes, one from the nobility and one from the commoners... and each bishopric shall choose one cleric to go to the Cortes, and the knights shall choose two knights, and the [religious] orders shall choose two members of the orders, one Franciscan and one Dominican; and without all of these [representatives] there can be no Cortes. Justice: The king shall not be able to name a corregidor [district judge] in any place; instead, each city and town shall on the first day of the year nominate three nobles and three commoners, and the king or his governor shall choose one noble and one commoner [from among these nominees]; these two shall then be civil and criminal judges for three years. Money: The king shall not be allowed to take any coins out of the kingdom, nor gold or silver dust, and no coin can circulate or have value in Castile if it was not minted in the kingdom. War: Whenever the king wishes to make war he shall summon a Cortes, and inform its members... explaining the reasons for the war, so that they can see whether it is just or capricious. Without their consent the king cannot fight any war." Based on the rebels' demands, it can be concluded that Charles V sought to implement in Castile policies characteristic of A) constitutional monarchs B) Enlightened monarchs C) New monarchs D) elective monarchs

C Charles exemplifies the trend of the new monarchies, along with figures like Henry VIII, who attempted to centralize authority after the dynastic instability of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.

"Let us consider the history of forage grasses, because these . . . were vital to the spread of European livestock and therefore to Europeans themselves. There are about 10,000 grass species, but a mere 40 account for 99 percent of the sown grass pastures in the world. Few, if any, of the 40 are native to the great grasslands outside the Old World [Europe, Asia, and Africa]. Twenty-four of the forty occur naturally and have apparently grown for a very long time in an area comprising Europe . . . plus North Africa and the Middle East. . . . The Old World quadrupeds [large grazing animals], when transported to America, Australia, and New Zealand, stripped away the local grasses. . . . Old World [forage grasses], particularly those from Europe and nearby parts of Asia and Africa, swept in and occupied the bare ground. They were tolerant of open sunlight, bare soil, and close cropping and of being constantly trod upon, and they possessed a number of means of propagation and spread. . . . When the [imported] livestock returned for a meal the next season, [the grasses were still] there. When the stockman went out in search of his stock, they were there too, and healthy." Which of the following pieces of evidence does the author use most directly to support his claim about the importance of forage grasses for the spread of European colonization? A) The observation that similar grasses are found in the Middle East and North Africa B) The fact that about 40 species of grass account for 99 percent of the sown grasses pastures worldwide C) The assertion that displacement of native grasses by Eurasian grasses allowed imported livestock to flourish D) The fact that few of the 40 common species of sown grasses come from outside Eurasia

C Crosby's main claim in this passage is that the transfer of certain species of European grasses in the Americas, Australia, and New Zealand was crucial to the success of European colonization. The connection of the spread of these grasses and with the spread of European livestock is a key logical link, since European agricultural techniques were dependent on the ready availability of livestock.

Refer to the following list of demands made by the rebel leaders of the War of the Communities of Castile, a joint commoner-noble revolt against the heavy taxes imposed in Spain by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V in 1520. "Officials: When a Cortes [the traditional advisory council of Castile] must be called, each district shall choose two officials to go to the Cortes, one from the nobility and one from the commoners... and each bishopric shall choose one cleric to go to the Cortes, and the knights shall choose two knights, and the [religious] orders shall choose two members of the orders, one Franciscan and one Dominican; and without all of these [representatives] there can be no Cortes. Justice: The king shall not be able to name a corregidor [district judge] in any place; instead, each city and town shall on the first day of the year nominate three nobles and three commoners, and the king or his governor shall choose one noble and one commoner [from among these nominees]; these two shall then be civil and criminal judges for three years. Money: The king shall not be allowed to take any coins out of the kingdom, nor gold or silver dust, and no coin can circulate or have value in Castile if it was not minted in the kingdom. War: Whenever the king wishes to make war he shall summon a Cortes, and inform its members... explaining the reasons for the war, so that they can see whether it is just or capricious. Without their consent the king cannot fight any war." In which of the following European powers in the early modern period was a consultative body similar to the Castilian Cortes most firmly entrenched? A) France B) The Holy Roman Empire C) England D) The Ottoman Empire

C England's Parliament effectively established its co-governance with the monarchy during the late Middle Ages and early modern period, approving taxes and legislation.

