AP European History - full year set

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manor lord

also known as the seigneur was responsible for maintaining order

Diplomatic system

ambassadors were sent to various places

Lazarillo de Tormes

among the first modern novels (Spanish Picturesque novel)

Ben Johnson

an English writer who wrote plays

taille

an annual direct tax, usually on land or property, that provided a regular source of income for the French monarchy, and the Nobility was exempt from

Cathay

an archaic or literary name for China

guilds

an association of persons of the same trade or pursuits, formed to protect mutual interests and maintain standards. Student, merchant, and craft

Confessions of Augsburg

an attempted compromise of religous faith between Lutheran and Catholic princes of the HRE. The statement was rejected by the Catholic princes, but became traditional statement of the Lutheran Church. The statement included the ideas of salvation through faith alone, the bible as the sole authority and priesthood of all believers.

salon

an informal gathering held regularly in private homes and presided over by a socially eminent woman; spread from France in the seventeenth century to other countries in the eighteenth century

Louis XI

'Spider King" Able to get taille into a permanant tax forming an income for the government. Used swiss to kill Charles The Bold and take his land: Burgundy.

Erasmus

(1466?-1536) Dutch Humanist, religious education. Wrote Praise of Folly.

Long Parliament

(1640-1648) desperate for money after Scottish invasion of northern England-Charles finally agreed to demands by Parliament: Parliament could not be dissolved w/o its own consent; had to meet a min. of once every 3 years; ship money abolished; leaders of persecution of Puritans to be tried and executed; Star Chamber abolished; common law courts supreme to king's courts; refused funds to raise army to defeat Irish revolt-Puritans came to represent majority in Parliament

knight

(Fr.)chevalier, (Sp.)caballero, originally a person of noble birth trained to arms and chivalry

slavery statistics

10-20 milliion slaves taken from Africa to various places, 1/5 of population in US were slaves, SC 60%, New England 3%, 1/2 of population in Brazil was slaves

Royal General Farms

100 wealthy financial families, the crown leased out its right to collect the salt tax in return for large lump-sum advances from this unit

Fourth Lateran Council

1215, culminated the reforms of the past century . 1200 bishops and abbots with nobles from across Europe, defined fundamental doctrines

parlements

13 courts in France's judicial system

Crécy

1346 the first real battle of the 100 Years' War, French army overwhelmed the English who massed their archers onto surrounding hills

Poitiers

1356 John II attacked an English army and was captured

Golden Bull

1356, an edict that officially recognized that the various German princes and kings were autonomous rulers. It also established the procedure that the HRE would be chosen by seven great princes without the interference of the pope

Ciompi revolt

1378, Florence. Wool workers revolted and forced recognition of two guilds of laborers and the guilds of masters who controlled the government until 1382

Great Rebellion

1381 English peasants rose against new taxes

Agincourt

1415 French knights dismounted and ran through a muddy field in an attempt to attack the English who overcompensated and slaughtered the French

Assembly of Notables

150 individuals convened for the purpose of enlisting their support for reforms of Calonne

Twelve Articles

1525 - writen by representatives of the Swabian peasants in a Greman city, expressed their grievances, summarized the agarian crisis of the early 16th century

Twelve Articles

1525 list of complaints made by the peasants in the German Peasant revolt

Peace of Augsburg

1555 agreement declaring that the religion of each German state would be decided by its ruler

slavery stats

1600, 9,500 Africans exported to the New World every year; by 1700 36, 000 exported to the New World annually

Book of Sports

1618 order by James I of England which permitted games on Sunday for people who attended the Church of England services; this upset the Puritans, who believed quite the contrary was appropriate; rescinded after many clergy refused to read this order from the pulpit

Petition of Right

1628 restated right to a fair trial, no parlimentary taxation, and the confiscation of property by martial law

Petition of Right

1628. Signed by Charles I. No imprisonment without due cause; no taxes levied without Parliament's consent; soldiers not housed in private homes; no martial law during peace time.

Neapolitan Revolt

1647 after Spanish began taxing fruit

Declaration of Rights

1689

toleration act

16899 granted religious freedom to almost all groups of protestants

Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots

16th C. Queen of Scots, executed for assassination plots of Elizabeth I

War of American Independence

1775-1783, French borrowed money at high rates to help support the 13 colonies against the British in this war

Cecil Rhodes

19th century British explorer, found diamond mines in Rhodesia

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

26 August, based on the Enlightenment works of Montesquieu and Locke. Established property as a "natural" right of man, institutions based on liberty

Hapsburg-Valois Wars

5 wars between France and Germany (1521-1555)

Avignon Papacy

70 years of French control over the Roman Catholic Church

départements

83 administrative units created by the Constituent Assembly

John of Leyden

: led a radical group of Anabaptists to take control of the northwestern German city of Munster. He had 16 wives.

Rise of Brandenburg-Prussia

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Girolamo Savonarola

A Dominican friar in Florence who preached against sin and corruption and gained a large following; he expelled the Medici from Florence but was later excommunicated and executed for criticizing the Pope; wanted to overthrow the Medici Dynasty

Leonardo Bruni

A Florentine who was the first to propose civic humanism in his book "New Cicero".

George I of Hanover

A German prince from Hanover who became King of England thanks to the Act of Settlement.

John Pym

A Parliamentary leader of the opposition to the throne. He led Parliament in refusing to give funds to the king until he gave into their grievances.

Earl Harold Godwinson

A claimant for the throne of King Edward the Confessor, defeated the Norwegian's army and the king but was killed at Hastings

Taille

A direct tax on the peasantry and a major source of royal income. Increased by Colbert.

Priesthood of All Believers

A doctorine that states all baptised followers of Christ are preists in the eyes of God.

Peasants' War

A group of German peasants that took up arms against their wealthy landowners. Luther did not approve

Treaty of the Pyrenees

A humiliating treaty forced on Spain, making France Europe's dominant power.

Corvee

A labor tax that created a national force of drafted workers to improve roads and conditions of internal travel.

Grand Remonstrance

A list of grievances of the throne given to Charles I by the Long Parliament.

Battle of Marston Moor

A major Scottish/Parliamentary victory against the Royalists in 1644.

vassal

A man loyal to his lord and sustained by the land, a fief, granted to him by the lord. Had the right to the land as long as he continued to provide the service to the lord, ran the manors

Bohemia

A marriage between the royal families between Bohemia and England spread the ideas of Lollard (attacks Pope's authority) & Hus - leads to revolution when Hus is killed

Linear Perspective

A mathematical system for creating the illusion of space and distance on a flat surface. The system originated in Florence, Italy in the early 1400s.

Hampton Court Conference

A meeting between King James and Puritan leaders. James I refused to acknowledge any of their grievances, so this meeting was largely fruitless.

Council of Trent

A meeting of Roman Catholic leaders, called by Pope Paul III to rule on doctrines criticized by the Protestant reformers.

Diet of Worms

A meeting summoned by Charles V that commanded Martin Luther to abandon his ideas. Luther refused and was branded an outlaw.

Anabaptists

A member of a radical movement of the 16th-century Reformation that viewed baptism solely as an external witness to a believer's conscious profession of faith, rejected infant baptism, and believed in the separation of church from state, in the shunning of nonbelievers, and in simplicity of life.

Peace of God

A movement that attempted to protect peasants, merchants, and clerics from aristocratic violence and limit the times when warfare was allowed

Truce of God

A movement that attempted to protect peasants, merchants, and clerics from aristocratic violence and limit the times when warfare was allowed

serf

A person who is bound to the land and owned by the feudal lord

Thorough

A policy encouraged by Thomas Wentworth that supported absolutism. It did so by levying extraparliamentary taxes.

Bishop Jacques-Benigne' Bousset

A political theorist and an ardent supporter of absolutism. Coined the "divine right of kings."

Glorious Revolution

A reference to the political events of 1688-1689, when James II was removed from his throne and was replaced by his daughter Mary and her husband, Prince William of Orange. This was extermely popular and sanctioned by almost all of Parliament.

politique

A ruler who suppresses his or her religious designs for his or her kingdom in favor of political expediency. Examples: Elizabeth I (England), Henry IV (France).

Navigation Acts

A series of laws that regulated trade in the English colonies strictly between them and the mother country. The colonists hated this because they could get better prices elsewhere.

Habsburg-Valois (or Italian) Wars

A series of wars lasting almost 100 years between most of the city-states of Italy, the Papal States, most of the major states of Western Europe, as well as the Ottoman Empire, basically over territory

Fronde

A series of widespread rebellions in response to the policies of Cardinal Mazarin. Resistance to France's transition to an absolute monarchy.

Sebastien Vauban

A skilled military engineer and adviser to Louis XIV. He perfected the arts of fortifying and besieging towns.

Ship Money

A tax imposed during wartime on coastal cities to fund a navy in return for naval protection. Charles I levied this tax during a time of peace to make money, and he also extended it to inland provinces.

King William's War

A war between France and England in North America. Fought during the same period as the Nine Years' War.

Nine Years' War

A war between France and the League of Augsburg.

War of Devolution

A war between Spain and France over a claim to the Spanish Belgian provinces.

presented a pamphlet that captured the spirit of the Third Estate's representatives.

Abbie Sieyes

A man paying annual taxes equal to three days of local labor wages, and only they could vote. They chose electors, who then in turn voted for the members of legislature.

Active Citizen

Cardinal Richelieu

Adviser to Louis XIII. He encouraged the king to adopt absolutist policies. Laid the foundations for the political acendancy of the French monarchy.

Cardinal Mazarin

Adviser to Louis XIV. Encouraged absolutism.

League of Augsburg

After France conquered Stasbourg, England, Spain, Sweden, the United Provinces, and the electorates of Bavaria, Saxony, and the Palatinate formed this to oppose France.

Après moi le deluge

After me the flood, everything fell apart after the reign of Louis XV

Duke Philip the Good of Burgundy

Allied himself with the English, profited from the war with a lordship including Flanders

open-field system

Allots all peasant households a portion of all different sorts of land

Jesuits

Also known as the Society of Jesus; founded by Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556) as a teaching and missionary order to resist the spread of Protestantism.

Riksmuseum

Amsterdam, Rembrandt and Van Gogh

Machiavelli, The Prince, The Discourses

An Italian philosopher/writer, and is considered one of the main founders of modern political science

Leon Battista Alberti

An accomplished humanist scholar who was a noted architect and builder in Florence.

Solemn League and Covenant

An alliance forged between the Roundheads and the Scots, under the condition that the Scottish Presbyterian system would be adopted by the Church of England after the Civil War.

Patronage system

An approach to managing the bureaucracy whereby people are appointed to important government positions as a reward for political services they have rendered and because of their partisan loyalty

Treaty of Utrecht

An armistice between France and England. Concluded hostilities with Holland.

Mercantilism

An economic system which exploits colonies and territories by encouraging exportation of goods to the mother country.

Colonel Thomas Pride

An officer of Oliver Cromwell, who was responsible for Pride's Purge.

Hanseatic League

An organization of north German and Scandinavian cities for the purpose of establishing a commercial alliance.

Pilgrimage of Grace

An uprising in the North of England in 1536 posed a serious threat to the English crown. Both gentry and peasants were angry over the dissolution of monasteries, and feared that their spiritual needs would no longer be met. Henry VIII was able to suppress this as a result of his political power.

Oroonoko

Aphra Behn

William Laud

Archbishop of Canterbury under Charles I in England. He tried to force the Scottish to use the English Book of Common Prayer. He was later executed by Parliament during the English Civil War.

Peter Parler

Architect of Saint Vitus Cathedral, used height/space and individualism to rethink architecture and sculpture

Revocation of the Edict of Nantes

As part of his final stage of his persecution of French Huguenots, Louis XIV did this. As a result, Protestant churches and schools were closed,

Brienne turned to this group to get funding for the national debt, they refused and reduced its existing contribution to the government.

Assembly of Clergy

Met with Calonne, demanded that the aristocracy be allowed greater share in the direct government of the kingdom. Drawn from the upper ranks of aristocracy and the church.

Assembly of Notables

arengo

Assembly which contained all adult male citizens, held sovereignty in the Italian communes

Government bonds based on the value of confiscated church lands issued during the early revolution.

Assignants

Neoplatonism

Attempt to synthesis plato's views with church; idea that material world is reflection of spiritual world and everything is bound by love

The Hundred Years' War

Based on three conflicts concerning Gascony, Flemish cloth towns, and succession to the French throne

More than 800 French citizens marched to Bastille, a fortress that once held political prisoners, in search for weapons for the militia.

