Applied Insect Ecology (Term 2, Year 2)

European foulbrood

A bacterial pathogen found in honeybees that causes larvae death at the capped stage, which can appear curled upwards, brown or yellow, melted, and/or dried out and rubbery. Hives with this have to be burnt to prevent the spread of the disease.

Augmentation

A biological control method where a native enemy is released, either through inoculation or inundation. Both of these work best in protected conditions like glasshouses, or over small areas like gardens. Involved in IPM, the way 90% of tomato, cucumber and sweet pepper are grown in the netherlands, standard practice in the UK. However it has had a relatively small impact on the market, 2.5% of chemical pesticide market (at 60 million euros globally), 15% are macrobiologicals, whereas 85% are biopesticides. It is a niche market but growing - less well developed market for outdoor crops.

Classical Introduction

A biological control method where an exotic enemy is released in order to control an exotic pest. This usually used when insects have become pests outside the range of their natural enemies. However these need a robust environmental assessment before introduction, as many fail. Some even exacerbate pest problems and some become pests themselves and damage local diversity.

Conservation Biological Control

A biological control method where the environment and practices are modified to enhance pest control by natural enemies. However, this is complex system, with the need to understand the ecology, population and community dynamics, dispersal distanes, the effect of other pest control measures on natural enemies and the overall impact on pest damage, not just on pest population. Two approaches to this, within crop habitat and around the non crop habitat. So far however, general lack of evidence of this in reducing pest populations.

Cry-toxin

A biopesticide produced by Bacillus thuringiensis, a soil dwelling bacteria.

Worker

A caste of bee in Apis mellifera colonies, female, grown from a fertilised egg that is fed normally. These collect nectar and pollen to feed the brood, stored in the comb. They have sophisticated navigation and orientation to landscape cues (olfactory and visual). Nectar is converted into honey by evaporation and enzyme activity.

Drone

A caste of bee in Apis mellifera colonies, male, grown from an unfertilised egg.

Regulating

A category of ecosystem services that includes flood/pest/disease control and pollination. All categories depend on biodiversity.

Provisioning

A category of ecosystem services that includes food (agriculture, fish), fibre, fuel and water. All categories depend on biodiversity.

Supporting

A category of ecosystem services that includes providing the infrastructure for life, e.g. soil formation, nutrient cycling, decomposition. All categories depend on biodiversity.

Cultural

A category of ecosystem services that includes spiritual, recreational and aesthetic benefits of humans interacting with nature, e.g. 'green space', biodiversity, nature lovers. Insects in art and _______ encompasses things such as diversity, religion, history/civilisation, medicine, art, and film. This is the most controversial category, the true value of being heavily debated. All categories depend on biodiversity.

BT (crops)

A category of genetically modified crops that produce cry-toxin themselves, however resistance has developed.

Laos

A city in Africa where grasshoppers are boiled and fried, as an example. Insect eating is widespread in Asia and Africa, collected from the wild by digging or netting, and farmed in some cultures (crickets, silk worms).

Burying beetle(s)

A coleopteran species that is necrophorus, showing a significant amount of parental care.

Excreta

A collective term for urine and faeces, essential for nutrient cycling. 1000 billion tonnes of faecal wast from livestock globally per year. 12 of 30 million tons of nitrogen excreted by livestock were lost through ammonia volatilisation in 1990s. Recycling nutrients is essential.

Inscentinel

A company that were training bees to respond to the particular scent of explosives or drugs, to then be used as 'sniffer bees' as they have a precise sense of smell and good memory. Potentially cheaper and more accurate than dogs.

Endocoprid(s)

A coprophage that lives in the dung.

Paracoprid(s)

A coprophage that lives under the dung.

Teleocoprid(s)

A coprophage that rolls and buries the dung. Eggs are often laid in pockets underground, incubation.

Monoculture(s)

A crop field where there is only one species, often genetically identical. This means the area is a resource aggregation which encourages proliferation of generalist insects. This can lead to an invertebrate being considered a pest.

Electroantennogram

A device used to measure the response of insect antennal receptor cells to smells. A GC-MS trace is used to determine active components.

Barley Yellow Dwarf Virus

A disease that cereal aphids are a vector for, affecting cereal crops and grasses, especially barley and oats. Winter-sown cereals are threatened. Transferred in Autumn - winged aphids migrating into crop, and wingless aphids moving from grass in crop. Warmer, wetter conditions mean a longer season of aphid activity, and increased virulence of this disease. Abbreviated to BYDV.

Bubonic Plague

A disease transmitted by the oriental rat flea, on the brown rate that causes a huge number of horrible symptoms. Caused by Yersinia pestis. It has been used as a biological weapon - in the 1300s the Mongol attackers of Kaffa on the Crimean peninsula died, but not before catapulting corpses with fleas into the city. People fled across the mediterranean leading to a pandemic that killed 25 million people. Napolean's troops were also stopped from invading Syria by an outbreak of this.

Quality

A factor taken into account when generating the the functional effectiveness of a species. It is the effectiveness of an individual at a performing function. e.g. pollinator: number of pollen grains deposited per flower visit, pest: mass of plant material eaten per hour (mg), decomposer: rate of decomposition of dung mass.

