AP World History Chapter 5 study guide part 2
What new emphases characterized Hinduism as it responded to the challenge of Buddhism?
Hinduism emphasized more clearly that action in the world and the detached performance of caste duties might provide a path to salvation. • Another emphasis was on devotion to one or another of India's many gods and goddesses. One manifestation of this emphasis was the bhakti movement, which involved intense adoration of and identification with a particular deity through songs, prayers, and rituals associated with the many cults that emerged throughout India. The most popular deities were Vishnu and Shiva.
How would you define the appeal of the religious/cultural traditions discussed in this chapter? To what groups were they attractive, and why?
Some religious/cultural traditions, including Legalism and Confucianism, found widespread appeal among the elite because they reinforced the established social structure that defined the elites. • Other traditions, like Buddhism and Christianity, appealed to the lower strata of society because they offered universal salvation to all believers regardless of class or gender. • Traditions such as Judaism appealed to all strata of one ethnic group because they defined a special relationship between that group and a powerful divine entity. • However, each cultural and religious tradition explored in this chapter appealed to its adherents because it brought guidance for living along with meaning and order to life.
In what ways did Buddhism reflect Hindu traditions, and in what ways did it challenge them?
Buddhism reflected Hindu traditions in the idea that ordinary life is an illusion, in the concepts of karma and rebirth, the goal of overcoming the incessant demands of the ego, the practice of meditation, and the hope for final release from the cycle of rebirth. • Buddhism challenged Hindu traditions through its rejection of the religious authority of the Brahmins, the lack of interest in abstract speculation about the creation of the world or the existence of gods, and its rejection of the inequalities of a Hindu-based caste system through its belief that neither caste position nor gender was a barrier to enlightenment.
How did the Daoist outlook differ from that of Confucianism?
Daoists found Confucian emphasis on education and the earnest striving for moral improvement and good government artificial and useless. Instead, Daoists urged withdrawal into the world of nature and encouraged behavior that was spontaneous, individualistic, and natural. • Daoists turned the spotlight onto the immense realm of nature and its mysterious unfolding patterns, while Confucians focused on the world of human relationships.
What are the distinctive features of the Greek intellectual tradition?
Emphasis on argument and logic • Relentless questioning of received wisdom • Confidence in human reason • Enthusiasm for puzzling out the world without much reference to the gods
What was distinctive about the Jewish religious tradition?
Unlike other Mesopotamian peoples, the Jewish people through time came to believe in a single god, whom they called Yahweh. • The Jews came to understand their relationship with Yahweh as a contract or covenant. In return for their sole devotion and obedience, Yahweh would consider the Jews his chosen people. • Unlike other gods in Mesopotamia, Yahweh was increasingly seen as a lofty, transcendent deity of utter holiness and purity, set far above the world of nature, which he had created. • Unlike the impersonal conceptions of ultimate reality found in Daoism and Hinduism, Yahweh was encountered as a divine person with whom people could actively communicate. He was also a god who acted within the historical process. • Yahweh was also distinctive in that he was transformed from a god of war into a god of social justice and compassion for the poor and marginalized.
What aspects of Zoroastrianism and Judaism subsequently found a place in Christianity and Islam?
Zoroastrian concepts of the conflict between God and an evil counterpart, the notion of a last judgment and resurrected bodies, a belief in the final defeat of evil, the arrival of a savior, and the remaking of the world at the end of time all influenced Judaism. Some of these teachings, especially the concepts of heaven and hell and of a coming savior, also became prominent in Christianity and Islam through this influence on Judaism. • From Judaism, both Christianity and Islam drew a distinctive conception of the divine as singular, transcendent, personal, separate from nature, engaged in history, and demanding social justice and moral righteousness above sacrifices and rituals.
Why has Confucianism been defined as a "humanistic philosophy" rather than a supernatural religion?
• The thrust of Confucian teaching was distinctly this-worldly and practical, concerned with human relationships, effective government, and social harmony. • Confucianism is based on the cultivation of ren—translated as human-heartedness, benevolence, goodness, nobility of heart. Ren is not achieved through divine intervention but rather is nurtured within the person through personal reflection, education, and a willingness to strive continuously to perfect one's moral character. • Ritual and ceremonies nurture ren, not because of contact with the supernatural but because they convey rules of appropriate behavior in the many and varying circumstances of life.