Bastille

medieval tournament

Battles with individual knights held, jousting with wooden lances

Geneva

Became home to protestant exiles from England, Scotland, and France, who later returned to their countries with Calvinist ideas. Calvin established a theocracy in Geneva by 1540

Ancient History

Began with the development of written language

Modern History

Began with the discovery of the new world

Medieval History

Began with the fall of the Romans (476)

Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds

Bernard de Fontenelle

Colonnade in piazza in front of St. Peter's basilica

Bernini's greatest architectural achievement

Canopy over St. Peter's Tomb

Bernini's sculpture

Ecstasy of St. Teresa

Bernini's, alterpiece, evokes emotion.

Castiglione, Book of the Courtier

Book on how to be a good renaissance man or woman

Index of Prohibited Books

Books that supported Protestantism or that were overly critical of the Church were banned. Possession could be severe

usury

Borrowing and lending on credit. Practice condemned by the church because it was thought to be making money by manipulating time

Henry IV

Brilliant politique king of France who brought the religious wars to a close. He passed the Edict of Nantes, which helped bring tranquility to the state. He purified the Catholic League by making France a Catholic country that tolerated Huguenots, although he was Protestant.

Spanish Gentry

Caballeros and Hidalgos are known as this

list of grievances submitted to the French crown with the Estates General met in 1789.

Cahiers de doleances

predestination

Calvin's religious theory that God has already planned out a person's life.

Roger Mahony

Cardinal of the Los Angeles Catholic Diocese

Cardinal Mazrin

Cardinal who along with Queen Anne advised Louis XIV

Thomas Wolsey

Cardinal, highest ranking church official and lord chancellor. Dismissed by Henry VIII for not getting the pope to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon.

Jansenists

Catholics whose doctrines and practices resembled some aspects of Protestantism, stressed the need for God's grace in achieving salvation, Louis XIV closed them down

Early Renaissance (art)

Centered in Florence, this era showed a renewed interest in the classic art form. It showed great interest in the early Greek and Roman styles of art. It inspired humanism and a close look into human anatomy.

High Renaissance (art)

Centered in Rome, commissioned by the public and the state

Maupeou

Chancellor, attempted to overthrow the Parlement of Paris, sent magistrates into exile and established new courts on appointment. Attempt failed but it revealed the dependency of the monarch

Crushed the attempts of urban workers to protect their wages by enacting the Chapelier Law, which forbade workers' associations.

Chapelier Law

Became minister of finance. Encouraged internal trade, to lower some taxes, and to transform peasants' services to money payments. He urged the introduction of a new land tax that would require payments from all landowners regardless of their social status.

Charles Alexandre de Calonne

Thomas Wentworth

Charles I's most trusted adviser, who later became the earl of Stafford. He favored absolutism, and imposed the "Through" policy.

Cavaliers

Charles I's private forces that remained loyal to him throughout the English Civil War

Declaration of Indulgence

Charles II suspended all laws against Catholic and Protestant dissenters, but Parliament refused to continue funding the Dutch war unless it was rescinded

Declaration of Indulgence 1672

Charles II's attempt at extending protection to "Protestant nonconformists" i.e. Catholics.

Battle of Poltava

Charles XII of Sweden invaded Russia and was defeated

Earl of Stafford

Charles' I loyal political adviser

Avignon

City in France where Clement V decides to reside instead of Rome - causes great Schism

Transformed the Roman Catholic Church in France into a branch of the secular state, and created embittered relations between the French church and state.

Civil Constitution of the Clergy

Gregory VII

Clashed with King Henry VII. Excommunicated the king of England for appointing bishops and then attempting to depose him but forgive him after Henry traveled across the Alps as an act of repentance. Was chased out of Rome after he tried to depose Henry again

Henry IV

Clashed with Pope Gregory VII. After an attempt to depose the pope, he was excommunicated and then traveled across the Alps to repent in front of the pope. After he was granted forgiveness he began appointing bishops again and was thus deposed. But this time, his bishops supported him and chased Gregory to southern Italy

Classicism

Classicists retained the ideals of the Renaissance and produced art that was much more restrained and ordered than their Baroque counterparts. This was the art of science.

merchant-drapiers

Cloth makers. In a small extremely wealthy group, they strictly regulated production and trade

The National Guard's insignia, an emblem with red, white, and blue stripes. Became the revolutionary war badge and eventually the flag of France.

Cockade

Pride's Purge

Colonel Thomas Pride kept royalist members of Parliament from taking there seats, creating a Rump Parliament of 50 antimonarch members. Oliver Cromwell used this Parliament to further his own agenda.

Established by the Convention that became more important and eventually enjoyed almost dictatorial power.

Committee of Public Safety

Committee of representatives from the sections of the city that the government of Paris passed to.

Commune

crossbow

Complicated weapon, smaller, more difficult for knights to wield

Decretum Gratiani

Concord of Discordant Canons, Church law. Prepared in 1140 in Bologna by Gratian

longbowmen

Considered the most important soldiers in professional companies, they wielded longbows as their weapons. Powerful weapons that required less training time

Lead by Gracchus Babeuf, he and his followers called for more radical democracy and more equality of property.

Conspiracy of Equals

Reflected the Thermidorian determination to reject both constitutional monarchy and democracy

Constitution of the Year III

Jean-Baptiste Colbert

Controller general of finances and a brilliant adviser to Louis XIV. Created a economic base for Louis XIV to finance his wars.

Short Parliament

Convened to raise money to fight the Scots when they rebelled. It was dissolved when Pym demanded Charles redress political and religious grievances

The French radical legislative body

Convention

Alexander VI

Corrupt Pope of the Borgia family, encouraged his son (Cesare) to create Italian state by any means necessary

The lower body of the legislature that was was composed of men at least thirty who were either married or single.

Council of 500

The upper body of legislature that was composed of men over forty years of age who were either husbands or widowers.

Council of Elders

Council of Constance

Council set on ending the Great Schism -- Forced all popes to resign, and elected a new one

Catholic Reformation

Counter Reformation; A 16th century movement in which the Roman Catholic Church sought to make changes in response to the Protestant Reformation

Richard

Cromwell's son was Lord Protectarate after him but was unable to continue his hold on powe

The deistic cult that reflected Rousseau's vision of a civic religion that would induce morality among citizens.

Cult of the Supreme Being

Jan Hus

Czechoslovakian religious reformer who anticipated the Reformation. He questioned the infallibility of the Catholic Church. Was excommunicated for attacking the corruption of the clergy; he was burned at the stake

William and Mary

Daughter of James II who was protestant she and her husband ruled England

Leopold II and Frederick William II issued this to promise to intervene in France to protect the royal family and to preserve the monarchy of the other major European powers agreed.

Declaration of Pillnitz

The National Constituent Assembly issed the Declaration of the Rights f Man and Citizen, which was a statement of broad and political principles before the new French Constitution.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

Written by Olympe, it demanded that women be regarded as citizens and not merely as daughters, sisters, wives, and mothers of citizens.

Declaration of the Rights of Women

Act of Supremacy

Declared the king (Henry VIII) the supreme head of the Church of England in 1534

William of Normandy

Defeated Earl Harold Godwinson at Hastings to claim the English throne

The National Constituent Assembly abolished the ancient French provinces and established 83 departments of generally equal size names after geographical features.

Departments

Capetians

Descendants of Hugh Capet, all of whom between 987 and 1314 left a male heir, they were able to absorb land of other ruling families. Built a power base in the Île-de-France

King John of Bohemia

Died at the Battle of Crécy when he lead men into battle with their horses tied together

The executive body that was to be a five-person group chosen by the Elders from a list submitted by the Council of 500.

Directory

Petition of Right

Document prepared by Parliament and signed by King Charles I of England in 1628; challenged the idea of the divine right of kings and declared that even the monarch was subject to the laws of the land

Yearly grant from the church to the monarchy.

Don Gratuit

Philip, Duke of Anjou

Duke who was named heir to the Spanish throne after Charles II died

rise of the Dutch merchant class

Dutch had a middle class that was known for trading, the Dutch business was business, most prosperous and best educated in Europe

A conservative leader who was deeply troubled by the aroused spirit of reform, he defended inherited privileges and those of the English monarchy and aristocracy, and predicted reform would lead to much chaos/tyranny.

Edmund Burke

Elizabethan Settlement

Elizabeth and Parliament required conformity to the Church of England but people were, in effect, allowed to worship Protestantism and Catholicism privately

Aristocrats who left France and settled in countries near the French border

Emigres

Third Crusade

Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, Philip II Augustus, and Richard the Lion-Hearted. Frederick drowned in Anatolia, Philip returned to France, and Richard signed a peace treaty with Saladin before he was captured

Peace of Lodi 1454

Ended a war among Milan, Florence, and Venice. Cosimo de Medici made a lasting peace by having an alliance between Milan, Naples, and Florence on one side, and Venice and the Papal States on the other. Lasted for 40 years, and represents one of earliest appearances in European history of a diplomatic balance of power for maintaining peace.

Peace of Nijmwegen

Ended the hostilities of the second invasion of the Netherlands. There were minor territorial adjustments. Only the United Netherlands maintained all of its territory.

Grand Alliance

England, Holland, and the Holy Roman Empire formed this to oppose France's expansion.

Triple Alliance

England, Sweden, and the United Provinces of Holland formed this to combat France.

William Langland

English author of Piers Plowman, society from peasantry perspective

Geoffrey Chaucer

English author of The Canterbury Tales, characters represent the spectrum of society

Mary Astell

English author, first feminist of the times, wrote A Serious Proposal to the Ladies, Reflections upon Marriage, Essay in Defence of the Female Sex

Wars of Roses

English civil war between the house of York, white rose, and the house of Lancaster, red rose

Quakers

English dissenters who broke from Church of England, preache a doctrine of pacificism, inner divinity, and social equity, under William Penn they founded Pennsylvania; Anabaptists

Henry VIII

English king who created the Church of England after the Pope refused to annul his marriage (divorce with Church approval)

Oliver Cromwell

English military, political, and religious figure who led the Parliamentarian victory in the English Civil War (1642-1649) and called for the execution of Charles I. As lord protector of England (1653-1658) he ruled as a virtual dictator.

Extreme sans-culottes leaders

Enrages

Otto I the Great

Established the main outlines of German imperial policy. Defeated the Magyars. His succeeding dynasties included the Saxons, Salians, and Staufens

The notables claimed that they had no right to consent to new taxes and that such a right was vested only in the medieval institution of the Estates General of France. The notables believed that calling the Estates General would produce a victor for the nobility over the monarchy.

Estates General of France

Louis XVI dismissed Calonne and replaced him with Etienne, archbishop of Toulouse and chief opponent of Calonne.

Etienne Charles Lomenie de Brienne

First Crusade

European nobles conquered Jerusalem in 1099 and established a Latin kingdom in Palestine

Triangular trade

Europeans take sugar, cotton, rum, tobacco and coffee back to Europe, these things produce pots, pans, guns, alcohol and horses which are taken to Africa and exchanged for slaves, slaves taken to the Americas, slaves used to produce goods (cycle continues)

Jagiellon Dynasty

Family of monarchs of Poland-Lithuania, Bohemia, and Hungary that became one of the most powerful in east central Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries

Gascony

Fief of the French king held by the English, one of the causes of the 100 Years' War

Formigny

Final major battle of the war, the French used gunpowder

Philip VI

First Valois king of France after Charles IV died without a throne

naval wars with England

First, Second, and Third Anglo-Dutch wars, finally stopped when William and Mary got on the throne of England

Ypres

Flemish cloth town

Peter Paul Rubens

Flemish painter known for his large, lush style

Rubens

Flemish school of art, voluptuous women

Filippo Brunelleschi

Florentine architect who was the first great architect of the Italian Renaissance; built first dome

John Wycliffe

Forerunner to the Reformation. Attacked the corruption of the clergy, and questioned the power of the pope.

Richard the Lionhearted

Fought in the Third Crusade, signed a peace treaty with Saladin

Dominic

Founded an order of friars, preached to society and emphasized intellectual activity

Ignatius Loyola

Founded the Society of Jesus, resisted the spread of Protestantism, wrote Spiritual Exercises.

Cardinal de Fleury

France finally achieved a measure of financial stability under his leadership, most powerful member of the governemnt after the deathy of the regent, aimed to avoid adventure abroad and keep social peace at home, balanced the budget and carried out a large project for road and canal construction

effects of the wars of Louis XIV

France was in debt and lost a bunch of lives, only thing they gained was Strausburg

Adalbero of Laon

French bishop who described the ideal structure of society as composed of three groups: those who worked, fought, and prayed

Rabelais

French humanist who authored the satirical writings "Gargantua" and "Pantagruel".

Louis XIV

French king how established a powerful centralized monarchy. Established the prototype of absolutism.

Clement VII

French pope chosen after Urban VI refused to resign, took up residence in Avignon

Bernard de Fontenelle

French writer who wrote Conversations on the PLurality of Worlds. Presented as a dialogue between anaristocratcic woman and a man of the world, made the Copernican, heliocentric view of the universe available to the literate public.