Quantity

A factor taken into account when generating the the functional effectiveness of a species. Summarised as the relative abundance per unit resource.

Aphid(s)

A field crop pest within the group Hemiptera, that can sexually or asexually reproduce, allowing the population to increase rapidly through parthenogenesis. There are wingless and winged individuals, that disperse in an airstream over 100s of km. They pierce and suck plant sap, weakening the plant, whilst spreading viruses. Their eggs overwinter, afterwards in the spring a female emerges, the foundatrix.

Host resistance

A form of pest deterrent that can be acheived through conventional breeding or genetic modification, making the plant reject the pest species.

Cross (pollination)

A form of pollination where the pollen moves from a flower on one plant to the stigma of a different one. This is advantageous because it generates variation and enables evolution of new functions - adaptation. However it is disadvantageous because it is less reliable and requires a higher investment in flowers.

Self (pollination)

A form of pollination where the pollen moves to a flower on the same plant of the stigma of the same flower. This is disadvantageous due to inbreeding depression and there being no variation to allow adaptation to changed conditions. However it is advantageous as it is reliable (especially as a back up), a cheaper investment, and faster allowing rapid exploitation of transient resources.

(Insects as) Indicators

A function of indicators as a human use, visibly displaying the health and other properties of an environment. The function well as this due to high diversity, high abundance, being taxonomically tractable, easily sampled, specialists and generalists, with rapid response to environmental change (due to shorter generation times). However, they are often resilient and colonising.

Insecticide(s)

A general name for a group of chemicals, that are neurotoxins that kill insects in agricultural environments. It is urged we need them to produce enough food for the nearly 8 billion population counter, predicted to double by the end of the 21st century. Supermarkets also demand pristine produce. Also necessary to control diseases in humans and crops. However, they may reduce biodiversity and disrupt ecological balance, many produced from finite resources (e.g. petrochemicals), some are potentially toxic to non-target species organisms, legislation is reduce insecticide arsenal.

Entomological Warfare

A general term for the use of insects as weapons - this is advantageous as it is difficult to detect and stop, and the threat to humans, livestock and crops can be devastating. Protection involves insecticides and vaccines to be developed.

Agri-environment scheme(s)

A government initiative in order to encourage sustainability in agricultural systems. This could involve sowing wild flower mixtures on intensive arable farms to boost bumblebee density. Also include options to increase conservation biological control, e.g. beetle banks, hedge management, and of course sowing grass margins and wild flower strips (providing food for adult parasitoids and flies, providing alternative hosts for pathogens).

World Health Organisation

A group abbreviated to WHO, who produced a malaria report in 2014 that said we need more financing and control programme implementation, and African countries have access to preventative interventions.

Blowflies

A group important in forensic entomology, the family Calliphoridae, > 1000 species. Females attracted to corpse, laying eggs in wounds and orifices. There are 3 instars of maggots that devour flesh before dispersing from the body to pupate in a puparium. Find bodies through olfaction, liking dark and moist conditions - time of arrival depends on season, habitat and timing of development.

Blister beetle(s)

A group of coleoptera that causes blisters and urtica (itching)

Poly-unsaturated omega 3 fatty acids

A group of essential nutrients for fish that fish meal provides but insects do not. Abbreviated to PUFAs. A solution to this would be using black fly pre-pupae fed on manure and fish offal.

Termite(s)

A group of hymenoptera that act as important soil engineers and wood decomposers. Around 3000 species (40-65% of soil insect biomass in tropical lowland). Important in tropics and subtropics - either soil-dwelling in structured nests/mounds or wood-dwelling in galleries. Colonies include Queen, king, workers, soldiers and nymphs. Digestion aided by gut flora and enzymes. Important decomposers in arid and semi-arid areas, calculated to contribute 0.1mm/yr to accumulation of new soil in Australia. C and N re-enters cycle through excreta (nest structure) and as food to others. Mound areas are nutrient-rich to support plant growth. However also pests, destroying wooden structures. 185 out of 3000 species considered pests. Cost of control in USA is aorund £2 billion/yr. Control of termite pests can damage beneficial ones.

Honey ant(s)

A group of hymenoptera that are totemic for certain Aboriginal Australian clans.

Neonicotinoid(s)

A group of insecticides that are relatively new, acting on nerve cells, very effective and systemic. They are currently temporarily banned in the EU, due to growing evidence of sub-lethal effects (behaviour of foragers, and reproduction in bumblebees), with less evidence of colony effects for honeybees. This shows why the current moratorium is updating regulatory framework. Questions still arise as to what the farmers will replace them with.

Carbamate(s)

A group of insecticides that have a similar action to organophosphates, but act on contact, e.g. in the stomach.

Pyrethroid(s)

A group of insecticides that have been developed from natural Pyrethrum flowers, effective, relatively safe, biodegradable, and non-toxic to mammals. They are the most widely used today.

Organochlorines

A group of insecticides that includes DDT, they are broad spectrum, persistent, and bioaccumulate in body fat of mammals. Since we had this disaster, there has been a continuous effort to reduce environmental impact whilst controlling pests.