"Michael Ferrer was tried for speaking malicious words against the King on the 21st of November, 1689. First, he stated that while King William set forth in his Declaration that he came to preserve the laws, he had altered them instead, which he would suddenly repent of. Secondly, he stated that King William claimed he came to maintain our rights, but instead of that he came for the Crown. Thirdly, he stated that King James was overturned unfairly, and that his rights had not been respected, etc. The evidence presented was the testimony of one Terry, who said that Michael spoke these words to him at the Royal Exchange. The prisoner called very credible evidence to testify to his reputation, how he had always been a good Protestant, and had relinquished his office and lands in Ireland, rather than turn Catholic. So, upon the whole, the Court was well satisfied, whereupon he was acquitted." The "malicious words" attributed to the accused best illustrate which of the following developments in England in the late seventeenth century? A) The effects of outbreak of the English Civil War B) The attempt to restore Catholicism to England after the Reformation C) The ongoing tensions between Parliament and the Crown over the limits of royal authority D) The continuing series of military conflicts with France

C Ferrer's alleged comments about William's actions and his true motives exemplify the continued concern that the English monarchy might encroach on the power and authority of Parliament, which was seen as the protector of the rights of property-owners such as Ferrer. This issue had played a major part in both the English Civil War and the Glorious Revolution and William's accession had not immediately allayed the concern for many people in England.

"The records show that there was competition [in Europe during the 1600s] . . . between alternate products such as east Indian and European textiles; between identical products from different regions enjoying similar climates, e.g., sugar from Java and Bengal, sugar from Madeira and Sao Tome, and Brazilian and West Indian sugar; or between products grown in different climatic regions [such as] Chinese, Persian and Italian silk; Japanese, Hungarian, Swedish and West Indian copper; the spices of Asia, Africa and America; coffee from Mocha [in Arabia], Java and the West Indies: all of these competed. Study of the volume of trade and the movement of prices at selected locations reveals numerous instances of uniform trends. . . . The best barometer, however, is represented by the prices on the commodity exchange of Amsterdam. The yearly prices of colonial goods in this, the most important market place of northern Europe, mirror global market conditions . . . we see a regular flow of traffic through an immense network of trade routes that were linked together to form a European system of redistribution with Antwerp, Amsterdam, London and Hamburg constituting some of its most important centers." Which of the following best describes the author's claim regarding price competition among products? A) Competition was mainly among products originating in European countries. B) Competition was exclusively among foreign imports into Europe. C) Competition was among products from a variety of sources within and outside of Europe. D) Competition was primarily among goods produced in climates similar to that of Europe.

C Glamann provides a number of examples of price competition among products originating from a variety of European and non-European regions.

https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/VH901995.g05.png (Copy and paste the image address to see the picture!) Which of the following is the most likely explanation for Maes's choice of subject matter? A) He wished to emulate the classically influenced works of Italian Renaissance artists. B) He wanted to condemn the increasingly materialist outlook of Dutch society. C) He wanted to attract the patronage of the growing Dutch urban merchant class. D) He wanted to demonstrate that wealth and property were a sign of divine favor.

C Maes's choice of subject matter was typical of many Dutch artists of the period. Although Dutch artists also produced art with religious themes, they created numerous paintings showing individuals and scenes from the lives of the Netherlands' emerging merchant class, who were eager to buy such paintings.

The following question refers to the topic of Protestant reform and religious conflict. Which of the following best explains why Protestant reformers such as Martin Luther stressed the use of vernacular (non-Latin) languages for religious texts and instruction? A) Most of the early Protestant reformers had little or no knowledge of Latin. B) They were pressured by secular rulers to discontinue the use of Latin in favor of local languages. C) They believed that religious teachings should be directly accessible to as wide an audience as possible. D) They wished to covertly spread their teachings in languages less likely to be understood by the Catholic clergy.