Romance languages

French, Spanish, Italian, Romanian, and Portuguese

Sebastian Bach

German Lutheran composer wrote St. Matthew Passion, composed secular works for the public and a variety of private patrons

House of Hanover

German Protestant family who had a great-grandson of James I and became the rulers in Great Britain

Electors

German princes who chose the Holy Roman emperor

burgher

German townsmen

Maria Sibylla Merian

German-born painter-scholar whose engravings were widely celebrated for their brillian realism and microscopic clarity, separated from her husband and joined the Labadists, whose members didn't believe in formal marriage ties

Group of Jacobins in the Legislative Assembly that assumed leadership.

Girondists

The Calling

God's voice to work for the church

trivium

Grammar, rhetoric, and logic. Part of the basic education and the first three of the seven liberal arts

Charles IV

Grandson of Henry VII, loyal to Prague, king of Bohemia. Established the University of Prague after U of Paris, cultural policies

Louis XVI

Grandson of Louis XV, obsessed with locks and keys, married to Marie Antoinette

Edward III

Grandson of Philip IV the Fair through his daughter, heir to the French throne

Louis IX

Grandson of Philip who fine-tuned France's administrative machine. Pious and serious about his responsibility as king. He was captured in 1248 as the result of a disastrous crusade. He led the Seventh and Eighth Crusade

An intensification of the peasant disturbances that had begun in the spring and swept across the French countryside.

Great Fear

Christus

Greek word for "sacred oil", anointed kings as one of many representations of God on Earth

Dominicans

Group of friars who gravitated towards the cities of western Europe and its universities

The Plague of the Late Twentieth Century

HIV/AIDS, spread among male homosexuals and IV users

Rudolf I

Habsburg Holy Roman Emperor

Maximilian I

Hapsburg emperor in the HRE, tried to make the HRE centralized (eventually failed), was the reason for Hapsburg family fortunes (strategic marriages, etc)

Johann Eck

He defeated Luther in the Leipzig Debate over indulgences in July 1519. He forced Luther to deny authority of popes and councils.

Blaise Pascal

He published "Provincial Letters" in defense of Jansenism.

Investiture Controversy

Henry IV versus Pope Gregory VII, separate spheres of power

Henry VII

Henry Tudor of the Lancastrian faction, first king of the Tudor dynasty. Married Elizabeth of York

Edward VI

Henry VIII's Protestant son and successor who saw the continuation of the growth of the Church of England; adopted Calvinism

Frederick I Barbarossa

Holy Roman Emperor from 1152 to 1190, drowned in Anatolia during the Third Crusade, tried to reimpose imperial authority on northern Italy

Frederick II

Holy Roman Emperor who regained Jerusalem through a peace treaty with the Muslims in the Sixth Crusade

Charles V, Emperor

Holy Roman Emperor who tried to keep Europe religiously united

Charles V

Holy Roman emperor (1519-1558) and king of Spain as Charles I (1516-1556). He summoned the Diet of Worms (1521) and the Council of Trent (1545-1563).

Hussites

Hus's followers who largely controlled Bohemia throughout the 15th century

Henry II

Husband of Eleanor of Aquitaine, father of Richard the Lionhearted, Duke of Normandy and King of England

L'etat c'est moi

I am the state Louis XIV

Louis of Bavaria

Ignored Pope John XXII's attempt to prevent his succession, invaded Italy and was proclaimed emperor by the people of Rome

Treaty of Dover

In 1670, Charles II and Louis XIV had a secret meeting and allied against the Dutch, as long as Charles promised to convert England to Catholicism when conditions permitted.

Spanish and Italian Inquisitions

In Spain, Moriscos (Christian Moors) and Christian Jews were suspected of returning to their original faiths (Muslim and Judaism) and were thus persecuted or eliminated. In Italy, Pope Paul IV issued a papal bull accusing Jews of killing Christ and ordered Jews to be placed in ghettos. Both of these occurences led to increased persecution of Jews throughout Europe.

Anno Domini

In the year of our lord

agricultural revolution

Increasingly aggressive attitudes toward investment in and management of land that increased production of food in the 1700s

lampblack

India ink, less expensive

Pope Innocent VIII

Instated a crusade - and called for the burning of witches

Spanish Inquisition (1478)

Institution organized by Fernando and Isabel of Spain to hunt out heretical or contrary opinions; subjects of persecution included Protestants, Jews, Muslims, and witches.

War of Devolution

Invasion of Spanish Netherlands by the French, French vs. Spain, Dutch Republic, England and Sweden, ended with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle

relations with Ireland

Ireland revolted and Cromwell went and defeated the rebels, Scots came and repopulated the areas devastated by the massacres

Ottoman Empire

Islamic state founded by Osman in northwestern Anatolia. After the fall of the Byzantine Empire, the Ottoman Empire was based at Istanbul (formerly Constantinople) from 1453-1922. It encompassed lands in the Middle East, North Africa, the Caucasus, and eastern Europe.

Raphael

Italian Renaissance painter whos art exemplifies this time period; he painted frescos, his most famous being The School of Athens.

Martin V

Italian cardinal whose election to the papacy ended the Great Schism

Paolo Uccello

Italian painter and a mathematician who was notable for his pioneering work on visual perspective in art. Best known works are the three paintings representing the battle of San Romano.

Leonardo da Vinci

Italian painter and sculptor and engineer and scientist and architect

Titian

Italian painter, the most important member of the 16th-century Venetian school

Carvaggio

Italian painter-1st important painter of Baroque era-depicted highly emotional scenes

Giovanni Boccaccio

Italian poet who made Italian a vernacular language

Francesco Petrarch

Italian poet who made Italian a vernacular, coined the phrase "Babylonian captivity"

Pope Paul III

Italian pope who excommunicated Henry VIII, instituted the order of the Jesuits, appointed many reform-minded cardinals, and initiated the Council of Trent.

Urban VI

Italian pope who was elected under the pressure of Italian citizens, reformed the curia in an undiplomatic way which led to the cardinals demanding his resignation

Cellini

Italian sculptor who killed a critic, unapologetic

Dante Alighieri

Italian writer, wrote the Divine Comedy

Radical republican party during the French Revolution that displaced the Girondins.

Jacobins

Jacquerie

Jacques Bonnehomme @ Beauvais. A spontaneous outburst against the nobility by the peasants, ended at Meaux

The most prominent leaders of the Committee of Public Safety, were all strong republicans who opposed the weak policies of the Girondists.

Jacques Danton & Maximilien Roberspierre & Lazare Carnot

Swiss banker and French director-general of finances. Revealed that a large portion of royal expenditures went to pensions for aristocrats and other royal court favorites.

Jacques Necker

Duke of Buckingham

James I's secret lover. His closeness to James I made many of the members of his court upset. He encouraged James to enforce impositions

Charles I

James I's son who ruled England when during the civil war

Glorious Revolution

James II fled to France and was protected by Louis XIV and William and Mary were put on the throne with little bloodshed

Declaration of Indulgence 1687

James II's attempt at total religious freedom in England. Not passed because he was deposed after the Glorious Revolution soon afterwards.

conciliarists

Jean de Gerson & Pierre d'Ailly, supported Ockham's attack on papal absolutism

Quietism

Jeanne Marie Guyon's own Catholic brand of Pietism and included a mystical union with God through prayer and simple devotion

Rothschild

Jewish banking family that sponsored Napoleon

Rouen

Joan of Arc was burned at the stake in this town on May 30, 1431

Areopagitica

John Milton argued that even controversial books about religion should be allowed because the state could not command religious belief

The days on which the populace of Paris redirected the course of the revolution.

Journees

Third Rome

Kiev, Russia, Russian Orthodox Church

William and Mary

King and Queen of England after the Glorious Revolution

William and Mary

King and Queen of England in 1688. With them, King James' Catholic reign ended. As they were Protestant, the Puritans were pleased because only protestants could be office-holders.

John

King of England and vassal of King Philip, lost his continental possessions to the French, was forced to sign the Magna Carta after his many military defats lead to a financial crisis

Charles I

King of England, Scotland, and Ireland (1625-1649). His power struggles with Parliament resulted in the English Civil War (1642-1648) in which Charles was defeated. He was tried for treason and beheaded in 1649

King Matthias Corvinus

King of Hungary - Established a well-organized bureaucracy, patronized the new humanist culture, made his court one of the most brilliant outside of Italy, but after his death this was all practically undone.

War of Polish Succession

King of Poland died without a heir and France and Austria had claim to the throne... war ensued... Louis XV of France and Leopold II of the Holy Roman Empire, France received Lorraine from Austria

Frederick William I

King of Prussia, doubled the size of the Prussian army but never used it... one of the first rulers to wear a military uniform as his everyday dress, subordinated the entire domestic administration to the army's needs, installed a system for recruting soldiers by local district quotas

Saladin

Kurdish Muslim commander, defeated the Latin kingdom at the battle of Hattin and reconquered Jerusalem

Peter Abelard

Laid the foundation of the Scholastic method, taught in Paris, had an affair with his niece

fief

Land presented to a vassal by his lord. A parcel of productive land with the serfs and privileges attached to it

Castile

Largest Spainish kingdom - united with Aragon when Isabella & Ferdinand marry

France

Largest and most populated kingdom, commercial and intellectual capital with industrialized cities

Charles II

Last Habsburg king of Spain. Left his entire inheritance to Louis's grandson, Philip V.

radical nominalism

Latin "nomen" for name, denied that human reason could aspire to certain truth

Permitted the revolutionary tribunal to convict suspects without hearing substantial evidence.

Law of 22 Prairal

Bernard of Clairvaux

Leader of the Cistercians, under the observance of the rule of Benedict, called for European Christians to take up the cross

Oliver Cromwell

Leader of the New Model Army in the English Civil War, where he led the Roundheads to victory against the Cavaliers. He became Lord Protector of Great Britain

Jansenists

Led by Cornelius Jansen, this Roman Catholic group formed in opposition to the political influence of the Jesuits.

Robert of Molesme

Left a Benedictine monastery in France to establish a new one at Cïteaux, led a life of strict observance of the rule of Benedict

The Constitution of 1791 established a constitutional monarchy, the major political authority of the nation would be a unicameral Legislative Assembly.

Legislative Assembly

The Hammer Museum

Leonardo's Codex-charcoal works

The government seized all control of resources in preparation to war, and required all young men to enlist in the army.

Levee en masse

Giorgio Vasari

Lives of the Great Painters, Sculptors, and Architects

British Museum

London, Magna Carta and antiquities

Holy Roman Empire

Loose federation of mostly German states and principalities, headed by an emperor elected by the princes. It lasted from 962 to 1806.

Ad Sacram Sedem

Louis XIV permitted this to be enforced in France, thus banning Jansenism.

court life

Louis XIV used a systematic policy of bestowing pensions, offices, honors, gifts, and the threat of disfavor and punishment, he induced the nobles to cooperate w/him and made himself the center of French power and culture

Duke of Orleans

Louis XV's regent until he was 15 (the nephew of the dead king)

King convicted of conspiring against the liberty of the people and the security of the state, beheaded.

Louis XVI

comte d'Artois

Louis XVI's brother in Turin, incited counterrevolution in France

Katherine Von Bora

Luther's wife, raised to be a nun but ran away to Luthur's teachings. Had 6 children, supported Luthur but argued about women's equality in mariage.

The Prince

Machiavelli, handbook for a ruler with a long-lasting government, purely secular

Marie-Medeleine Pioche de La Vergne

Madame de Lafayeete, wrote several short novels that were published anonymously because it was considered inappropriate for aristocratic women to appear in print

Ivan III (Ivan the Great)

Made Moscow the new capital of Russia and he overthrew the Mongols that were dominating Russia.

Joan of Arc

Maid of Orléans, deeply religious French girl who went to Charles VII with an order from angels to save Orléans and have the dauphin crowned at Reims, captured by the Burgundians

Theresa de Avila

Major Spanish leader of the reform movement for the monasteries and convents

Thomas Mill

Man who was shamed in England

The Princess of Cleves

Marie-Medeleine Pioche de La Vergne

Craft guild

Mastercraftsmen, journeymen, and apprentices belonged to this guild

quadrivium

Mathematical disciplines of geometry, theory of numbers, astronomy, and musical harmonies

Tories

Members of Parliament loyal to the throne

Whigs

Members of Parliament who believed in a constitutional monarchy system.

Don Quixote

Miguel Cervantes, first modern novel

Sforza Family

Milanese family who, through despotism, came to power in 1450; ruled without constitutional restraints or serious political competition; produced one of Machiavelli's heroes, Ludovico il Moro

Ludovico il Moro

Milanese leader during the Wars of Italy, called upon France for aid

Tartuffe

Moliere

The Middle-Class Gentleman

Moliere

Cistercians

Monastic movement, established a strict system of control over their houses through a hierarchy of abbeys. Built monasteries in the wilderness and discouraged close ties with secular society, Cïteaux

The Jacobins who worked with the sans-culottes to carry the revolution forward.