Organophosphate(s)

A group of insecticides that inhibit acetylcholinesterase enzyme, broad spectrum but not persistent, also toxic to mammals.

Praying mantis

A group of insects that symbolise creation and patience in zen-like waiting (by San bushmen in Kalahari).

Cicada

A group of noisy hemiptera that symbolised rebirth and immortality in China.

Pollution

A human threat to insect communities. This includes pesticides, outright killing individuals and light, which may change the behaviour and composition of communities.

Exploitation

A human threat to insect communities. This involves extreme over-collection of individuals and is more of a problem in tropical countries. Habitat loss has had a significant impact combined with this.

Land use change

A human threat to insect communities. This involves substantial areas of habitat being lost with increasing agriculture and urbanisation. Remaining patches are more fragmented and isolated. Butterflies with intermediate mobility have declined most (Thomas, 2000).

Land management

A human threat to insect communities. This involves the shift of practices like growing hay meadows to silage production.

Agronomist(s)

A job title for people who carry out surveys and scientific analyses for the benefit of the farmer. Often also do field scale monitoring to establish population levels. This includes focal observations, beating trays, sweep nets, a variety of traps (e.g. sticky, water, soil emergence, pheremone), fogging trees with insecticide (fumigation).

Malaria

A large-scale disease, in 2015 there were roughly 212 million cases of this and an estimated 429000 deaths. 6.8 million deaths of this have been averted globally since 2001, many say down to pesticides, the cheap and effective way of controlling the vector, mosquitoes. Since drop in 1972 it has increased due to reduced use of DDT, mosquito resistance to insecticides, and the Plasmodium resistance to drugs.

Mopane worm(s)

A lepidopteran laval form of Imbrasia belina, emperor moths. They feed gregariously on leguminous trees, however there are concerns about overexploitation in forests.

Large blue butterfly

A lepidopteran species that went extinct in GB in 1979, requiring a precise habitat niche of 1-3cm tall grass but the removal of livestock and rabbits had increased the turf height. Introduced 5 populations '84-85 by a partnership dedicated to design and implementation of management plans. Now found across 33 sites in SW England, had an umbrella effect on other rare species.

Holo-metabolous

A life cycle of insects that means they lay eggs that then hatch into larvae (with three or more instars), before entering a pupae stage and then becoming an adult.

Hemi-metabolous

A life cycle of insects that means they lay eggs that then hatch into nymphs, which go through 5 instars before becoming adults.

Typhus

A louse-borne disease that raged through Serbia in WWI, weakening the arm and killing prisoners of war. Also altered course of attack by central powers to avoid disease-infested areas. Camp epidemics led forces to enforce hygiene and sanitary procedures to keep troops alive.

Accumulated Degree Days

A measure, abbreviated to ADD that can also be measured in hours (ADH), of the time it takes for an organism to develop to a different instar. It depends on species, weather, conditions, may not correlate with ambient temperature (larval mass gets hot). Cannot estimate time between death and invasion by insects. May occur within minutes or could be delayed e.g. if body in blanket, in water or after rain.

Monoecious

A mechanism found in plants to prevent self-pollination and self-fertilization, where the male and female gametes are found on different flowers on the same plant.

Dioecious

A mechanism found in plants to prevent self-pollination and self-fertilization, where the male and female gametes are found on different plants, such as passion plants and kiwi plants.

Incompatibility system(s)

A mechanism found in plants to prevent self-pollination and self-fertilization. These are modifications generally to the plant meaning this cannot happen, such as through the gametes not fusing correctly.

(flower) morph

A mechanism found in plants to prevent self-pollination and self-fertilization. This could involve the style and stamen being at different lengths from each other between plants, encouraging the vector to come into contact with one over the other.

(insecticide) resistance

A mechanism that arises through Darwinian natural selection, through enhanced detoxification of insecticides, through modification of insect target site. This being seen in crops in tocacco whitefly, colorado potato beetle, cotton bollworm, peach-potato aphid, and in human pests in anopheline mosquitoes, human head louse, and bed bugs.

Film

A medium where insects have been depicted progressively well - from featues like 'Empire of the Ants' and 'The Wasp Woman' to 'James and the Giant Peach' and 'Bee movie'.

Flower Deception

A method of attracting pollinators through mimicry - potentially other flowers, other food, other animals, mates (pseudocopulation) or brood sites.

Inoculation

A method of augmentation, a biological control method. The native natural enemies are expected to multiply, extending the control but not permanent. e.g. parasitic wasps, Trichogramma spp.

Inundation

A method of augmentation, a biological control method. The native natural enemies that are released are exclusively those doing the controlling, not a permanent method - this could also be seen as a biopesticide. e.g. nematodes, fungi, bacteria.

Observation(s)

A method of measuring quantity of different species, through simply seeing them. This can be organised using transects. e.g. butterfly transects.

Trap(s)

A method of measuring quantity of different species. Allow the surveyors to leave but they must be checked. Can involve killing of the organisms in the bottom of these with ethanol so they do not eat each other. e.g. pitfall, malaise, water, light, sticky.

Net(s)

A method of measuring quantity of different species. Usually the most demanding in terms of work and time required although very effective. e.g. sweep, fishing, vacuum samplers.