C Many religious reformers including Martin Luther believed that the vernacular should be used for religious texts and instruction so that Protestant teachings would be accessible to the vast majority of Europeans who did not read or speak Latin. One of the most important ideals of the Reformation was that laypeople should be in charge of their own faith and learn the teachings of the Bible directly. The use of the vernacular was an important means to that end.

Image 1: Jan Steen, Dutch painter, The Burgher of Delft and his Daughter, 1655 https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/VH950189.g09.png The portrait most likely depicts the corn merchant Adolf Croeser and his daughter, Catharina. The burgher hears the plea of a begging widow and her son. Image 2: Jan Steen, Dutch painter, The Dissolute Household, 1663-1664 https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/VH950189.g10.png (Copy and paste the image address(es) to see the picture(s)!) Which of the following best explains why Steen produced paintings like the one in image 1 for wealthy Dutch merchants? A) The merchants wished to show their Protestant rejection of Catholic imagery. B) The merchants wished to show their support for the imposition of royal absolutism. C) The merchants wished to show that their prosperity did not compromise their moral beliefs. D) The merchants wished to show their knowledge of classical artistic styles and influences.

C Merchants most likely commissioned Steen to produce paintings such as The Burgher of Delft to demonstrate that, despite their wealth, they still possessed Christian moral virtues such as charity. The painting depicts a wealthy Dutch merchant being approached by a poor widow and her child. His willingness to consider their plight shows the merchant in a favorable manner.

"These early modern [commercial] 'revolutions' are supposed to have been spearheaded by females, who increasingly purchased clothes and [groceries] in the market, using cash they earned from reallocating time from unpaid household work to market jobs. This might seem perfectly consistent with what we know about the Netherlands and England. But in most early modern European economies women faced a huge array of institutional constraints on their work and consumption choices. [For example], the southwest German territory of Württemberg differed from the Low Countries and England, but resembled many other parts of continental Europe, in the enduring powers of its guilds, communities, and local religious institutions. Württemberg retained occupational guilds until 1862, not just in traditional handicrafts, but also in export oriented proto-industries, shopkeeping, and merchant trading. Württemberg also had powerful local communities, whose courts, councils, officials, and citizens' assemblies enabled them to monitor and regulate work, leisure, consumption, education, marriage, sexuality, and economic transactions. Württemberg established local church courts in the 1640s which remained active until c. 1890, had the power to impose fines and incarceration as well as religious penances, and closely regulated work, consumption, sociability, sexuality, poor relief, and cultural practices." Which of the following pieces of evidence does Ogilvie NOT use to support her argument about the course of the Commercial Revolution being different in Württemberg than in England and the Netherlands? A) Württemberg's retention of occupational guilds until 1862 B) Württemberg's powerful local communities that regulated daily life C) Württemberg's women increasingly purchasing clothing and groceries on the market D) Württemberg's establishment of local church courts with the power to impose fines and prison terms

C Ogilvie asserts that the increasing participation of women in market-oriented consumption patterns was characteristic of the Commercial Revolution as it played out in England and the Netherlands. She strongly implies that this same pattern did not occur in Württemberg.

"Ludovico: If it is in any way possible to measure the gravity of human sinfulness, then we should see Eve's sin as worse than Adam's. . . . she suggested and was the cause of Adam's sin—not he of hers. Isotta: But I see things from quite the opposite view. For where there is less intellect and less dedication, there is less sin; and Eve lacked these qualities and therefore sinned less. Adam must also be judged more guilty then Eve because of his greater contempt for God's command. For in Genesis 2 it appears that the Lord commanded Adam, not Eve. When God created man, from the beginning he created him perfect, and the powers of his soul perfect, and gave him a greater understanding and knowledge of truth as well as a greater depth of wisdom. . . . Therefore, it appears that Adam's sin was greater than Eve's. . . . Adam either had free will or he did not. If he did not have free will, he did not sin; if he had free will, then you claim Eve forced the sin upon him, which is impossible. . . . Thus, Adam appeared to accuse God rather than excuse himself when he said: 'The woman you placed at my side gave me fruit from the tree and I ate it.' Let these words be enough from me, an unarmed and poor little woman." The passage best illustrates which of the following developments of the Italian Renaissance? A) The political fragmentation of the Italian Peninsula B) The emphasis on secular study of Greek and Roman texts C) The creation of new approaches to the study of religious texts D) The development of vernacular (non-Latin) literature

C One of the characteristic features of the Renaissance was the engagement with classical and biblical texts by scholars, which led to new interpretations of those texts, as Nogarola's fictionalized debate with Foscarini shows.