Mountain

Pomposi

Mr. Toy's favorite gelato place

jihad

Muslim equivalent of a crusade, a holy war

Tennis Court Oath

NA's vow to stay together until they had written a constitution, made at an indoor/grass tennis court

Charivaris

Namegiven to French who are shamed for being cuckoled

Five Powers

Naples, Milan, Papal States, Venice, Florence

Wars of Italy

Naples/Florence/Papal States vs. Milan/France, Venice/Papal States/Spain, battleground in European war of dynastic supremacy

a French congress established by representatives of the Third Estate in to enact laws and reforms in the name of the French people.

National Assembly

The National Assembly renamed, composed of a majority of members drawn from all three orders, who shared liberal goals for the administrative, constitutional, and economic reform of the country.

National Constituent Assembly

The militia of Paris, offered its command to the Marquis de Lafayette.

National Guard

Dutch masters

Netherlands, unique style of painting, Rembrandt school of art

Atlantic System

New system of trade and expansion that linked Europe, Africa, and the Americas. Had a major deal with slave trade. Ironically was going on at the same time as the Enlightenment.

On this day members of the Convention shouted Robespierre down whenever he rose to make a speech. He was arrested and executed that night.

Ninth of Thermidor

New Model Army

Oliver Cromwell's army that defeated the Cavaliers at the battle of Naseby

In 1791, Olympe composed a Declaration of the Rights of Women, which he ironically addressed to Queen Mare Antionette.

Olympe de Gouges

Botticelli

One of the leading painters of the Florentine renaissance, recognized for his paintings of mythological scenes.

Ficino Marsilio

One of the most influential humanist philosophers of the early Italian Renaissance, an astrologer, a reviver of Neoplatonism, and the first translator of Plato's complete extant works into Latin. His Florentine Academy, an attempt to revive Plato's school, had enormous influence on the Renaissance and the development of European philosophy.

Aragon

One of the strongest & second largest kingdoms on the Iberian Peninsula. Royally united with Castile when Ferdinand and Isabella marry

King James Bible

One positive outcome from the meeting between James I and the Puritans at Hampton Court, this english translation of the bible was commissioned by King James

Statue of limitations

One year and one day, the time restriction that a lord could redeem his runaway serf in

Pico della Mirandola

Oration on the Dignity of Man, humanist, influenced by Plato. Humans were divinely endowed with the ability to determine their own fate

Albigensian Crusade

Organized by Pope Innocent III, absorption of Toulouse

Fifth Crusade

Organized by Pope Innocent III, manned primarily by nobles from Austria and Hungary. Failed after crusaders refused an offer by the sultan al-Kamil to exchange Damietta for the Latin kingdom

Baker's Dozen

Originated from feudalism when bakers would make thirteen slightly smaller loaves of bread so they could keep more for themselves

fall of Constantinople

Ottoman attack on last remaining stronghold of the Byzantine empire, 1453

Mehmed II

Ottoman prince who conquered Constantinople and Athens and threatened Rome

John Wycliffe

Oxford theologian who attacked the doctrinal and political bases of the church, God gave ecclesiastical power and was in the Eucharist. Lollards suppressed only under Henry V

Georges de La Tour

Painted the Fortune teller

Versailles

Palace constructed by Louis XIV outside of Paris to glorify his rule and subdue the nobility. Was once a hunting lodge.

Louvre

Parisian art museum, home to the Mona Lisa

Etienne Marcel

Parisian cloth merchant who led an uprising of merchants and peasants to take control of royal finances

Test Act

Parliament passed this in response to Charles II's declaration of indulgences; required all military members to swear an oath against transubstantiation.

Roundheads

Parliament's forces that waged war against Charles I and his Cavaliers.

Long Parliment

Parliment called for 13 years starting in 1540

House of Lords

Part of parliment that advised the king and was made up of nobles

Provincial Letters

Pascal

Great Northern War

Peter the Great of Russia joined an anti-Swedish coalition and Charles XII of Sweden got mad... war ensued. Sweden ended up giving its eastern Baltic provicnes to Russia and lost territories on the north German coast to Prussia and the other allied German states. Ended Sweden's absolutist regime and removed Sweden from great power corruption.

Babylonian Captivity

Petrarch, analogy between the Jews being captives in Babylon and the papacy in France

buccaneers

Pirates of the Caribbean who governed themselves and preyed on international shipping

Bouvines

Place of battle where Philip defeated John's ally, Otto IV which sealed the English loss of Normandy, Maine, Anjou, Poitou, and Touraine

Duke Charles of Orléans

Poetry contest, "I die of thirst beside the fountain"

Pope Clement VII

Pope during the reformation, wouldn't give Henry VII a divorce.

Benedict XII

Pope who launched a relief effort for peasants in northern France in 1339

Gregroy XI

Pope who returned from Avignon to Rome but died upon arrival

Hierarchy of the Catholic Church

Pope, cardinals, archbishops, bishops, priests, laity. Archdiocese, diocese, parish

preu

Powerful fighters, describes men of high-rank

Miles

Powerful free persons who belonged neither to the old aristocracy nor to the peasantry, "soldier"

Jan Hus

Prague, learned from Wycliffe's teachings and demanded reforms, attacked German dominance of Bohemia. Outraged John XXIII and King Wenceslas IV. Excommunicated, tried by the Council of Constance, burned at the stake

Francis of Assisi

Preached the importance of obedience and repentance in the urban communities of Italy

François Villon

Prison-poet, "I die of thirst beside the fountain"

Tragedy at Munster

Protestants and Catholics capture city and execute anabaptist leaders

new attitudes toward poverty

Protestants could help the poor but the poor should also be helping themselves, big difference between the deserving poor and the lazy

Marian Exiles

Protestants that fled England fearing persecution under Bloody Marry

puritains

Protostants who worked to purify the protostant church and to make its doctorine more persise. Then disliked Elizabeth I because of her retaining Cathlic Traditions and because of the current system of church government

Mary Tudor

Queen who succeeded Edward VI and attempted to return Catholicism to England by persecuting Protestants; Bloody Mary

Raison d' etat

Reason of state. Richelieu indoctrinated the French people in the meaning of this.

One of the greatest intellectual defenses of European conservatism, regards the French revolution as an applicant of a blind rationalism that ignored the historical realities of political developement and the complexities of social relations.

Reflections on the Revolution in France

Individuals who were removed from their clerical functions because they did not support the Civil Constitution.

Refractory Clergy

Marie de Medicis

Regent of Louis XIII. Signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau. Appointed Cardinal Richelieu to assist her son.

Period of time when the French Revolutionary state used extensive executions and violence to defend the Revolution and suppress its alleged internal enemies.

Reign of Terror

England

Relatively small and sparsely populated kingdom, economy much less tied to international trade

Benedictines

Religious men who sought to lead a life of strict observance of the rule of Benedict

Albrecht Durer

Renaissance German artist known for his engravings and woodcuts with Italian Renaissance techniques

Giovanni Pico della Mirandola

Renaissance philosopher who wrote 'Oration on the Dignity of Man' which was a key text of humanism

demesne

Reserve of the lord, serfs must work a certain number of days to produce crops for the lord

Pantheon

Rome, burial site of Brunelleschi, inspiration for Monticello

Intendants

Royal civil servants who subjected parlements and other privileged groups to stricter supervision. They prevented abuses from the sale of royal offices.

Medici, Lorenzo and Cosimo

Rulers of the Florentine Republic during the Italian Renaissance - known for their sponsorship of art and architecture

Eastern Orthodox Church

Run by the Patriarch or Father

Roman Catholic Church

Run by the Pope, also the Bishop of Rome

Peter the Great

Russian czar Peter I, who undertook the Westernization of Russia and built a new capital city named after himself, St. Petersburg

Philip II Augustus

Ruthless monarch who more than quadrupled the size of the French revenue, confiscated all of the continental possessions of King John

Pope John Paul II

Said that HIV/AIDS was Gods will, punishing victims for their immoral lifestyles

peddlers

Salesmen who traveled between fiefdoms to sell their goods

Without knee-breeches , the lower-middle class and artisans of Paris

Sans-culottes

John Law

Scottish financier who set up an official trading comapny for North America and a state bank that issued paper money and stock (both crashed and burned)

John Knox

Scottish theologian who founded Presbyterianism in Scotland and wrote a history of the Reformation in Scotland (1514-1572)

Conversos and Marranos

Secret Jews & Musulims in Spain

When the Paris Commune executed or murdered about 1,200 people who were in the city jails.

September Massacres

Concordat of Worms

Series of compromises which established a novel and potent tradition in Western political thought, the definition of separate spheres of authority for secular and religious government

Peace of Alais

Shortened the Edict of Nantes by denying Protestants the right to maintain garrisoned cities, separate political organizations, and independent law courts.

Treaty of Fountainebleau

Signed by Marie de Medicis. A mutual defense pact with Spain. Arranged for the marriage of Louis XIII to the Spanish Infanta.

Troubadours

Singers at medieval tournaments and fairs

Corpus iurus civilis

Sixth century compilation of law prepared on the order of Justinian. Commentaries made on it by teachers beginning in the eleventh century

commune

Small communities of citizens who governed themselves, Italy

Society of militant citizens who wanted to fight the internal enemies for war production.

Society of Revolutionary Republican Women

Protestant work ethic

Sociological term used to define the Calvinist belief in hard work to illustrate selection in elite group

pikemen

Soldiers in professional companies, wielded large pikes as their weapons. Long spear

Edward I

Son of Henry III, a strong and effective king who conquered Wales, defended the remaining continental possessions, and expanded common law

Charles IV of France

Son of Philip IV the Fair who died without an heir

Cesare Borgia

Son of Pope Alexander VI. Had ambitions of uniting Italy under his control. Was a prototype of Machiavelli's 'the Prince'

Luis de Leon

Spanish poet who wrote about the fundementals of life

William of Ockham

Spiritual Franciscan, imperial power was from the people. Believed in a secular government, Christian Aristotelianism

stadholder

States General representative for each province of the Dutch Republic, responsible for defense and order

Papel States

States under the control and jurisdiction of the Pope

Louis XIII

Successor of Henry IV. Relied heavily on the advice of Cardinal Richelieu.

Thomas Aquinas

Summa Against the Gentiles and Summa of Theology, reconciled human reason and divine revelation,

Necker

Swiss banker, controller-general, measured the total income vs the expenditures to find the budget, decided that there was no need for new taxes, miscalculations. Reduced ordinary expenses, made enemies in high places

The Convention declared this to be the Cathedral of Notre Dame as part of French de-Christianization.

Temple of Reason

The National Assembly moved to a nearby tennis court and its members took an oath to continue to sit until they had given France a constitution.

Tennis Court Oath

Angevin Empire

Territory from Scotland to south-central France

Magna Carta

The "great charter of liberties" which King John was forced to sign. A conservative feudal document that demanded that the king respected the rights of his vassals and of the burghers of London

Orléans

The "key to the south" as far as the French were concerned

Sandro Botticelli

The Birth of Venus & Spring, dreamlike quality

Christine de Pisan

The City of Ladies; Began a new debate over the proper role of women in society. Europe's first feminist, and well educated

Baldesar Castiglione

The Courtier-public life of the aspiring elite, an etiquette book

Jan van Eyck

The Flemish painter who was among the first to use and perfect the technique of oil painting.

The French Revolution

The Great Revolution, First stage-bourgeoisie/liberty, Second stage-peasant/equality

Franciscans

The Order of Friars Minor grew by thousands and followed the idea of radical poverty, simplicity, and service to others, conventuals

Urban II

The Pope who called for the First Crusade in 1095, asking Western knights to free the Holy Land from Muslim occupation

Piero della Francesca

The Resurrection, technical aspects of composition

L'etat, ce'st moi

The alleged declaration of Louis XIV regarding divine right. "I am the state."

Bill of Rights

The beginning of constitutional monarchy in England. It gave parliament the power to convene and dismiss themselves, and subjected the King to the law.

Divine Right

The belief that a king's word was law.

Fourth Crusade

The capture and sacking of Constantinople, encouraged by Venetians

New Model Army

The disciplined fighting force of Protestants led by Oliver Cromwell in the English civil war.

Enlightenment

The eighteenth-century intellectual movement whose proponents believed that human beings could apply a critical, reasoning spirit to every problem

Glorious Revolution

The events of 1688 when Tories and Whigs replaced England's monarch James II with his Protestant daughter, Mary, and her husband, Dutch ruler William of Orange; William and Mary agreed to a Bill of Rights that guaranteed rights to Parliament

Duke of Sully

The finance minister of Henry IV. The two established government monopolies, which provided for a mercantilist system.