14 similarities between jesus of nazarath and the buddha
1. both became spiritual seekers, mystics in their respective traditions, 2. Both claimed to have personally experienced another level of reality 3.Those powerful religious experiences provided the motivation for their life's work 4.personal authenticity that attracted their growing band of followers. 5. Both were "wisdom teachers," challenging the conventional values of their time 6. Both urged the renunciation of wealth, 7. Both emphasized the supreme importance of love or compassion as the basis for a moral life. 8.Both Jesus and the Buddha called for the personal transformation of their followers, through "letting go" of the grasping that causes suffering, in the Buddha's teaching, or "losing one's life in order to save it," in the language of Jesus. 9.neither Jesus nor the Buddha had any intention of founding a new religion; rather, 10. they sought to reform the traditions from which they had come 11. Christianity and Buddhism soon emerged as separate religions, distinct from Judaism and Hinduism, proclaiming their messages to a much wider and more inclusive audience 12.both teachers were transformed by their followers into gods 13. Both did not see themselves as divine during their lifetimes. According to many scholars, Jesus never claimed divine status, seeing himself as a teacher or a prophet, whose close relationship to God could be imitated by anyone. The Buddha likewise viewed himself as an enlightened but fully human person, an example of what was possible for anyone who followed the path 14. Christianity, like Buddhism, reflected prevailing patriarchal values, even as they both offered women new opportunities 15. In both cases, however, these new religions spread widely beyond their places of origin. 16. Buddhism provided a network of cultural connections in much of Asia, and Christianity did the same for western Eurasia and parts of Africa. 17. Both Buddhist and Christian followers clashed over interpretation of their respective founder's teachings. 18. This lef to the division of the religion
In what ways did the religious traditions of South Asia change over the centuries?
It is difficult to generalize about religious tradition in South Asia because of the variety of religious patterns in the region. However, there was a general evolution away from a religion based on external sacrifice and ritual to one of philosophical speculation, and finally to one of devotional worship and detached action in the world. ||||||||||||||Basically, South Asian religious traditions changed from ritual sacrifice, described in the Vedas, to philosophical speculation, described in the Upanishads. The Vedas, written by the Brahmins were the first religious texts to be recognized by Indians. They described required ritual sacrifices that could only be performed by Brahmins who happened to charge for each ritual. The Indians were dissatisfied and resorted to the Upanishads. Written unanimously, these texts led to inward thinking which inspired philosophical Hinduism? (I'm not 100% sure whether it led to it, inspired it, or created it...) The Brahman, the "World Soul", chief of the philosophical concepts, was essentially like a unitary energy. Even the gods existed in the Brahman. Philosophical Hinduism centralized around the fact that the atman, the individual human soul, was part of the Brahman. Believers' main goal was to achieve union with the Brahman, called moksha. This was achieved through many lifetimes, as samsara, reincarnation, was a central idea of Hindu thinking. Karma was a law/term that stated that the good/bad choices of a person would reflect the level or class that person would be reborn in. In short, the main goal was to be reborn several times, each time achieving a higher rank in the caste system, until reaching union with the Brahman. Therefore, ending the cycle of rebirth and reaching nirvana.
What is the difference between the Theravada and Mahayana expressions of Buddhism?
The Theravada expression was championed by monks and nuns who withdrew from society to devote themselves fully to the quest for nirvana. It portrayed the Buddha as an immensely wise teacher and model, but certainly not divine. It was more psychological than religious, a set of practices rather than a set of beliefs. And the gods, while never completely denied, played little role in assisting believers in their search for enlightenment. • The Mahayana (great vehicle) expression proclaimed that help was available to reach enlightenment. Within this expression, bodhisattvas, spiritually developed people who postponed their own entry into nirvana in order to assist those who were still suffering, could help the believer. The Buddha himself could also help. The Buddha became something of a god, and both earlier and future Buddhas were available to offer their help on the path to enlightenment. The Mahayana expression developed elaborate descriptions of these supernatural beings, together with various levels of heavens and hells that ultimately transformed Buddhism into a popular religion of salvation. As part of this development, religious merit leading to salvation might now be earned by acts of piety and devotion, and merit might be transferred to others.