"These early modern [commercial] 'revolutions' are supposed to have been spearheaded by females, who increasingly purchased clothes and [groceries] in the market, using cash they earned from reallocating time from unpaid household work to market jobs. This might seem perfectly consistent with what we know about the Netherlands and England. But in most early modern European economies women faced a huge array of institutional constraints on their work and consumption choices. [For example], the southwest German territory of Württemberg differed from the Low Countries and England, but resembled many other parts of continental Europe, in the enduring powers of its guilds, communities, and local religious institutions. Württemberg retained occupational guilds until 1862, not just in traditional handicrafts, but also in export oriented proto-industries, shopkeeping, and merchant trading. Württemberg also had powerful local communities, whose courts, councils, officials, and citizens' assemblies enabled them to monitor and regulate work, leisure, consumption, education, marriage, sexuality, and economic transactions. Württemberg established local church courts in the 1640s which remained active until c. 1890, had the power to impose fines and incarceration as well as religious penances, and closely regulated work, consumption, sociability, sexuality, poor relief, and cultural practices." Which of the following pieces of evidence mentioned by Ogilvie best supports her claim that Württemberg's institutions prevented women from playing a leading role in the Commercial Revolution there? A) The retention of occupational guild control over exports B) The power of local community institutions over social issues such as marriage C) The authority of church courts and citizen's assemblies to regulate work and consumption D) The similarities between Württemberg and England and the Low Countries

C The fact that church courts and citizen's assemblies regulated work and consumption—activities at the heart of the Commercial Revolution—directly connects them to her claim that a variety of institutions prevented Württemberg's women from playing a leading role in the Commercial Revolution.

"At about this time there came to my notice the harm and havoc that were being wrought in France by these Lutherans [Protestants] and the way in which their unhappy sect was increasing. This troubled me very much, and, as though I could do anything, or be of any help in the matter, I wept before the Lord and entreated Him to remedy this great evil. I felt that I would have laid down a thousand lives to save a single one of all the souls that were being lost there. And, seeing that I was a woman, and a sinner, and incapable of doing all I should like in the Lord's service, and as my whole yearning was, and still is, that, as He has so many enemies and so few friends, these last should be trusty ones, I determined to do the little that was in me—namely, to follow the evangelical counsels as perfectly as I could, and to see that these few nuns who are here should do the same, confiding in the great goodness of God, Who never fails to help those who resolve to forsake everything for his sake. . . . Thou, o God, did not despise women, but did always help them and show great compassion. Thou did find more faith and no less love in them than in men, and one of them was Thy most sacred Mother, from whose merits we derive merit, and whose habit we wear, though our sins make us unworthy to do so." St. Teresa's text is best understood as a direct part of the A) Habsburg Spanish attempt to unify Europe B) dynastic rivalries between the Spanish and French monarchies C) Catholic Reformation D) Protestant Reformation

C The passage, written after the Council of Trent, is directly related to the ideas of the Catholic Reformation. St. Teresa decries the spread of Protestantism and describes her personal efforts to combat it by reforming an order of nuns to more strictly follow Catholic doctrine. Such efforts were typical of the Catholic Reformation.