Fumigation

A method of surveying insects that involves 'fogging' the trees with insecticides, then counting them when they are dead. Ideal for surveying pest species but not those of conservation concern.

Suction trap(s)

A method of trapping aphids in order to long term survey their populations. The network at Rothamsted started in 1964, currently with around 15 of these. Aphids are sorted and counted every day or week, bulletin sent to growers, predicting aphid arrival on crops.

Pesticide(s)

A method of treating livestock for lungworms, nematodes, mites, ticks, flies and lice. These then appear on faecal residues. This has a strong effect on diversity and abundance of dung insects, with mixed effects on dung degradation.

Genotyping (insects for forensics)

A method used for species identification of insects (primarily using mtDNA). Using population genentics we may also be able to assign insects to a particular geographic location. Kinship analysis can help us determing if maggots are full siblings.

Sterile Insect Technique

A method used to eliminate screworms from North and South America. In works as the females in this species only mate once

Stable Isotope(s)

A method used to map the terrestrial food web - by putting non-degrading versions of atoms (with varying neutrons) into a certain point of the food web. N15 enriched by +3.4% per trophic level. Then separate insects with from soil and analyse them with mass-spectrometry.

Accumulated Degree Hours

A more specific measurement of accumulated degree days.

Carrion

A name for degrading flesh. It has a similar food web to dung, ephemoral and patchy food source which a sequence of species invade. Important orders include flies, beetles and wasps (and ants).

Olfaction

A name for the detection of chemicals in the air, such as pheremones for communication. This is done

Irridescence

A name for the reflectivity (often confused with colour) of the cuticle in insects. It is caused by the different arrangement of chitin in the cuticle.

Pseudocopulation

A name for when a flower mimics a mate of an insect species in order to attract it and pick up pollen, in order to transfer to another flower.

Soil engineer(s)

A name given to organisms that move dirt and detritus around, such as ants and termites. They eat soil, decaying vegetation and animal matter, others also fungi and micro-invertebrates. Change the structure, moving the nutrients around and creating their own mounds. Termites also act as important wood decomposers.

Biopesticide(s)

A name given to pathogens that are used as biological control agents. This includes bacteria, fungi, viruses, protozoa and nematodes.

(pest) Parasitoid(s)

A natural enemy type, that are parasitic to the pests during the larval stage, whereafter the larva consumes and kills the host. The adults of these species are free living, that disperse and lay eggs in new hosts. Oviposition can be in host eggs, larvae or nymphs. Important orders: hymenoptera (most of them in this, chalcidoidea, ichneumonidae), and diptera (tachinidae specifically)

(pest) Predator(s)

A natural enemy type, that eat insect pests, usually chewers or suckers, that can be generalist of specialist. Important orders include: coleoptera (over 50% are these, coccinellidae and carabidae), neuroptera, hymenoptera, diptera, hemiptera, odonata. There are also predatory mites and spiders, although these are not insects.

Functional effectiveness

A number/description generated when you multiply the quality of an individual insect's service by the quantity of that insect.

Recycling (function)

A part that insects play in the environment. Carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes to find and examine trophic web interactions and model conservation of nutrients - however in soil we don't know enough of biology and degradation. Can measure the rate of litter/dung/carrion degradation (in litter bags, with standard dung pat size).

Microsporidia

A pathogen category that includes disease organisms such as Nosema ceranae. This specific one causes nosemosis, tentatively linked to colony collapse disorder.

Deformed wing virus

A pathogen in honeybees that causes the flying appendages to grow incorrectly, spread within the hive by varroa mites.

Integrated (pest management)

A pest management system that, in the context of the associated environment and population dynamics of the past species, utilises all suitable techniques and methods in as compatible manner as possible, and maintains the pest population levels below those causing economic injury. Launched seriously in the US in 1970s with research project developing this for 6 crops.

Legal (flower visit)

A phrase describing when a potential pollinator visits a flower through a way that picks up pollen, rather than accessing the reward through holes in the flower bitten by other species.

Host shift

A phrase describing when an organism changes which other species it interacts with, e.g. from native plant to introduced cultivar e.g. colorado potato beetles on Solanum spp.

Soil living

A phrase to describe insects that live in leaf litter and detritus. Their legs are modified to dig, are often larval forms as movement (dispersal) is limited and reduced eyes and/or wings. Termites have enzymes and gut biota to digest cellulose.

(pollinator) effectiveness

A phrase to describe what impact pollinators are having on the environment, that can attempt to be measured. First, a survey of speices present and estimate of abundance through pan traps and/or sweep nets. Then find the number of insects per flower or per unit area, potentially with a transect. Then by counting the number of flower visits per unit time, for example count visit to a patch of flowers in 10 minutes.

Entomologist report

A piece of evidence provided by a profesional that includes all the insect related information, including description of the scene and sampling, evidence (methods, results), opinions of evidence, reasons for conclusion reached and information about uncertainty surrounding conclusions.

Contaminant(s)

A polluting substance that makes something impure. Insects are eaten as these in many everyday foods. There are certain levels that are allowed.