"Religions are fundamentally alike." Does the material in this chapter support or undermine this idea?
This question can constructively be answered either way: • In support of the thesis that religions are fundamentally alike, students could point to influences like that of Zoroastrianism on Judaism, Christianity, and Islam or the influence of Judaism on Christianity and Islam. • Students could also note similarities across traditions, like those between Buddhism and Christianity highlighted in the chapter. • To emphasize differences, students could point to differences even within cultural traditions, such as the beliefs that separate the Hindu and Buddhist faiths. • Students could also point to important differences across cultural traditions, such as the difference between the conception of God in the Jewish and Christian traditions, Brahman in the Indian tradition, or the dao in the Chinese tradition. • Students could also note the difference between Greek and Confucian philosophy and the traditions that focus on the supernatural.
What different answers to the problem of disorder arose in classical China?
Three major schools of thought that emerged from the Warring States period. • Legalism was a hardheaded practical philosophy based on a rather pessimistic view of human nature that assumed that people were stupid and shortsighted. • Supporters of Legalism argued that only the state could act in the long-term interests of society as a whole. They advocated a system of clearly defined laws and rules, strictly enforced through rewards and punishments, as the best means of securing desirable behavior from subjects. • Confucianism argued that social harmony could only be restored through the moral example of superiors. Confucius emphasized that, because human society (both within the family and in public life) consisted primarily of unequal relationships, social harmony relied on the superior party in these relationships behaving with sincerity, benevolence, and genuine concern for others. Only then would the inferior party be motivated to respond with deference and obedience. • Daoism provided a third alternative, arguing that disorder stemmed from human actions and that order could return to life if people withdrew from the world of political and social activism and instead aligned themselves with dao, the way of nature. In practice, this meant simplicity in living, small self-sufficient communities, limited government, and the abandonment of education and active efforts at self-improvement.
"Religion is a double-edged sword, both supporting and undermining political authority and social elites." How would you support both sides of this statement?
• In answering this question students must consider the issue of what is and what is not a religion. Legalist and Confucian ideas along with Greek rationalism should be placed to one side, although students could note that (like religions) philosophies can both support and threaten political authorities and social elites. Both Legalist and Confucian traditions are largely supportive of political authorities and social elites, while Greek rationalism, as seen in Socrates' death, could threaten the political and social elites. • In support of political and social authority, students could readily point to individual instances where new and popular religions were adopted by elites. Ashoka's conversion to Buddhism in Mauryan India provides one example, the support of the Achaemenid dynasty for Zoroastrianism another. Finally, the adoption of Christianity by Constantine and the ultimate reinforcement of patriarchy by the Christian church speak to the political and social support that a new religion could provide to established power structures. • More generally, the tendency of several religions to focus the believer's attention away from action in this world also served to support political authority and social elites. This was true of Daoism in China, Buddhism in India, and Christianity in the Roman Empire. • However, if followed, the teachings of many religions put real constraints on political and social authorities. For instance, Ashoka's adoption of Buddhism limited the scope for his legitimate use of violence, while dictates about the treatment of the poor and the equality of all believers in the Christian faith brought into question the social norms of Roman society. • Religious leaders could prove subversive to the current system, as the execution of Jesus by the Roman authorities indicates. Also, the teachings of a faith could potentially challenge established authorities. • For instance, the strict monotheism practiced by early Christians effectively precluded the worship of Roman gods, which traditionally was seen as a sign of obedience and loyalty to the Roman Empire.
In what ways was Christianity transformed in the five centuries following the death of Jesus?