"I was called to England to be the arbitrator and mediator between King James and his subjects. . . . Had King James not formed the design of imposing his own religion upon all his subjects, it may be said that he would still be on the throne, but the ambition of making himself absolute and of imitating the actions of a powerful King, without possessing the same means and the same force, brought down upon himself those terrible misfortunes. . . . At the same time, these rebellious people, seeking a powerful Protector and a disinterested mediator, unfortunately cast their eyes upon me, and solicited my presence in England, and my help in securing their religious freedom. I was in Holland, at the head of a powerful force. . . . In a short time, I found myself in London, absolute master of all things, not one of King James's subjects having had the courage or the fidelity to strike a blow in his favor. Under these conditions, in the midst of a furious people, burning with wrath against their King, I sent him secret notice to save himself, out of an excess of consideration and tenderness. I favored his flight and facilitated his departure [from England] and then, ignoring the services I had rendered him, he excited [the king of France] against me. The Convention [Parliament] offered me the scepter, and forced me to accept it. It also forced me, in spite of myself, to allow myself to be proclaimed King, and constrained me to obey the irregularity of its election. I found myself the recipient of a crown which I am ready to renounce for the public tranquility, and for nearly five years I have reigned with that understanding." William's description of his status within the English government is best explained by which of the following? A) The creation of an oligarchical system of government in William's home country of the Netherlands B) The increasing diplomatic tensions created by England's expanding colonial empire C) The assertion of parliamentary supremacy over the monarchy in the English government D) The desire of William to impose an absolutist system of government on England

C William claims that he took the throne because he was pressured to do so and that it was Parliament that offered him the position. This account reflects the principle of parliamentary sovereignty that was established by the Glorious Revolution as a fundamental feature of the British constitution.

"Thus, the spice trade came to link Lisbon with Asia; sugar connected the Portuguese capital [Lisbon] with America; and the slave trade forged a chain across the southern Atlantic. From this time on, all struggles for dominance within Europe would take on a global character, as the European states sought to control the oceans and to oust their competitors from points of vantage gained in Asia, America, or Africa. From then on, too, events in one part of the globe would have repercussions in other parts. The several continents would be drawn into one worldwide system of connections. . . . The Dutch, then fighting their prolonged war against Spain, thus found an excuse and an opportunity to oust the Portuguese from their holdings in Asia and America. The Dutch East India Company was founded in 1602 in order to break the Portuguese monopoly over the spice trade. In 1621, a Dutch West India company was created as well." Which of the following pieces of evidence best supports the author's implied claim that the Columbian Exchange fostered global connections? A) Conflicts in different parts of the world began to have effects on other regions. B) The East Indies was a focus of European competition. C) The trade in sugar was important to the Portuguese capital of Lisbon. D) The Dutch fought a prolonged war for independence from Spain.

C Wolf's mention of the sugar trade in the first paragraph supports the claim that the Columbian Exchange was a significant factor in the globalization of the world trade economy dominated by Europe. The transfer of the sugarcane plant from the Mediterranean to South America and the Caribbean led to the creation of a vast industry devoted to the production and transport of sugar and sugar products.

Source 1: "Let London manufacture those fabrics of hers to her heart's content; Holland her chambrays [a fine lightweight woven fabric]; Florence her cloth; the Indies their beaver and vicuña [wool]; Milan her brocades; Italy and Flanders their linens, so long as our capital can enjoy them. The only thing it proves is that all nations train journeymen for Madrid and that Madrid is the queen of Parliaments, for all the world serves her and she serves nobody." Source 2: "The Spanish nation today possesses the greatest wealth and the largest income of all the Christians. But the love of luxury and the comforts of civilization have overcome them, and you will rarely find one of this nation who engages in trade or travels abroad for commerce as do the other Christian nations such as the Dutch, the English, the French, the Genoese and their like. Similarly, the handicrafts practiced by the lower classes and common people are despised by this nation, which regards itself as superior to the other Christian nations. Most of those who practice these crafts in Spain are Frenchmen who flock to Spain to look for work and in a short time make great fortunes." Which of the following best describes the impact that the economic and political processes described in the passages would have in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries? A) Spain would maintain its predominant economic position in Europe. B) Spain would embrace the economic principles outlined by Adam Smith in The Wealth of Nations. C) Spain would become the leading innovator in new financial practices, such as the use of joint-stock companies. D) Spain would fall behind England, France, and the Netherlands in economic development.