Henry VII

The first Tudor king that worked to establish a strong monarchical government and ended the private wars of nobles in England.

Philip of Anjou/Philip V

The grandson of Louis XIV. Charles II gave him his entire inheritance. First Bourbon king of Spain.

Stenka Razin

The head of a powerful band of pirates and outlaws in southern Russia who led a rebellion that promised peasants liberation from nobles landowners and officials; he was captured by the czar's army and publicly executed in Moscow

Charles II

The king of the restoration of the monarchy. HE was a closet Catholic who was secretly trying to reestablish Catholicism in England.

War of the Roses

The last civil war between the English nobles and king, war between the ducal house of Lancaster (red rose) and the ducal house of York (white rose), Henry VII (house of Lancaster) won the war against the last Yorkist king, Richard III

Versailles

The location of the palace court. Became the residence of Louis XIV.

primogeniture

The medieval practice that dictates that the oldest son gets everything from his father when he dies

Innocent III

The papacy reached the height of its powers under this man, organized the Fifth Crusade

Leo X

The pope who excommunicated Martin Luther and who bestowed on Henry VIII the title of Defender of the Faith

Sistine Chapel

The pope's private chapel, fresco on the ceiling by Michelangelo

lay investiture

The practice by which kings and emperors appointed bishops and invested them with the symbols of their office

lectio divina

The process of reading and studying the Old and New Testaments

Domesday Book

The recorded comprehensive survey of William's kingdom taken shortly after he took part. It was the most extensive investigation of economic rights

Lord Protector

The title Cromwell took for himself after failing several times to establish a constitutional monarchy.

Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain

The two sovereigns of Spain in the 1500s that married to join Aragon and Castile in order to further strengthen them in their rivalry with Portugal; Expelled Jews, and supported Columbus in his voyage

Marquis de Louvois

The war minister to Louis XIV. A superior military tactician. Instituted good salaries and improved the discipline of the French army.

The period of the executions of former terrorists.

The white terror

Reaction against radicalism of the French Revolution, associated with the end of Reign of Terror and establishment of the Directory.

Thermidorian Reaction

Tonnage and poundage

These were taxes on transactions, like today's sales taxes, levied to raise money without calling Parliament.

magnates

They elected the German kings who were then consecrated as emperors by the Pope, ability to expand their own power at the expense of Slavic neighbors led to the weakness of the German monarchy

The branch of the French Estates General representing all of the kingdom outside of the nobility and the clergy.

Third Estate

St. Peter's Basilica

This beautiful church is a Late Renaissance church located within the Vatican City

Elizabeth I

This queen of England chose a religion between the Puritans and Catholics and required her subjects to attend church or face a fine. She also required uniformity and conformity to the Church of England

Treaty of Westphalia

This treaty brought all hostilities within the Holy Roman Empire to an end. Rescinded Ferdinand's Edict of Restitution.

Peace of Ryswick

This treaty secured Holland's borders and thwarted Louis's expansion into Germany.

Michelangelo

This was an artist who led the way for Renaissance masters from his David sculpture and his painting of the Sistine Chapel ceiling

James II

This was the Catholic king of England after Charles II that granted everyone religious freedom and even appointed Roman Catholics to positions in the army and government

Johann Tetzel

This was the man who was hired by Archbishop Albert of Mainz to sell indulgences, which he did extremely successfully

sale of indulgences

This was the way that many people were granted salvation. This was a common method of the church to gain power and money

Institutes of the Christian Religion

This was the work by John Calvin that described to the world the ideology of John Calvin

Richard III

This weak English king from the House of York was defeated by a rival, Henry Tudor, at Bosworth field in 1485.

Divine Comedy

Three-part poetic journey through hell (Inferno), purgatory (Purgatorio), and heaven (Paradiso)

Christian Reconquest

Took place on the Iberian peninsula. Castile, Aragon, and Portugal ignored Muslim Granada

Treaty of Rastadt

Treaty that confirmed Philip V as king of Spain. Gave Gibraltar to England, making it a Mediterranean power. Won Louis's recognition of the right of the House of Hanover to accede to the English throne.

Tsar Alexei

Tried to extend state authority in Russia by imposing new administrative structures and taxes, developing a bigger army, getting exclusive control over state policy, and obtaining a greater say in religious matters. Imposed the Law Code of 1649 and imposed firm control over Russian Orthodox church.

Treaty of Karlowitz

Turks signed this to end fighting between the Turks and the Austrians and settle the dispute over Hungary

Book of Common Prayer and the Thirty Nine Articles

Two Anglican doctrines that Parliament strictly imposes to keep Charles II and his Catholicism quiet.

Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle

Under this treaty, Louis XIV gained control of certain towns bordering the Spanish Netherlands.

dutch reformed church

United Provinces of the Netherlands. The rise of Calvinism here set the stage for a revolt against the Inquisition of King Philip II of Spain

blue nails

Unskilled and semiskilled artisans, worked with blue dye. At the bottom of urban society

Sixtus IV

Used Nepotism to promote his own family in the church

Marco Polo

Venetian, traveled to the East and brought back a new view of life: gunpowder, spices, porcelain, red clay, paper money, white clay, silk

Arthur Ash

Victim of HIV/AIDS through a blood transfusion

War of Spanish Succession

War caused by claims to the Spanish throne by Louis XIV and Leopold of Austria.

Andrea Mantegna

Was one of the foremost north Italian painters of the 15th century who mastered perspective and foreshortening and made important contributions to the compositional techniques of Renaissance painting

Premsyl

Wealthy family of Central and Eastern Russia

In this pamphlet, Sieyes contrasted the vital contributions of the Third Estate to the nation with its exclusion from political and social privilege.

What is the Third Estate?

Militia Ordinance

When Charles I tries to take control of Parliament with military force, hoping the divisions were deep enough to support his actions, Parliament escaped and passed this, allowing them to raise a standing army against him.

Eleanor of Aquitaine

Wife of Henry II, mother of Richard the Lionhearted, married and divorced Louis VII, ruled the Angevin Empire, buried at Fontevrault

Political Arithmetick

William Petty

Bill of Rights

William and Mary agreed not to raise a standing army to levy taxes without Parliaments consent, also agreed to call meetings of Parliament at least every three years, to guarantee free elections to parliamentary seats, and to abide by Parliament's decisions and not suspend duly passed laws

Invasion of the Netherlands

Without English support the Triple Alliance crumbled, leading Louis to seek revenge. He launched this operation for a second time.

October 5th, a crowd of armed Parisian women marched to Versailles demanding more bread and milled about the palace, demanded the king and his royal family return to Paris.

Women's March on Versailles

Philip Melanchton

Writer of the Confessions of Augsburg; Luther's friend

In Defense of the SEven Sacraments

Written by Henry VII of England; earns him the title "defender of the faith"

Colloquy at Marburg

Zwingli officially split with Luther over issue of Eucharist

Legislative Assembly

a French congress with the power to create laws and approve declarations of war, established by the constitution of 1791, replaced the Nat'l Assembly

Martin Luther

a German monk who became one of the most famous critics of the Roman Catholic Chruch. In 1517, he wrote 95 theses, or statements of belief attacking the church practices.

pietism

a Protestant revivalist movement of the early eighteenth century that emphasized deeply emotional individual religious experience

Michael Servetus

a Unitarian humanist from Spain, was burned at the stake in 1553 for his denial of the Trinity

Bernini

a baroque architect and sculptor. Made the Colonnade for piazza in from of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome and was his greatest architectural work, and the Canopy over the high altar of St. Peter's Cathedral, and the altarpiece The Ecstasy of St. Teresa, that shows a lot of emotion

Imitation of Christ

a book of spiritual direction that continues to be the most widely read religious text after the bible

chivalry

a code that knights adopted in the late Middle Ages; requiring them to be brave, loyal and true to their word; they had to fight fairly in battle

Diego Velazquez

a court painter to Phillip IV of spain

Court of the Star Chamber

a court that the king personally controlled

Milan

a duchy, Lombardy as major city. Most warlike of the city-states, it was a despotism ruled by the Visconti family

Louis de rouvroy

a duke who spent much of his life in King Louis XIV's court

enclosure

a fence or hedge used to separate a piece of land for the lord

Carnival

a festival that came before lent where people would do all the things that they would be giving up

Europeans in Asia/Africa

a few toeholds in Africa for future expansion, Chinese didn't like the Europeans because they became associated with European merchants who the Chinese considered pirates, good influence in Java and and in India

the fronde

a french rebellion that was caused by Mazarin's attempt to increase royal revenue and expand state bureaucracy, caused Louis XIV to distrust the state and turn to absolutism

Sir Thomas Fairfax

a general in the Parlimentarian army

oligarchy

a government administered by a restricted group

Francois Boucher

a great French rococo painter who painted middleclass people at home during their daily activities

Inigo Jones

a great architect who designed sets

Arminians

a group within the Church of England who rejected Puritanism and the Calvinist doctrine of predestination in favor of elaborate ceremony and Episcopalianism; supported by Charles I

Unitarians

a member of a religious group that emphasizes reason and faith in an individual; deny the idea of the Holy Trinity

sprezzatura

a natural ease and superiority that was the essence of the gentleman

bureaucracy

a network of state officials carrying out orders according to a regular and routine line of authority

Charivari

a noisy mock serenade (made by banging pans and kettles) to a newly married couple

Quentin Massys

a painter in the 16th century

Sir Henry Lee

a painter who depicted Elizabeth

Humanism

a philosophy in which interests and values of human beings are of primary importance

Moliere

a playright who wrote Tartuffe, which made fun of religious hypocrites and was loudly condemned by church leaders, Louis XIV forced public performances of it to be delayed but did not dismiss it

William Shakespeare

a playwright whose works wrote in faver of the monarchy

Dance of Death

a popular image in art and literature that depicted naked, rotting corpses dancing in front of the immobile living

Martin Luther

a protestant leader in Germany who at first supported the German peasant revolt but retracted when they turned to violence

Ket's Rebellion

a rebellion in estern England that arose in reaction to enclosure

Suriname

a republic in northeastern South America on the Atlantic

Order of the Garter

a select group of nobles who were to embody the highest qualities of chivalry

Crusades

a series of military expeditions in the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries by Westrn European Christians to reclain control of the Holy Lands from the Muslims

Witch Hammer

a set of instructions for rooting out witches

royal councils

a small group of leading office holders who advides the king

the poor rate

a special tax that supported the poor and provided them with subsistence until they remarried or found employment

treasury of merit

a spiritual bank account made up from the penance done by saints, established the pope as a "banker"

Millenary Petition

a statement of Puritan grievances given to James I by the Puritans in England; he reponded by stating that he would not give into the demeands of the Puritans, just as Elizabeth hadn't, so as not to further the strife in the Church of England

rococo

a style of painting that emphasize irregularity and asymmetry, movement and curvature, but on a smaller, more intimate scale than the baroque

common law

a system of law based on precedent and customs, expanded by Edward I

Ship Money

a tax in port towns used to build ships in england

price reovlution

a time of inflation when wages fell a lot

The King's Players

a troup of actors pratoned by the monarchs in England

The Spirit of Laws

a widely influential work on comparative government, written by Montesquieu

principle of privilege

abolished by the Nat'l Assembly, caused anger amongst the peasants who lost their rights to common grazing and gathering

Act of Union 1707

abolished the Scottish Parliament and affirmed the Scots' recognition of the Protestant Hanoverian succession

Charles I

absolutist who was forced to agree to the Petition of Right, didn't call Parliament for 11 years because he was upset by the Petition of Right, finally called it into session because he needed money, eventually executed

Cardinal Richelieu

advisor to Marie de Medici, regent of Louis XIII, was a politique and greatly influenced Louis XIII

Whigs

advocated parliamentary supremacy and toleration of Protestant dissenters such as Presbyterians

pneumonic

airborne form of the black plague that killed within days if not hours

John Locke

all men are created equal

Rump Parliament

all that was left of the Parliament when Cromwell was ruling (he had gotten rid of the House of Lords and the Presbyterians from the House of Commons)

hospitals

all-purpose religious institutions providing lodging for pilgrims, the elderly, and the ill

Navigation Acts

allowed imports only if they wre carried on English ships or came directly from the producers of goods, aimed at the Dutch who dominated world trade

Toleration Act

allowed non Catholics places of worship and public rights throughout all of England.

pluralism

an official holding more than one office at a time

cité

ancient island part of the Île-de-France

pipe rolls

annual payments recorded on these, the first continuous accounting system in Europe

the Sergeant King

another name for Frederick William I

robot

another name for labor service

William Laud

archbishop of Canterbury, imposed increasingly elaborate ceremonies on the Anglican church, had the Puritans put before the Court of Star Chamber, eventually executed

Thomas á Becket

archbishop of Canterbury, refused to accept Henry II's claim that the king had greater jurisdiction than clergy. Was exiled on the Continent but returned to England in 1170 when he was beaten by loyal knights