Biomimicry

A process where human design takes inspiration from nature, in this case insects. Forms and structures: silk fibres, waterproof butterfly wings. Processes: robots, sahara beetles. Systems: ant colony optimisation programme.

Insect farming

A process where the focus group of invertebrate species are produced - needs less land and water, good food conversion efficiency and can be fed on waste products (plant or animal) as well as wood and bamboo. They also produce less waste and greenhouse gas. Gaps in knowledge do limit this, inclding taxonomy, ecology, population dynamics (for wild collection and farming), post-harvest and processing practices, and health and safety standards. Many things are required: mass cultivation techniques, appropriate low-cost feed, de-contamination and hygiene, food regulations for safety, shelf-life, and most importantly changing public attitudes.

Beehave

A program that models honeybee colony survival (particularly during winter), taking into account daily cohorts, a landscape model, foraging and recruitment within this, varroa mites, viruses, number of nurse bees and weather.

Incident-recording scheme(s)

A programme that is part of the UK pesticide regulatory process, involving beekeeprs sending samples from suspected poisoning incidents.

Seed(s)

A protective coat containing an embryo, with the potential to grow into a new plant. The number of these is a trade off between growth and reproduction. Some may create millions of tiny dispersive ones whereas some may create few large, nutritionally rich ones.

Out-crosser

A quality of plant that means it either needs to be or benefits from breeding with immensely unrelated individuals. This is good because it can improve seed and fruit quality (size, shape, oil content) and quantity.

Propolis

A red or brown resinous substance collected by honeybees from tree buds, used by them to fill crevices and to fix and varnish honeycombs. It is starting to be used in emerging medical treatments.

Dung

A resource that is a key part of nutrient cycling. It is moist, protected, resource-rich, full of microorganisms but ephemoral and patchy.

Fruit

A ripened ovary; protective and sometimes attractive to seed dispersers.

Antennae

A sensory organ found on insects that have many chemoreceptors, responding to many specific chemicals. Can be sued to detect plant chemistry, animal chemistry, decaying material and pheremones.

Pollination syndrome

A set of flower characteristics (size, shape, colour, odour, reward, timing) that make the flowers suitable for visits by particular groups of animals. In the past were used to 'predict' unknown pollinators of plan species, suggesting specialisation of plants and pollinators. However, there is a major current debate attacking this paradigm, highlighting the importance of understanding the difference between flower visitor and effective pollinator.

(Rothamstead) light-trap network

A set of moth monitoring devices used at Rothamstead in order to monitor the UK populations of moths, mapping a gradual decline from the 1960s to 2010.

(Insect) monitoring

A set of techniques performed in order to judge insect numbers, for conservation targets, or for the health of an ecosystem (water/soil quality, decomposition, pollination and pest monitoring). Can be done through: prescence/absence (species ranges), relative abundance (trends over time), traps, transects, individual specimen collection records on a temporal scale of years/decades/centuries and on a spatial scale of habitat/county/country/world.

Assassin bug(s)

A specific type of hemipteran, that with tics and bees have been used to inflict torture on prisoners in the past.

Colony Collapse Disorder

A suite of symptoms that have been associated with the USA losing 1/3 of colonies in 2006-2007. Some however have different systems. Unusual mortality was noted in Europe, although difficult to quantify as trends varied so much. Declines may be driven by economics or politics, and affect current major honey exporters.

Nutrient cycling

A supporting service that is essential for the environment. The essential elements to move round include carbon (with energy), nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium etc. Also part of the soil formation process - determining the productivity and health of plants. Bacteria and fungi are front line; primary decomposers.

Aroliar pad

A surface found on the end of the jointed limbs on insects, usually near to the claws which is an adaptation for adhesion/gripping surfaces.

C:N

A symbol to represent the carbon:nitrogen ratio.

Citizen science

A technique of monitoring insects over a long time period through the use of the public and private collectors. However, recording schemes require taxonomic expertise with a bias of records towards unusual or rare species. Recently the public have been used, but with less taxonomic differentiation, more errors but more coverage and data. Organisation examples include Buglife and Xerces Society for invertebrates, Butterfly Conservation for butterflies (and moths) and BBCT (Bumblebee Conservation Trust) for pollinators.

Telescoped

A term to refer to generations where a newly emerged individual already has the next generation developing inside of it. This is one of the contributing factors leading to one aphid producing 1000s of offspring in weeks.

(Conservation) Target(s)

A term used for invertebrate species that are a focus of conservation, specifically for the species displayed. e.g. lepidopteran species. Challenges often include not enough documentation of diversity, abundance and particular lack of records in 'mega-diverse' countries (UK, northern Europe and Australia have extent, distributions and ecology of insect fauna, enough to make habitat conservation recommendations, however tropical countries (excepting costa rica) do not. Initiatives for this include single species campaigns, re-introduction compaigns, habitat management (the most important, maintaining and protecting around areas, maintain/increase heterogeneity, connecting patches, restoration e.g. agri-environment schemes, wildlife friendly gardening).

(Conservation) Tool(s)

A term used for invertebrate species that are conserved due to their relationship with another species, which is the true focus of conservation. More for their ecological function. e.g. food stocks, pollinators (butterflies, bees). Ecosystem approach alone unlikely to result in conservation of biodiversity.