"I may well presume, most Holy Father, that certain people, as soon as they hear that in this book I assert the Earth moves, will cry out that, holding such views, I should at once be hissed off the stage. Many centuries have consented to the establishment of the contrary judgment, namely that the Earth is placed immovably as the central point in the middle of the universe . . . How I came to dare to conceive such motion of the Earth, contrary to the received opinion of the mathematicians and indeed contrary to the impression of the senses, is what your Holiness will expect to hear. So I should like your Holiness to know that I was led to think of a method of computing the motions of the spheres by nothing else than the knowledge that the mathematicians are inconsistent in these investigations. . . . I therefore took pains to read again the works of all the philosophers whose works I could find to seek out whether any of them had ever supposed that the motions of the spheres were other than those demanded by the mathematical schools. I found first in Cicero* that Hicetas* had realized that the Earth moved. Afterwards I found in Plutarch* that certain others had held the same opinion." Copernicus' citation of Cicero and Plutarch was likely intended to counter which of the following ideas? A) Traditional beliefs in astrology and spiritual forces B) New conceptions of physical laws of nature formulated by Isaac Newton and others C) The influence of the new scientific method formulated by Francis Bacon D) The use of classical authorities to support traditional views of the natural world

D Copernicus' claim that he found indications in the works of Cicero and Plutarch that his theory had been proposed in ancient times reflects the importance of such classical examples for intellectuals of his time. Copernicus was making a claim that contradicted a long-standing view of the universe, and he used classical sources to give his claim more substance.

"These early modern [commercial] 'revolutions' are supposed to have been spearheaded by females, who increasingly purchased clothes and [groceries] in the market, using cash they earned from reallocating time from unpaid household work to market jobs. This might seem perfectly consistent with what we know about the Netherlands and England. But in most early modern European economies women faced a huge array of institutional constraints on their work and consumption choices. [For example], the southwest German territory of Württemberg differed from the Low Countries and England, but resembled many other parts of continental Europe, in the enduring powers of its guilds, communities, and local religious institutions. Württemberg retained occupational guilds until 1862, not just in traditional handicrafts, but also in export oriented proto-industries, shopkeeping, and merchant trading. Württemberg also had powerful local communities, whose courts, councils, officials, and citizens' assemblies enabled them to monitor and regulate work, leisure, consumption, education, marriage, sexuality, and economic transactions. Württemberg established local church courts in the 1640s which remained active until c. 1890, had the power to impose fines and incarceration as well as religious penances, and closely regulated work, consumption, sociability, sexuality, poor relief, and cultural practices." Which of the following does the author use to support her argument that the pattern of the Commercial Revolution in England and the Netherlands represented an exceptional case rather than a pattern characteristic of Europe in general? A) The institutional restraints guilds placed on economic activity in those countries. B) The strong role of national churches in the economic activities of England and the Netherlands. C) The role of community norms in enforcing restrictions on economic activities in those countries. D) The transition of women into market jobs, which increased purchases of consumer goods in England and the Netherlands.

D Ogilvie argues that historians of the Commercial Revolution have concentrated on the role of women in spurring the transformation because they have mostly studied England and the Netherlands, where the increasing participation of women in the commercial marketplace was in fact a key element. Ogilvie challenges the notion that the pattern seen in England and the Netherlands is representative of most of Europe.

"You should know that the said King of Portugal has leased this island to Christians for ten years, so that no one can enter the bay to trade with the Arabs save those who hold the license. These Christians have dwellings on the island and factories where they buy and sell with the said Arabs who come to the coast to trade for merchandise of various kinds, such as woolen cloths, cotton, silver and coarse cloth, that is cloaks, carpets, and similar articles and above all grain, for they are always short of food. The Arabs give in exchange slaves whom the Arabs bring from the land of the Blacks, and gold dust. The King therefore caused a castle to be built on the island to protect this trade forever. For this reason, Portuguese caravels come and go all year long to this island." Other European states reacted to the Portuguese establishment of a trading-post empire by A) developing their internal industries B) shifting their focus to trading in the Mediterranean C) increasing overland trade with the Ottoman Empire D) developing rival colonies and overseas trading networks

D Spain, and later France, England, and the Netherlands, all sought to establish colonial control of the Americas, the African coast, and parts of Asia in an effort to reap the benefits of commercial wealth, leading to rivalry and conflict.