Leviathon

argued for unlimited authority in a ruler, Hobbes

French Fronde

aristocratic rebellion against the regency of Louis XIV

émigrés

aristocrats who fled France because of opposition

Bastille

armory and debtor's prison, stormed by angry French men and women on 14 July 1789

Uffizi

art gallery in Florence, Raphael's School of Athens

Academia

art museum in Florence, new Pietá

The Prado

art museum in Madrid

Baroque Art

art that originated in Rome and is associated with the Catholic Reformation, characterized by emotional intensity, strong self-confidence, spirit

Code of 1649

assigned all subjects to a hereditary class according to their current occupation or state needs, slaves and free peasants were merged into serfs and couldn't move from the land

Venice

at the head of the Adriatic Sea it was the leading maritime power, ruled by a hereditary elite headed by an elected doge and a variety of elected councils, Grand Canal, Piazza San Marco. Known as the Most Serene Republic but was actually an oligarchy

Catherine of Siena

ate only the Eucharist, water, and bitter herbs

Boniface VIII

attempted to prevent Philip IV from taxing French clergy, was kidnapped, robbed, and then died

Niccolò Machiavelli

author of The Prince and Discourses on Livy, education in practical affairs

Charles XI

avoided war to conserve resources, sent the nobles home, governed with qualified commoners

Tories

backed the Stuart line and the Anglican church

Poland Lithuania

became a major supplier of serials

Gdansk

became the most important agricultural seaport in the world

sturdy beggars

beggers in england who were capable of work but could find stable jobs

Thomas Hobbes

believed in the social contract theory, made his case using science, wrote Leviathon

Ulrich Zwungli

believed that the bible was the sole authority on religious practice, like Luther; established a Theocracy in Zurich

Florence

birthplace of the Renaissance, preeminence in banking because of the Medici family

Clement V

bishop of Bordeaux, in a close relationship with Philip IV. Moved the papal residence to Avignon

Mirabeau

black sheep among nobility, spent time in prison for disrespecting his father, deputy for Aix and Marseilles to the Third Estate

tabula rasa

blank slate

Titian

bold shades of red with his name

Book of GOld

book in Venice which distinguished the local elite from the ranks of ordinary citizens

The True Law of Free Monarchies

book written by James I defending divine right

A Trew Law of Free Monarchies

book written by James I of England in which he strongly advocated the divine right of kings - he believed that he should rule with a minimum of consultation beyond his own royal court

Townsmen

bourgeoisie, burroughmen, freemen, burghers

woodblock printing

brought from Asia, press onto paper with ink

vellum

calf skin

Papal States

capital @ Rome

James II

catholic brother of Charles II who became king of England and tried to force Catholocism on his subjects, kicked him and his Catholic wife and newborn son out because they didn't want the little boy taking precedence over James adult Protestant daughters

Three Vows

celibacy, poverty, obedience

Florence

center of Renaissance culture, Arno as main waterway. Normally a republic, was ruled by the Medici banking family for the fifteenth century

Apennine Mountains

chain that extends down the center of the Italian peninsula

mestizos

children of Spanish men and Indian women who accounted for more than a quarter of the population in the Spanish colonies

National Guard

citizen militia, organized by Marquis de Lafayette

Palermo

city who revolted when their loaves of bread were made smaller (Italy)

Gottfried Leibniz

claimed that he had invented Calculus, helped establish scientific socieities in the German states

Table of Ranks

classification system of noblemen into military, administrative, and court categories, a codification of social and legal relationships in Russia that would last for nearly two centuries

Sieyès

clergy member who frequented Parisian salons, voted with the Third Estate

clerical ignorance

clergy was ignorant; many preached in Latin that they couldn't read or understand

escutcheon

coat of arms

Baroque

combined Renaissance with Mannerism, dramatic, dynamic, ornate, expert use of light and shade

Pope Julius II

commissioned Michelangelo to decorate the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel

Eucharist

communion wafer, taught to be the actual body of Christ

Frederick William (the great elector)

consolidated areas around Prussia into an absolutist state, realized that needed a strong military, developed an efficient mail system and good roads specifically for the military, made a deal with the jonkers to collect taxes and they could rule

Shakespeare

contemporary of Cervantes, relatable tales, all male actors

Archbishop de Brienne

controller-general, emergency loans, disbanded the Paris Parlement, caused aristocrats to demand a consitution

Calonne

controller-general, shifted the tax burden, land-tax proportional to land value, lightening of peasant tax and sale of Church lands, failed attempt

Frederick I

convinced the Holy Roman Emperor to name him King in Prussia (thats why he has a I in his name)

indulgences

could be purchased for personal use or for the soul of a loved one already in purgatory

English Royal Society

counterpart to the one in Frane, grew out of informal meetings of scientists in London and Oxford rather than direct goverment involvement

Duke of Buckingham

country gentlement who gained entrance into the courts because Queen Anne James I's wife liked him

Persian Letters

criticized the pope and the last years of Louis XIV, about two Persians who come to France for love of knowledge, written by Montesquieu

taille

crown's basic commodity tax in Frane

Pietá

crucified Jesus with Mary, The Pity

impostions

custom duties in franc

Brethren of the Common Life

dedicated themselves to preaching and charity in the Low Countries

Thirty-Nine Articles

defined the creed of Anglican Church

Essay Concerning Human Understanding

denied the existence of any innate ideas and asserted that each human is bron with a mind that is a blank slate

priories

dependent communities throughout Europe, ran by Cluniac monks

Great Fire

destroyed most of London but also got rid of the plague

Estates-General

did not meet between 1614-1789, was divided by three tiers called orders/estates

taille

direct tax levied on persons or land according to region

Levellers

disgruntled soldiers in Cromwell's New Model Army who wanted to "level" social differences and extend politcal participation to all male property owners

excessive individualism

distorted humanism

Constituent Assembly

divided France into new administrative units to establish better control over municipal governments

elb river

divided the serfs (east) and the free peasants (west)

aide

drink or food tax

three-field system

each field divided into three, one left fallow for the season

bourgeoisie

educated, middle class of france; provided force behind the Revolution, members of the Third Estate, enveloped various professions

Spanish school

el Greco-the Greek, Velasquez-disproportionately elongated torsos

Marquis de Condorcet

elected to the Legislative Assembly, one of the first to raise the issue of women's rights

Treaty of Nijmegan

ended the Dutch War

Treaty of Nystad

ended the Great Northern War

Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle

ended the War of Devolution

Treaty of Rijswijk

ended the War of the League of Augsburg

Peace of Utrecht

ended the war of spanish succession, Philip was recognized as king of Spain but had to renounce any claim to the French throne. Spain surrendered its territories in Italy and the Netherlands to the Austrians and Gibraltar to the British; France gave possessions in North America to Britain. France no longer threatened to dominate European power politics.

John Milton

english Puritan poet who wrestled with the inevitable limitations on individual liberty, published writings in favor of divorce, Areopagitica, Paradise Lost

Clarendon Code

established Anglican religion as the only recognized religion, only Anglicans could serve in parliament, attend universities, hold religious services...

Constitution of 1791

established a constitutional monarchy with a ministerial executive power answerable to a legislative assembly, only wealthy men had the right to vote/hold office

Civil Constitution of the Clergy

established priests as paid agents of the state, priests had to declare an oath of loyalty to the state

Peace of Lodi

established two balanced alliances between Florence/Milan and Venice/Naples, states pledged mutual nonaggression

nuclear

families consisting of the married couple and their children

Polish constitutionalsim

fatally weakened the state and made it prey to neighboring powers,

Independents

favored entirely autonomous congregations free from other church government (part of the Roundheads)

Jean-Baptiste Lully

favorite composer of Louis XIV, wrote sixteen operas for court performances and many ballets

Beguines

female religious folk who formed miniature towns-within-towns in northern cities

Rites of May

festival that celebrated the rebirth of spring

The Twelve Days of Christmas

festival that inagurated the slow days of winter

Raphael

finished the dome on St. Peter's cathedral, School of Athens

Turgot

first controller-general, economic growth, reforms were not passed because they offended established interests, emphasis on laissez-faire

Petarch

first humanist; father of the Renaissance; writer; makes effort to imitate cultures of Rome and Greece

western influence in Russia

first theater opened in the Kremlin, Alexei's daughter translated French plays, some nobles began to wear German-style clothing, and some argued that service and not just birth should determine rank

Catherine of Aragon

first wife of King Henry VIII. Queen of England. Produced Henry a daughter. Divorce was the initial step of Reformation in England.

tricolor flag

flag of the Nat'l Guard, red/blue-Paris, white-Bourbon

corvée

forced labor of peasants on the road, their abolition threatened un-taxed privileged groups

septicemic

form of the plague that attacked the blood

Bank of England

founded in 1694 and endured (unlike the French bank) enabled the government to raise money at low interest for foreign wars, by 1740s government could borrow more than four times what it could in the 1690s

Angela Merici

founded the Ursuline Order of Nuns in the 1530s to proved education and religious training

beatniks

free-thinking members of the Bohemian movement

Land Hierarchy

freeholder, laborer, and leaseholder

huguenots

french calvinists

Phillip Duplessis Mornay

frenchman who wrote A Defense of Liberty Against Tyrants

Jeanne Marie Guyon

frenchwomen who attracted many noblewomen and a few leading clergymen to her own Catholic brand of Pietism, known as Quietism, claimed miraculous visions and astounding prophecies, urged a mystical union with God through prayer and simple devotion

Masaccio

frescoes in the Brancacci Chapel, shading of light and shadow and linear perspective. The Expulsion of Adam & Eve and The Holy Trinity

Hanseatic League

from "Hansa" which means "company", monopolized the northern grain trade and forced Denmark to grant its members exclusive rights

Senate

from the body of the Great Council, members served one-year terms

Jansenists revival

funeral of Jansenist priest, crowd claimed to witness a series of miraculous healings, cult formed around the priest's tomb and clandestine Jansenist presses were reporting new miracles to the reading public

universals

general concepts that could be analyzed through the use of logic

Oliver Cromwell

general in the Parlimentarian army who later gained the title Lord Protectarate

Pascal

genius mathematician who wrote Provincial Letters to defend Jansenism against charges of heresy

Lorenzo de' Medici

grandson of Cosimo de' Medici, diplomat, patron to Michelangelo and Pico della Mirandola, leading citizen of Florence

Toleration Act of 1689

granted all Protestants freedom of worship, but non-Anglicans could still not attend universities; Catholics did not get any rights but were left alone to worship privately

Petrarch

great Italian humanist poet scholar, the father of humanism, revived Cicero

Louis XV

great-grandson of Louis XIV, was apathetic to the problems of the French government under his reign

College of Cardinals

group of cardinals who elect the next pope

universitas

guild of students at Bologna, law students

popular religious culture

had "paganism" and carnivals and superstitions some villages had never even herad of Jesus Christ

Swedish Absolutism

had an absolute monarchy but fought all the time, Charles XI and Charles XII

Lukardis of Oberweimar

had an errotic vision of Christ

authority in the Ottoman Empire

had constantly shifting systems and alliances, the sultan allowed bands of bandits to keep control in various provinces

Charles II

had full partnership with the Parliament because he didn't want to be executed like his dad...

17th century Poland-Lithuania

had serfdom, elected kings, nobles had a veto, constant chaos, very diverse, official language was latin, no national army, every country tried to take a "bite" out of them

Witches' Hammer

handbook for inquisitors

peasants in Eastern Europe

hardly differed from slaves in status, and their "masters" ran their huge estates much like American plantations

Jean-Baptiste Colbert

head of royal finances, public works, and the navy; used the bureaucracy to establish a new economic doctrine, mercantilism

dauphin

heir to the French throne

Council of Constance

held under emperor-elect Sigismund. Deposed the Avignon and Pisan popes, the Roman pope abdicated, elected an unaffiliated Italian cardinal

quilombo

hideouts for the runaway slaves

parlements

high courts

Montesquieu

high-ranking judge in a French court; wrote Persian Letters and published anonymously, also wrote The Spirit of Laws

Jacob Burkhardt

historian who was the first to categorize the Middle Ages as a "Dark Age" and the Renaissance as a "cultural rebirth."

Civic (southern) Humanism

humanism with the added belief that one must be an active and contributing member to one's society

condition of Hungary

hungary's population had decreased so much that they called for people throughout Europe to come and settle it, led to ethnic disagreements.... World War I....