• Jesus became divine in the eyes of his followers. • Christianity developed from a small Jewish sect into a world religion that included non-Jews. • It spread throughout the Roman Empire, first largely among the "lower stratum" of people in the towns and cities, but as it gained in popularity, Roman rulers sought to use its popularity as a glue to hold together a very diverse population in a weakening imperial state. • In the fourth century, Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire, and all polytheistic religions were banned. • Christianity adopted elements of religious practice in the Roman world as it spread and converted the population. • It developed a hierarchical organization, with patriarchs, bishops, and priests. • It ultimately developed a patriarchal, male-dominated clergy. • It sought unity in matters of doctrine and practice, but ultimately permanent divisions formed. |||||||||After the death of Jesus, he became divine through the views of his followers. The beginning of the church's tranformation began with Saint Paul (10-65 C.E.) He created small Christian communities in the Eastern Roman Empire, but most importantly, he proclaimed that Christianity was for everyone. Despite this, early Christianity was mostly patriarchial. There were a few opportunities for women, such as roles in the "house of churches" in the first century C.E. But Paul strongly advocated against this. Christianity gradually spread in the Roman Empire through its attractive all inclusive message. Normally, people of lower social staus converted compared to those in the higher social classes. People were also attracted to the idea that followers cared for one another. At around 300 C.E., about 10% of the Roman Empire identified as Christian. Christianity's severe opposition to any other forms of belief (pretty much the cult of emperors) caused the persecution of Christians through the first 3 centuries C.E. However, the reforms of Constantine at the beginning of the 4th century C.E. ended this and grew state support for the religion. Christianity was seen by rulers as a way to hold together the already eroding imperial state. In addition, a ban on all polytheistic rituals & sacrifices was laid by emperor Theodosius who also closed the polytheistic temples. Christianity began to be seen positively where structures and buildings were encouraged and aproval of their beliefs was given ultimately leading to it being professed as the official state religion. The faith spread widely, as this happened the religion developed hierarchy which causdd problems within the church which eventually led the the schism of the church. As for the spread of the religion, Christianity found convers for Spain to Northeast Africa, Central Asia, and India. It spred to Armenia and Axum in the Roman Empire. And after 1000 C.E. spread to Russia as well.
Is a secular outlook on the world an essentially modern phenomenon, or does it have precedents in the classical era?
• The philosophical systems of both China and Greece are central to any possible answers. • In China, Legalism possessed several features of a modern secular political philosophy in its reliance on law and the enforcement of law to secure a stable society. • The thrust of Confucian teaching was distinctly this-worldly and practical. Confucianism was primarily concerned with human relationships, with effective government, and with social harmony. • Greek thought, with its emphasis on argument and logic, relentless questioning of received wisdom, confidence in human reason, and enthusiasm for puzzling out the world without much reference to the gods, also provides a precedent for modern secular outlooks on the world.
How would you compare the lives and teachings of Jesus and the Buddha? In what different ways did the two religions evolve after the deaths of their founders?
• Their backgrounds were very different. Jesus was a rural or small-town worker from a distinctly lower-class family, while Gautama was born into a ruling family and was surrounded by luxury. 1• Both became spiritual seekers, mystics in their own traditions, who claimed to have personally experienced another level of reality. 7. Those powerful religious experiences provided the motivation for their life's work and the 10. personal authenticity that attracted their growing band of followers. 2• Both were "wisdom teachers," challenging the conventional values of their time, 8. urging the renunciation of wealth, and 9. emphasizing the supreme importance of love or compassion as the basis for a moral life. 3• Both called for the personal transformation of their followers. • Jesus inherited from his Jewish tradition an intense devotion to a single personal deity with whom he was on intimate terms. According to the New Testament, the miracles Jesus performed reflected the power of God available to him as a result of that relationship. • The Buddha's original message largely ignored the supernatural, involved no miracles, and taught a path of intense self-effort aimed at ethical living and "mindfulness" as a means of ending suffering. • Jesus' teachings had a sharper social and more political edge than those of the Buddha. • Jesus' public life was very brief, probably less than three years compared to over forty years for the Buddha. • 11. Neither Jesus nor the Buddha probably planned to found new religions. •4 Both the Buddha's and Jesus' messages emerged soon after their deaths as separate religions proclaimed to much wider and more inclusive audiences. •5 Both the Buddha and Jesus were transformed from teachers into gods by their followers. • The Christian faith was ultimately promoted as the single legal faith in the Roman Empire. Buddhism, while supported by some rulers, was never promoted to the exclusion of other faiths in India. •6 Both Buddhist and Christian followers clashed over interpretation of their respective founder's teachings. • However, Buddhist disagreements generally lacked the clear-cut distinctions defined by "right" and "wrong" that Christian disagreements developed.