"A royal, or legitimate, monarchy, is that in which the subjects obey the laws of the monarch, and the monarch obeys the laws of nature, granting his subjects their natural liberty and private property. A despotic monarchy is that in which the prince is lord of all goods and all persons by virtue of conquest . . . and governs his subjects as a father of a household rules his slaves. A tyrannical monarchy is that in which the monarch, contemptuous of the laws of nature, abuses a free people and treats them like slaves, appropriating their goods as his own." Bodin's discussion of tyrannical and despotic monarchies reflects which of the following political developments in Europe? A) The concentration of power in increasingly centralized governments B) The increased influence of the Protestant Reformation on European politics C) The expanding political influence of new commercial elites D) The decreasing authority of the Papacy in international affairs

ABodin's discussion of despotic and tyrannical monarchies reflects the establishment of new monarchical regimes in early modern Europe. The growth in power of these new monarchies often came at the expense of the traditional power of the aristocracy or other local authorities.

"Anno Domini 1618, a great comet appeared in November. To see the thing was terrible and strange, and it moved me and changed my disposition so that I started to write, because I thought that it meant something big would occur, as then really did happen. . . . Anno Domini 1619, Ferdinand became the Holy Roman Emperor, under whom a great persecution happened through war, unrest, and the spilling of the blood of Christians. . . . First, he started a big war in Bohemia, which he then oppressed and subjugated under his religion, then almost the whole of Germany was conquered, all of which I can hardly describe and explain." The ability of someone of Herberle's social status in seventeenth-century Germany to read and write was most likely the result of which of the following? A) The diffusion of Renaissance humanist ideas to areas outside Italy B) The Protestant Reformation's emphasis on individual study of the Bible C) The establishment of mandatory systems of national education D) The growth of representative forms of government as alternatives to absolutism

"Meanwhile in 1517 Luther attained a sudden fame by bluntly attacking the papal Indulgences then being preached and sold not far from Wittenberg by the Dominican Johann Tetzel. In view of Tetzel's long experience of such fund raising, he gave vent to some amazingly incautious phrases, saying that God must forgive sins if the pope did so; and that as soon as the coin rang in the chest, the soul for which it was paid would pass immediately from purgatory to heaven. . . . The whole background of Tetzel's campaign of 1517 looked unsavory to informed minds. . . . Tetzel was openly accompanied by an accountant from the banking house of Fugger, charged to collect the cash of the faithful, prior to the transfer of the necessary credits to Rome. . . . Luther's revolt thus occurred as a protest against an especially obnoxious example of the long-standing tendency to reduce salvation to a business transaction. His initial protest had less to do with the theory of indulgences than with their practical effects upon simple men and women. In accordance with academic custom, he issued his Ninety-five theses, yet they were in effect aimed at the whole German public, for which they were rapidly translated and printed." Which of the following evidence does the author provide to support the claim that Luther's theses were meant for a wider audience? A)His criticism of Johann Tetzel on theological grounds B) His following of academic custom in publishing the theses in Latin C) The translation of Luther's theses and their rapid printing D) The subtle nature of Luther's criticism of a little-known figure such as Tetzel

C Luther and his supporters' use of the printing press allowed his views to be widely spread, and translating the theses into German meant that their content was not just material for a debate to be held among Latin-reading church officials, but for the broader public in Germany to hear Luther's criticisms of church practices.