Popish Plot

hysteria over the belief that Charles II's wife was plotting to kill him and put his brother, James, an open Catholic, on the throne

shifts in rural society structure

ik

Ghibellines

imperial faction, named after Waiblingen castle belonging to the family of Frederick II

League of Schmalkalden

in Northern Germany formed by newly Protestant (Lutheran) princes to defend themselves against Charles V's drive to re-Catholicize Germany

monetary payments

in the 16th century began to replace labor service by the tenants

village justice

included "rough music" "ride on a donkey" skimmington" "charivari"

Plague of Insurrection

inheritance of wealth and power on the part of the surviving peasants which led to peasant revolts

Charles VIII

invaded the Italian peninsula in 1494, forced Florence to surrender Pisa

Johannes Gutenberg

invented the printing press (Gutenberg Press)

Louis XV

king of France after Louis XIV (his grandson) could care less about ruling the country, created a state bank

Nu Pieds

knowns as the barefooted people who rose against changes in salt tax and wine tax in france

urban social life

landed nobles -> gentry -> aritsans and shopkeepers -> journeymen, apprentices, servants, and laborers -> unemployed poor

exchequer

large checkerboard with the function of a primitive computer to audit the returns of sheriffs

siege of Vienna

last time the Turks moved into Europe

Pierre Bayle

launched an internationally influential campaign against religious intolerance from his safe haven in the Dutch Republic, wrote New from the Republic of Letters, took a general stand in favor of religious toleration, wrote Historical and Critical Dictionary, Even religion must meet the test of reasonableness

Kublai Khan

leader of China at the time of Marco Polo's visit

Duc de Conde

leader of the Parisian rioters against Louis XIV

condottieri

leaders of the mercenary armies, from the name of their contract. Were expensive and dangerous to maintain

Sixth Crusade

led by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II who regained Jerusalem through a peace treaty with the Muslims

Toussaint L'Ouverture

led the slave rebellion for black independence in Saint Domingue in 1791

Cicero

legacy of eloquence, dominant model for Renaissance poets and orators,

milk parents

life in the home of the family of a wet nurse, for the children of the wealthy

gatekeeper

locked up the town every night, protected from highwaymen

Tartuffe

made fun of religious hypocrites and was loudly condemned by church leaders

First Estate

made up of clergy, 300 members

Third Estate

made up of commoners, lack of privilege, identified by work, 300 members-->600 members

Second Estate

made up of nobility, 300 members

Titus Oates

made up stories that Charles II's wife was plotting against him because he was a true Anglican and was having an affair with his brother James. He took his accusations to court and caused much hysteria.

black magic

magic used for evil

witchcraft

magin used for evil

Daniel Defoe

male counterpart to Haywood, wrote about many things but was a novelist who wrote Robinson Crusoe, and Moll Flanders which portrayed the new values of the time: to survive

Beghards

male religious folk who formed miniature towns-within-towns in northern cities

Archbishop William Laud

man appointed Archbishop of Canterbury who wanted to estiblish the same Book of Common Prayer in Scotland

Jan Sobieski

man elected king of Poland-Lithuania but could not stop the decline into powerlessness

Cardinal Richelieu of France

man of a noble family who was King Louis XIII favorite

Trade Hierarchy

masters, journeyment,a nd apprentices

magistrate

member of the aristocracy who also belonged to a parlement

National Assembly

members of the 3rd and liberal members of the 1st/2nd, an assertion of its true representation of France

Body Politic

metaphor used to describe society stressed the notion of interdependency even more strongly

Condottieri

military brokers that provided mercenary armies to Italian despots.

elect/visible saints

model christians, church members who had their conversion experience

Saint Domingue

modern day Haiti, home of a slave rebellion in 1791

dowry

money or property brought by a woman to her husband at marriage

Lorenzo Valla

most influential of the humanists, worked for Alfonso I of Naples, used philology to disprove the Donation of Constantine

Ottoman Turks

name derived from Osman, their original leader, replaced the Byzantines, most directly affected Venice, closed off the markets of eastern Europe

the "middle passage"

name for the trip that the slaves made across the Atlantic, took about three months, 25% of slaves died on the voyage, jammed into ships like sardines

Skimmingtons

name givent to the English who are shamed for being cuckoled

Agnes

name of woman who was shamed in England

Donatello

naturalistic forms, revived the equestrian and the free-standing statue, Judith Slaying Holofernes,

St. Petersburg

new capital city that Peter the Great had built for himself

Humanism

new outlook on life, more to life than preparing for the afterlife. Everyone has different gifts from God that they should embrace

inner light sects

new sects that formed and emphasized the "inner light" of individual religious inspiration and a disdain for heirarchical authority, emphasized equality before God and greater participation in church governance

Heloise

niece and lover of Peter Abelard, their marriage lead to his castration and she moved to a monastery

balance of power

no single power emerged from the wars of the first half of the eighteenth century clearly superior to the others

Dutch Eclipse

no stadholder in Dutch Republic after WIlliam of Orange died, Dutch trade suffered due to bans on imported goods in other countries, political and military grip lost in India, Ceylon, and Java

Count Duke Olivares

nobleman of a lesser brance and was a favorite of King Phillip IV

podestas

nonpolitical professional city managers from outside of the community

English/Irish relations

not so good

cahiers de doléances

notebooks containing the grievances of the people of France, carried to Versailles by deputies elected to the Estates-General

Alfonso I

of Aragon, secured the throne of Naples in 1443 to end 50 years of civil war

gentle

of good birth, describes the attitude of a knight and his lady

Getty Museum

oil industrialist, works purchased on the black market, Van Gogh's Irises

ancien régime

old regime, the monarchical or absolutist rule in Europe before the French Revolution

4-Aug

on this date the Nat'l Assembly abolished privilege in France, citizen/citizeness, had to buy out of feudal services

Baptists

one of the "inner light" sects, insisted on adult baptism because they believed that Christians should choose their own curch and that every child should not automatically become a member of the Church of England

George Handel

one of the first composers to grasp the new directions in music, wrote oratorios, Messiah

Antoine Watteau

one of the great French rococo painters, captured the melancholy side of a passing aristocratic style of life

On the Excellence of the Kings and the kingdom of france

one of the most popular french histories in the 17th century

tithing

one-tenth of income goes to the Roman Catholic Church, taxes

the Protectorate

only time in England's history when there was not a king

The Middle-Class Gentleman

only true nobles by blood can hope to act like nobles, also showed how the middle classes were learning to emulate the nobility; if one could learn to act nobly through self-discipline, could not anyone with some education and money pass himself off as a noble?

monasteries

orchestrated the cult of the dead who we saints and the ordinary dead, communities of professional prayers

Council of Ten

organ of Florentine government that had responsibility for war and diplomacy

nobility

originally known as the warrior caste

buboes

painful swellings in the lymph nodes of the groin or armpits, bubonic plague killed within five days

Cornelius Buys

painted Feeding the Hungry to depict the new poor

Peter Paul Ruben

painted several portraits of Marie de Medicis

Jan van Eyck

painted the Marriage of Giovanni Arnolfini and Giovana Cenami

Jan Vermeer

painted the Milkmaid depicting a domestic servant

Joris Hoefnagel

painted the weeding feast at Bermondsey

curia

papal court, Avignon popes created a central bureaucracy that increased papal revenues

Guelphs

papal faction, named after the Welf family which opposed Frederick's

increases in literacy

parish schools, emphasis on Bible reading, more books and periodicals released then ever before

Sejm

parliament in Poland-Lithuania where the nobles all had an absolute veto power

Roundheads

parliamentary forces, cut their hair short, dominated by the Puritans and the gentry

Revocation of the Edict of Nantes

part of Louis XIV's efforts to have France have only one religion, he closed huguenots churches and schools, banned all their public activities, and exiled those who refused to embrace the state religion

House of commons

part of the English parliment that advised the king and used legislative power usually made up of bourgeousie

peninsulares

people born in Spain in the colonies

Creoles

people descended from those who lived in Spain in the colonies

mulattos

people that are a mixed race of white and black

Parlimentarians

people that believed that monarchy should be limited

intendants

people who acted as provencial governors in france

Astrologers

people who analyzed the movement of the stars

Royalists

people who believed in an absolute monarchy

Old Believers

people who rejected church efforts to bring Russian worship in line with Byzantine tradtition, whole communities starved or burned themselves to death rather than submit

Purians

people who wanted to purify the Anglican church of anything catholic

freeholders

people who were able to break up the common fields and initiate legal action against their lord

Magicians

people who worked with plants and herbs

Alchemists

people who worked with rocks and minerals

Witch Craze

period between 1550-1650 were people were accused of witchcraft

Francis Bacon

philosopher and scientist who worote the history of Henry VII

confraternities

pious religious organizations of lay people and clergy who ministered the sick and the poor

coffeehouses

places where discussions of politics and other social matters could occur, very popular throughout Europe and the colonies

women in 17th century society

played an important role in etiquette

constable

police officer of the medieval towns

estates

political units of knights, burghers, and clergy. Presented a united front in dealing with their prince

Pius VI

pope who denounced the principles of the revolution

early eighteenth century population increases

population surge in Europe about 20% vetweeb 1700-1750, cities grew, London's pop. tripled, Paris doubled

matins

prayers recited at monasteries after midnight

Roger Bacon

predicted that science would be the most prominent study of the future

nonjuring priests

priests that went into hiding after the Civil Constitution of the Clergy

calico

printed cotton material from India that is floral and colorful and is less expensive than silk or velvets or broquades

citizens

privileged class in Germany could only be men

Noble Privileges

privileges rank, title, coat of arms, highest offices of state and military, rights of political participation, tax exemptios

subsistence farming

producing just enough to get by rather than surpluses for the market, dominated farming in western Europe and Scandanavia

Diggers

promated rural communism, believed in collective ownership of all property

German Burghers

prosperious townsmen in Germany

Church of England (Anglican Church)

protestant church under Henry VIII

Marquis de Lafayette

provided financial aid for America during its fight for independence, fought with George Washington, helped organize the Nat'l Guard

Act of Settlement

provided that the English crown would go to the German Hanovers if none of Queen Anne's children survived

Addison and Steele

published The Spector

Taborites

radical faction that demanded the abolition of private property and the institution of a communal state

Brethren of the Free Spirit

radical group that believed that God was all things and that all things would return to God

Brunelleschi

radical synthesis of old and new, geometric principles. Dome on the Florence Cathedral or Il Duomo, first to use perspective,

Aphra Behn

real-life target of the English playwrights, one of the first professional woman authors who supported herself by journaism, wrote plays and poetry, and translated scientific works, wrote Oroonooko

Renaissance

rebirth, The great period of rebirth in art, literature, and learning in the 14th-16th centuries, which marked the transition into the modern periods of European history

Test Act of 1673

recquired all government officials to profess allegiance to the Church of England and in effect disavow Catholic doctrine, also explicitly denied the throne to a Roman Catholic, didn't become a law

Book of Gold

registration for members of the Great Council

Thomas Cranmer

replaced Wolsey and convinced Henry in 1533 that he could divorce Catherine by breaking away from Rome

english reformation

result of the disagreement between Henry VIII and the Pope, created the Church of England or Anglican Church which was separate from the Catholic Church, still left little room for religious freedom

Midland Revolt

revolt in 1607 against enclosure

German Peasant Revolt

revolt in Germany 1524-1525

regents

rich merchants and business men who held the power in the Dutch Republic

Cosimo de' Medici

ruled Florence, was one of the richest men in Christendom, humanist and patron of the arts, international banker

Milan

ruled by strong monarchs - a produced a long line of powerful dukes. Was a major city-state in italy during the ren.

Charles XII

ruler of Sweden during the Great Northern War, invaded Russia and was defeated

Piazza Della Signoria

ruling councils of the states

Great Council

ruling group of Venice with fixed membership

Papal pardoners

salesmen who used high-pressure sales pitches to sell indulgences

gabelle

salt tax

Rhodes Scholarship Trust

scholarship system to train renaissance men, two years of study @ Oxford/Cambridge

Star Chamber

secret trials in England, where the nobles were tried without a jury, could not confront witnesses and were often tortured.