Flagship (species)

A term used to describe a surrogate species that is put in the public eye because it is charismatic in order to raise money for conservation, both of the species shown and others.

Invasive

A term used to describe species that are moved from one area to another and are causing significant environmental impact, either accidental or intentional. This can lead to this organism being considered a pest.

Tullgren funnel

A tool used for separating organisms from the soil. Light is shined down from above, forcing organisms out from the matter through a mesh or off the edge of the container, falling into a pot usually filled with ethanol.

Exclusion cage(s)

A tool used to compare flower visitors as pollinators. This means comparing field experiments of open-pollinated vs one species present vs insects excluded.

Bumblebee(s)

A type bee, the one on the largest decline in the UK and around the world, all in the genus Bombus. This could be due to pathogens, parasites, landscape and agricultural change (reduction in food availability, reduction of undisturbed nest sites, pesticides (possibly), predator populations), climate change. Many possibly factors but unsure as to which are the driving changes, and which are most important at different scales. However, new evidence is emerging suggesting the decline is slowing. They have annual colonies which produce many queens, foraging in cooler conditions however do not produce the secondary product of farming. The queen hibernates over the winter, however in the 1980s a method of breaking this cycle was found so they could be reared all year round, necessary because they forage better in glasshouses. However, they can easily escape these, and imported colonies (40-50,000 B.terrestris colonies imported to UK/year by 4 companies) can compete with natives and if they are a different species, can cause all the trouble of imported species. Spill over of disease (particularly parasites) is another concern.

Log (hives)

A type of aritificial hive used to cultivate bees, fashioned from a roughly cut part of wood, complete with bark. They were the first type of hive to be used.

Skep(s)

A type of artificial hive used to cultivate bees, fashioned from straw and wicker that take on the stereotypical historic beehive shape.

Top bar (hives)

A type of artificial hive used to cultivate bees, in large pots that have the distinguishing feature of removable slides of comb. This allows easier harvesting of products.

Langstroth moveable frame (hives)

A type of artificial hive used to cultivate bees, large complex modular boxes with removable frames and a queen excluder, so she cannot get to the honey boxes at the top, that are removed. They were introduced in 1951 in USA.

Solitary bee(s)

A type of bee that is not as social as the other two general groups. Many of these have decreased in range in Europe.

Glasshouse crop(s)

A type of crop that is grown in an artificial environment, usually to grow crops that would be grown closer to the equator otherwise, or to industrialise them. e.g. tomatoes, sweet peppers, aubergines, cucumbers, strawberries, melons.

Field Crop(s)

A type of crop that is grown in large numbers densely in a more open area than others. These can be seen all over the countries. e.g. oilseed rape, field bean, alfalfa, sunflower, clovers, borage.

Fruit Crop(s)

A type of crop that is grown often in orchards, or simply less densely than field crops. e.g. apples, pears, cherries, plums, raspberries, currants, blueberries.

Midge(s)

A type of dipteran that transfers schmallenberg virus and bluetongue virus.

Compound (eyes)

A type of eyes specific to insects, made up of many ommatidium. They detect shape, movement, distance and colour. Bees specifically can also see UV, polarised light, distance and speed.

Migratory (flight)

A type of flight by insects which is longer, for dispersal. This could be for colonising new resources or responding to change. Can be continental, or to follow seasonal resources.

Foragaing (flight)

A type of flight by insects which is usually much shorter, simply in order to find food, mates or oviposition sites. Usually around 100s of metres, searching flights or directed, using memory and navigation.

Urban (forensic entomology)

A type of forensic entomology that takes place in more built up areas e.g. determining sources of infestation (poultry flies), environmental health (stored product infestations), insect community to establish source of materials (cannabis), and inscentinel.

Codling moth

A type of noctural lepidopteran, Cydia pomonella, that is the pest with greatest potential for damage to apples. Larvae are laid in the fruit, which then burreows out and eats the tree. It is controlled using pheremones, using mating disruption traps. Useful in large orchards, using dispensers for control and traps for monitoring, often supplemented with insecticides (but helps reduce resistance development). A good example of integrated pest management.

External (parasite)

A type of parasite that lives on its host. This includes fleas, lice, bed bugs and ticks and mites. Treatment of traditionally insecticides (pyrethrins), but resistance building in lice, fleeas and bed bugs, with need of a combined approach - mechanical measures, 'physical insecticides (e.g. oil or silicone based), repellents (e.g. natural oils).

Internal (parasite)

A type of parasite that lives within its host, often by myiasis. Can be in the skin, gastro-intestinal, nasal-oral, urogenital.

Cultural (control)

A type of pest control that aims to reduce pest arrival or population growth, without damaging plant growth. This can be done by altering environmental conditions, e.g. temperature in grain, sowing date (plant density), crop rotations, mixed or intercropping, sanitation e.g. clearing leaves under horse chestnuts and/or kiln dried timber.

Chemical (control)

A type of pest control that aims to reduce pest populations using artificial compounds, such as neurotoxic insecticides (poisons), pheromones, insect growth regulators (that interfere with larval development or metamorphosis), repellents, or anti-feedants.