"If a Prince wants to maintain his rule, he must learn how not to be virtuous, and to make use of this or not according to his need." The passage above best reflects the argument of A) Thomas More B) Machiavelli C) Louis XIV D) Frederick the Great E) Napoleon I

The leading economic center of early seventeenth century Europe was A) Rome B) Amsterdam C) London D) Prague E) Hamburg

"You should note well that the noble spirit of this Prince [Henry of Portugal], by a sort of natural constraint, was ever urging him both to begin and to carry out very great deeds. For which reason, after the taking of Ceuta [a port in Morocco] he always kept ships well armed against the Muslims, both for war, and because he had also a wish to know the land that lay beyond the Canary Islands and Cape Bojador . . . since it seemed to him that if he or some other lord did not endeavor to gain that knowledge, no mariners or merchants would ever attempt it . . . seeing also that no other prince took any pains in this matter, he sent out his own ships toward those parts, to have manifest certainty of them all. And to this he was stirred up by his zeal for the service of God and of the King Edward his lord and brother, who then reigned. . . . [Another] reason was that if there chanced to be in those lands some population of Christians, or some havens, into which it would be possible to sail without peril, many kinds of merchandise might be brought to this realm . . . and also the products of this realm might be taken there, which traffic would bring great profit to our countrymen. . . . [Another] reason was his great desire to make increase in the faith of our Lord Jesus Christ and to bring to him all the souls that should be saved." Based on the passage, what does de Azurara argue was the major motive behind Henry's actions? A) His desire for profit B) His urge to conquer C) His Christian faith D) His need to serve his brother

C De Azurara claims that Prince Henry's Christian faith was a major motive behind his decision to initiate Portuguese exploration of the West African coast. De Azurara mentions Christianity in some capacity three times within the passage. De Azurara mentions Henry's religious zeal, his desire to find out whether there are Christians outside of Europe and, in the last paragraph, his desire to "make increase in the faith of our Lord Jesus Christ" through conversion of non-Christian peoples.

By the early seventeenth century, which of the following European nations was the greatest commercial power in Europe? A) England B) France C) The Netherlands D) Spain E) Sweden

Major Protestant and Roman Catholic leaders of the sixteenth century condemned the Anabaptists because Anabaptists A) rejected the Bible as the source of religious truth B) favored government enforcement of morality C) advocated a complete separation of church and state D) restored the privileges of the clergy E) tried to reconcile Protestant and Catholic teachings

"They are ungrateful, changeable, simulators and dissimulators, runaways in danger, eager for gain; while you do well by them they are all yours; they offer you their blood, their property, their lives, their children when need is far off; but when it comes near you, they tum about." The political assessment above of Renaissance citizens can be found in A) Castiglione's The Book of the Courtier B) Shakespeare's Julius Caesar C) More's Utopia D) Machiavelli's The Prince E) Cellini's Autobiography

https://assets.learnosity.com/organisations/537/media.academicmerit.com/c8f6ca2a277934c29ed02bed01cce103/original.jpg (Copy and paste image address to see the picture!) The inscription reads: "I, Albrecht Dürer of Nuremberg painted myself thus, with undying colors, in my twenty-eighth year." The image is best understood in the context of which of the following developments during the Renaissance? A) The emergence of Mannerist and Baroque artistic styles B) The development of cultural expressions that reflected nationalist values C) The revival of Greek and Roman classical styles D) The growth of individualist humanism in artistic expression

D Self-portraiture corresponds with the development of artists being seen as unique and creative geniuses as opposed to merely craftsmen. Dürer's subject matter (himself) and the inscription suggest the type of self-conscious individualism characteristic of the Renaissance.

Martin Luther's response to the German Peasants' War of 1524-1525 demonstrated his A) ignorance of the economic plight of the peasantry B) emphasis on the social aspects of Christ's teaching C) refusal to comment on social or political issues D) belief in the necessity of a unified German state E) support of the prevailing social and political order

The ability of relatively small European forces to conquer the powerful Aztec and Incan empires can be attributed to all of the following EXCEPT A) lack of immunity to European diseases among Aztec and Incan peoples B) superior European military technology C) ineffective defenses of Aztec and Incan cities D) indigenous people's lack of familiarity with horses E) successful European missionary activity

The individual who first provided mathematical formulas supporting the Copernican theory and explaining planetary motion was A) Galileo Galilei B) Isaac Newton C) Tycho Brahe D) Rene Descartes E) Johannes Kepler

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