Mennonites

sect which arose from the Anabaptists

Francesco Sforza

seized reins of power in Milan

Clarendon Code

series of laws by Parliament that excluded Roman Catholics and Presbyterians from religious and political life

Treatises of Government

served to justify the Glorious Revolution

Lady Wortley Montagu

she helped spread the use of inoculation in Europe

parchment

sheep skin

Queen Anne

sister of Mary (as in William and Mary monarchs of England) succeeded the throne after their deaths, died leaving no heir

public health and hygeine

slightly improved, starting to realize that air quality and garbage and densely packed together people were not a good mix

The Commons

small forests shared by farmers where their animals could graze

Quakers

society of friends, believed that anyone inspired by a direct experience of God could preach, they manifested their religious experience by trembling, or "quaking"

Cardinal Mazarin

sold new offices, raised taxes, and forced creditors to extend loans to the government, was advisor to Anne of Austria and helped rule as regent for Louis XIV, was presented a charter of demands that would give the parlements power, didn't sign it, and arreseted the leaders

James II

son of Charles I who ruled England after Cromwell was overthrown; however, he was a catholic and was soon overthrown

Sigismund

son of Charles IV, religious conflicts with Czech reformers and German-speaking minority in Prague, oversaw the Council of Constance

Patron of the Arts

sponsors of the poor who have talents, the Medicis

Black Death

spread by the fleas of infected rats from Messina, Sicily

Dutch War

started by Colbert over trade, France vs. Dutch, Spain, and Holy Roman Empire, ended with the Treaty of Nijmegan

War of the League of Augsburg

started by Louvois over "stolen land" attacked the Holy Roman Empire, Treaty of Rijswijk ended it, France only retained Strausburg, gave up all other lands that it had gained, France vs. everybody

Tuileries Palace

stormed August 10, 1792, symbolized the loss of respect and love for the monarch

Oroonoko

story of an African prince mistakenly sold into slavery, adapted by playwrights and performed repeatedly in England and France for the next hundred years

Leopold I

strong ruler, Holy Roman Emperor, used aristocrats to rule, invited foreign aristocrats to court, his palace, Schonnbrun imitated Versailles

male writers' views on women

stuck to the traditional view of women that women were less capable of reasoning than men and therefore did not need systematic education

James I

succeeded Elizabeth in the rule of England and was the son of Mary Queen of Scots

Royal Academy of Science

supplied fifteen scientists with government stipends that met in the King's Library in paris founded by Colbert

Whigs

supported Hanoverian succession and the rights of dissenting Protestants

Tories

supported a strong, hereditary monarchy and the restored ceremony of the Anglican church

milliones

tax on consumption in Spain

paulette

tax on office holding in francte

Impositions

taxes passed by James I based on past customs duties known as tonnage and poundage

fresco

technique of painting directly onto wet plaster so the image is firmly embedded into the wall

penance

temporary punishment that could take the form of fasting, prayer, or a good deed

ovism

that the female egg was essential in making new humans

pluralism

the ability of individuals to acquire numerous ecclesiastical benefices across Europe

perspective

the appearance of things relative to one another as determined by their distance from the viewer, first used by Brunelleschi

rhetoric

the art of expression

philology

the art of language

genre paintings

the art that reflected everyday life

If only the king knew!

the belief of French men and women in the inevitability of their fate and benevolence of their king

divine right

the belief that a king/queen is given the right to rule by God

the esch

the best land in the German villages

simony

the buying and selling of spiritual goods

ville

the commercial center of Paris on the right bank

terra firma

the conquest of Italy seen by Venetian islanders

Austrian absolutism

the country was very ethnically divided and the rulers only had absolute power by letting the nobles have some power

social contract theory

the doctrine that all political authority derives not form divine right but from an implicit contract between citizens and their rulers

mercantilism

the doctrine that governments must intervene to increase national wealthy by whatever means possible

presbyterianism

the doctrines and practices of the Presbyterian Church: based in Calvinism

James I

the first Stuart to be king of England and Ireland from 1603 to 1625 and king of Scotland from 1567 to 1625; he was the son of Mary Queen of Scots and he succeeded Elizabeth I; he alienated the British Parliament by claiming the divine right of kings (1566-1625)

monastery of Cluny

the first international organization of monastic centers, life of luxury and liturgy as opposed to other spiritual activities

The Spectator

the first literary magazine published by Joseph Addison and Richard Steele

Robert Walpole

the first, or "prime" minister of the House of Commons of Great Britain's Parliament. Although appointed initially by the king, through his long period of leadership he effectively established the modern pattern of parliamentary government.

plays of Moliere

the greatest French playwright of the seventeenth century who wrote comedies of manners that revealed much about the new aristocratic behavior, The Middle-Class Gentleman, Tartuffe

the université

the intellectual center of Europe on the left bank

Cavaliers

the king's army of royalists

compline

the last evening prayer at monasteries

Parliament

the lawmaking body of British government

Intolerance in Poland

the once open Poland now became a place where it was assumed that a good Pole was a Catholic

Naples

the only Italian city-state controlled by a hereditary monarchy

Palazzo Medici

the palace of Cosimo de' Medici which he spent lavishly on

Voltaire

the pen name of Francois-Marie Arouet who was the most influential writer of the early Enlightenment, wrote Letters Concerning the English Nation, Elements of the Philosophy of Newton, and he took inspirations from Bayle was penpals with Catherine the Great

nepotism

the practice of awarding ecclesiastical positions to people you favor

neopotism

the practice of rewarding relatives with church positions.

Anne of Austria

the queen regent and mother of Louis XIV

consumer revolution

the rapid increase in consumption of new staples produced in the Atlantic system as well as of other items of daily life that were previously unavailable or beyond the reach of ordinary people

sheriffs

the reeves of each shire

Donation of Constantine

the right of the pope to withhold recognition of the king, supposedly ceded to the papacy by Emperor Constantine

Signoria

the ruling Council in Florence's republican form of government

benefices

the sale of Church offices, the pope collected a hefty tax for every appointment

Anne Boleyn

the second wife of Henry VIII and mother of Elizabeth I

simony

the selling of Church offices

assizes

the semianual sessions of the county court

Gentry

the social group that emerged during the 16th century

interdict

the suspension of all religious services when rulers dared to contradict the pope

Turkish threat

the turks and the austrians fought over hungary for 150 years, the turks were impending europe

lord and the priest

the two basic forces that tied the rural community together

Charles XII

the war with Russia destroyed him, the nobles took control, Riksdag controlled the government, and this ended absolutism in Sweden

John Locke

theorist of the Glorious revolution and wrote THe Treatsies on Civil Governments

John Locke

there are certain natural rights that are endowed by God to human beings, Life, Liberty, and Property

sugar/tobacco

these two items' popularity spread during this time period

Parlements

these were the state courts in france

Romanesque style

thick walls and few windows

highwaymen

thieves who attacked people traveling along the highway

ride backwards on a donkey

thing a man was forced to do if he had been cheated on by his wife or if he had failed to get her obedience

council of Pisa

this council deposed both existing popes and elected a new one

Great Schism

this event divided western Christendom

vote by order

this process allotted one vote to each estate, this lead to the 1st/2nd estate's control of the Estates-General

vote by head

this process gave one vote to every member of the Estates-General, with liberal nobles and priests it would have given power to the Third Estate

group more than individual

this was the of mentality that people had of social life in the 16th century

Jacobitism

those who supported Bonnie Prince Charlie (son of the deposed Catholic King James II)

cathedral

three separate parts: the church, the bell tower, and the baptistry

Varennes

town in France where the royal family was captured by the Nat'l Guard, they were the on their way to Metz

Silk Caravan

trade route across Asia

Oxford Reformers

traveled to Italy from Oxford to learn about the culture/skills, spread traits across Europe

Northern Humanists

traveled to Italy to learn about the culture/skills, spread traits across Europe

assignats

treasury bonds backed by confiscated church property, bank notes/compulsory legal tender, demand became greater than supply but they continued to be printed

Leon Battista Alberti

treatise On Building, geometric principles and the humanist spirit, impact on civic architecture, On the Family-classic study of urban values

John XXII

tried to prevent Wittelsbach Louis of Bavaria from taking the throne

Benedict Spinoza

tried to reconcile religion and science,

doge

true officer of the Great Council, the position was chosen for life

the Deluge

two decades of tumult that resulted from Ukrainian Cossack warriors revolting against the king of Poland-Lithuania, during this time tried to resist everyone taking a "bite" out of them

city-state

unit of government with political and economic control over the surrounding countryside

Leonardo da Vinci

universal man, The Last Supper, psychological portrait: La Gioconda or The Mona Lisa

l'uomo universale

universal man, renaissance man, applies to Leonardo da Vinci

letrados

university trained lawyers who were members of nobility in spain

Statute of the Six Articles

upheld the seven sacraments, maintained Catholic theology, and replaced the authority of the pope with that of the monarch; Anglican Church maintained most of the catholic doctrines

5-Oct

uprising of women at Versailles, decapitated guards and chased Marie Antoinette out of her room

Paradise Lost

used biblical Adam and Eve's fall from grace to meditate on human freedom and the tragedies of rebellion, individuals learn the limits to their freedom, yet personal liberty remainds essential to their humanity

John Locke

used the notion of a social contract to provide a foundation for constituionalism, wrote Two Treatises of Goverhment and Essay Conecrning Human Understanding, virtue can be learned and practice, human beings possess free will, individual must become a "rational creature"

Teutonic orders

used the sword to spread Christianity along the Baltic coast, created their own state

Presbyterians

wanted a Calvinist church with some central authority (part of the Roundheads)

War of Spanish Succession

war fought after the death of Charles II of Spain to see who would get the throne, Phillip (second grandson of Louis XIV) was named heir and Leopold I refused to accept this

Julius II

warrior pope who personally led armies against his enemies

Great Chain of Being

was a description of the universe in which everything had a place, from God at the top of the chain to inanimate objects

fair

was an event that brought venders from across Europe together

Margaret Cavendish

was invited by the Royal Society of London to attend a meeting to watch the exhibition of experiments even though she was a women, wrote poems, essays, letters, and philosophical treatises

Ferenc Rakoczi

wealthy Hungarian noble landlord who raised an army of seventy thousand men who fought for "God, Fatherland, and Liberty" until 1711

The Norton Simon Museum

wealthy industrialist, Pasadena, Raphael's Portrait of Jupiter

Lord Protector

what Oliver Cromwell had people call him

Holy Synod

what Peter the Great replaced the office of patriarch with, was a bureaucracy of laymen under his supervision

skepticism

when some scientists and others developed a skeptical attitude toward attempts to enforce religious conformity

Restoration

when the Stuarts were returned to the throne of England after Cromwell's son failed miserably at being a successor, Parliament invited Charles II (Charles I son) to come back and rule

enclosure movement

when the biggest British landowners consolidated their holdings by putting pressures on small farmers and villagers to sell their land or give up their common lands, the big landlords then fenced off their property, eliminated community grazing rights

Battle of Naseby

where the New Model Army defeated the Cavaliers and where Charles I surrendered

Christine de Pisan

widowed at 25, turned to literature and history and began writing poems. Defied the stereotype of the medieval woman, Hymn to Joan of Arc

Marie Antoinette

wife of Louis XVI, dressed up and played in a miniature village, "Let them eat cake"

Gothic style

windows and more light, flying buttresses to support weaker walls

courtly manners

women set the standards for etiquette and they reached the upper reaches of society through the etiquette set in salons

Michelangelo Buonarroti

worked for Lorenzo de' Medici, the Pietà & David, fresco on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, the building of St. Peter's

95 Thesis

written by Martin Luther in 1517, they are widely regarded as the primary catalyst for the Protestant Reformation. Luther used these theses to display his displeasure with some of the Church's clergy's abuses, most notably the sale of indulgences; this ultimately gave birth to Protestantism.

A Serious Proposal to the Ladies

written by Mary Astell, advocated founding a private women's college to remedy women's lack of education

Essay in Defence of the Female Sex

written by Mary Astell, attacked "the Usurpation of Men; and the Tyranny of Custom' which prevented women from getting an education

Reflections upon Marriage

written by Mary Astell; criticized the relationship between the sexes within marriage

Historical and Critical Dictionary

written by Pierre Bayle, cited all the errors and delusions that he could find in past and present writers of all religions

News from the Republic of Letters

written by Pierre Bayle, criticized the polities of Louis XIV and was quickly banned in Paris and condemned in ROme

Elements of the Philosophy of Newton

written by Valtaire; popularized Newton's scientific discoveries

Letter Concerning the English Nation

written by Voltaire; several chapters were devoted to Newton and Locke and he used the virtues of the British as a way to attack Catholic bigotry and government rigidity in France

Arcangela Tarabotti

wrote "Monastic Hell"and "Innocence Undone"

Eliza Haywood

wrote Love in Excess, earned her living turning out a stream of novels that all showed a concern for the proper place of women as models of virtue in a changing world, published a magazine, The Female Spectator, which argued in favor of higher education for women

William Petty

wrote Political Arithmetick, this quickened the interest of government officials everywhere, offered statistical estimates of human capital, the popuatlion and wages, to determine Britain's national wealth

Juan de Mariana

wrote The King and the Education of the King in opposition to monarch

John Milton

wrote The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates in opposition to a absolute monarchy

Shakespeare

wrote Troilus and Cressida

Jean Bodin

wrote the "Six books of the commonwealth" defending the monarchy

Jean-Baptiste Racine

wrote tragedies set in Greece or Rome that celebrated the new aristocratic virtues that Louis aimed to inculcate: a reverance for order and self-control, characters regal or noble, lofty language, aristocratic behavior

Pierre Corneille

wrote tragedies set in Greece or Rome that celebrated the new aristocratic virtues that Louis aimed to inculcate: a reverance for order and self-control, characters regal or noble, lofty language, aristocratic behavior


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