Animal (pests)

A type of pest that specialises in the group that humans are in. Important orders include diptera (midges, mosquitoes, flies), siphonaptera, psocodea, hemiptera.

Obligate (out-crosser)

A type of plant that must be out-crossed.

Wild (pollinators)

A type of pollinator that can be enouraged through the correct management of the landscape. This involves making sure food is available throughout the season, nesting and overwinter sites, ensuring food is within commuting distance of nests. Reducing negative stressors includes reducing pesticide use, and/or making them more specific.

Dipteran pollinator(s)

A type of pollinator that eat the sugary fluids, and sponge the nectar. Their hairy bodies lead them to be inadvertent pollen carriers. Includes the hoverflies (Syrphidae), blowflies (Calliphoridae) and bee-flies (bombyliidae).

Coleopteran pollinator(s)

A type of pollinator that eats most of the pollen, as well as the nectar and floral parts. Sometimes more destructive than this, e.g. pollen beetles. Inadvertent pollen carriers, including the carrion beetles that visit flowers smelling of rotten flesh.

Lepidopteran pollinator(s)

A type of pollinator that forages just for nectar, in flowers that have tubes (spurs) full of it. Moths visit white, yellow flowers scented at night. Madagascar orchid predicted by Darwin to have moth pollinator with a 9 inch proboscis. Butterflies visit purple, orange and yellow flowers in the daytime. They are inadvertent pollen carriers.

Hymenopteran pollinator(s)

A type of pollinator, the most notable of being the bees. They forage for nectar and pollen to feed the brood, occasionally also scent and oil. Flowers are purple, red, blue, yellow, and bilaterally symmetrical with tubes of nectar. There is huge variation in bees and flowers, including adaptations to 'harvest' pollen making them very effective pollinators. They also, like lepidoptera, have varying tongue length that suits different flowers. They are also particularly effective due to their sociality and constancy, transferring pollen within the cohort.

Endogenous (risk)

A type of risk associated with eating insects, where the problem arises from within the insect. This could be toxins (e.g. Sardinian maggot cheese), injectant allergens (e.g. bees, wasps and ants) and microbiota and pathogen transfer.

Exogenous (risk)

A type of risk associated with eating insects, where the problem arises on the outside of the insect. This could be plant secondary chemicals, contact and inhalant allergens (e.g. exoskeleton, scales, excreta) and wild collection (contact with pesticides)

Post-mortem (trauma)

A type of trauma that happened after death, suggested by insects if the invasion sites are normal but there are still wounds. There will also be less blood.

Ante-mortem (trauma)

A type of trauma that happened before death, leading to copius blood being produced. This may attract flies to lay eggs, so may be suggested if there is invasion of insects at other sites than the usual on the body (head, anus and genitals).

Schmallenberg virus

A type of virus spread by midges in the UK, symptoms of milk drop, late abortion of lambs and calves. Can be predicted and monitored, leading to two vaccines being developed recently. Not even notifiable anymore.

Bluetongue virus

A type of virus that is spread by Culicoides midges, symptoms includin fever, ulcerations, drooling, lameness, and mortality. Rarely the blue tongue itself. UK outbreak in 2007, last case 2008 treated with vaccine.

Maggot Debridement Therapy

A use of green bottlefly (Lucilia sericata) larvae, considered useful in speeding up wound healing due to them eating necrotic tissue and micro-organisms whilst leaving living tissue. Also secrete proteolytic enzymes, exude antibacterial agent against resistant pathogens and change the pH to alkaline, stimulating tissue granulation. Used by the military over centuries but recently a surge in interest and research. Used for diabetic ulcers, venous ulcers, pressure wounds and post-surgery infections. The process is as follows: tiny medical-grade larvae applied to a wound, sealed with dressing to prevent escape but permit air to reach maggots. Gauze in place to absorb infected exudate, removal of larvae after 24-48 hours when they have grown considerably (3rd instar). Wound should be pink and less infected. Much quicker recovery rate.

Honey dressing

A use of insect products in health care, due to its high osmolarity (a supersaturated sugar solution) it extracts fluid. It has been used since ancient times, considered to have general antibiotic properties (particularly manuka variety). Used for burns, diabetic ulcers and other non-healing skin wounds. New reviews however are suggesting there is no good evidence that is is much better than conventional dressings.

Swarm(s)

A way insects have influenced civilisations, through huge numbers that have decimated crops or caused such disturbance preventing or slowing down human colonisation of large areas of the land in the Americas and Africa. e.g. locusts. Featured in the Ten Plagues in the Bible (Book of Exodus).

Plague(s)

A way insects have influenced civilisations, through insect-vectored disease that has prevented or slowed down human colonisation of large areas of the land in the Americas and Africa. e.g. mosquitoes (malaria, yellow fever, dengue), lice (typhus), tsetse flies (sleeping sickness).

(pollination) deficit

A way of measuring the overall pollination status, the 'optimal' pollination (as done by hand) minus open pollination. The result of this being greater would be lower seed set per flower (or per plant), fruit set per flower (or per plant), and lower yield.

Traditional (insect collecting) methods

A way that insects are collected in many areas, particularly Asia and Africa. Most harvested from forests, but forest managers know little about sustainable management of edible insects (no regulations on exploitation) - traditional forest dwellers have more knowledge.

Jewellery

A way that insects have been used in aesthetics, both ancient and modern. Focus groups include beetles, bees, butterflies and dragonflies. Also aesthetically collected by insect 'twitchers'.

Entomophagy

A word for the consumption of insects. This is the norm in Asia, Africa and Americas, ~2000 species are eaten, western abhorrence is unusual. They are a good food source due to being 50-80% protein, low fat content (10-30% fresh weight), high potassium, calcium, iron, magnesium and vitamins (A, B1, B2 and D). However, this is very variable between insects. However, you need lots of them and they are hard to catch. They have a chitinous exoskeleton and sometimes produce secondary chemicals, along with hosting microbiota and pathogens, making them difficult to eat. Primates do this - Raubenheimer and Rothman 2012 compared nutritional quality and types of insects eaten, selection depending on availability, east of capture (prefer insects in swarms, colonies and early life stages).

Pest(s)

A word that can only be defined from a human-centric viewpoint, not an ecological principle. This depends on abundance, and the effectiveness of individuals at causing damage or injury or nuisance. An insect will only become this when they conflict with human welfare, profits or aesthetics. They affect crops (both field and horticulture, including glasshouse crops), trees, livestock, stored products, human health and property, wild plants and animals (biodiversity e.g. invasives).

Lotic

A word to describe a water based ecosystem that is flowing, such as rivers. Chemical, physical and biological quality can be indicated by a high diversity of invertebrates.

Lentic

A word to describe a water based ecosystem that is still, such as lakes.

Xylophagous

A word to describe organisms that feed on dead and decaying wood. Important orders include beetles (coleoptera), termites (blattodea or isoptera) and wood wasps (hymenoptera). Wood is rich in cellulose; deficient in vitamins and sterols. Some of these have cellulase enzymes, others eat fungi which digest wood. Long, slow live cycle. Others colonise living trees and can spread disease e.g. bark beetles.

Coprophagous

A word to describe organisms that live on dung - important insect orders include flies and beetles. A sequence of these species invade the dung over time. Floate et al (2005) produced a graph on this.

Phobic

A word to describe when someone is scared of something, e.g. arachnophobia (spiders), entomophobia (insects), delusory parasitosis (feeling like you have a parasite on you).

Perennial

A word to describe when something lasts for multiple successive years. Applies to colonies of the honeybee Apis mellifera. In Europe - in Spring building up numbers, thousands of workers and some drones emerging. Early summer - space in colony running out, old queen may swarm with substantial workforce, new queens emerge where 1 survives, performs mating flight and starts laying. Late summer - honey stores build up, many workers die. Winter - small cluster of workers survive with queen, feeding on stores.

Eusocial

A word used to describe this colonies of Apis mellifera. This means they are highly organised colonies with co-operative brood care, overlapping adult generations and division of labour by reproductive and (partially) non-reproductive groups.

Pulvilli

Adhesive pads found on the ends of the jointed limbs of insects, used for gripping surfaces.

Nectar

Along with pollen itself, a reward for visitors that then inadvertently cross pollinate flowers. It is produced in nectaries, a sugary solution containing glucose, fructose and sucrose but also amino acids and minerals. Often fed to the bee brood but also food for many adult insects. Variation in secretion rates, volume and concentration affects flower visitor profile and rate. It varies between flowers, plants, species and over seasons.

RICT

An abbreviation for River Invert Classification Tool, a piece of kit that helps indicate conditions and features in running water, such as specific pollutants and varying oxygen levels depending on the invertebrate diversity. Works with River Invert Prediction and Classification System (RIVPACS).

BYDV

An abbreviation for barley yellow dwarf virus.

PUFAs

An abbreviation for poly-unsaturated omega 3 fatty acids.

FAO

An abbreviation for the Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations. ___STAT gives lots of statistics on the industry, such as the UK using 1,200 tonnes of insectides per year, whereas the USA using 80,000.

ADD

An abbreviation of accumulated degree days.

ADH

An abbreviation of accumulated degree hours.

EIL

An abbreviation of economic injury level.

ET

An abbreviation of economic threshold.

Advertisment

An adaptation for animal pollination, including factors such as shape (open, tubular, bilaterally symmetrical and composite), size, colour (pigment, texture, iridescence) and smell.

Reward(s)

An adaptation for animal pollination, that can be in the form of many things, such as nectar, pollen (the two most common), lipids, scent, resin or even heat (as a resting site).

Horse Chestnut

An amenity tree associated with urban settings that has been plagued since 2002 (starting in Wimbledon) by a specific species of leaf miner, that has become a pest.

Within crop habitat

An area for conservation biological control, which involves manipulating tillage, intercropping and irrigation to encourage natural enemies within the system.

Non-crop habitat

An area for conservation biological control, which is the majority of studys where the fringe is manipulated, boosting resources and creating and protecting refugia. This is in the hope they will move onto the crops.

MC Escher

An artist that used insects hugely in his work.

Shape

An aspect of flower advertisment, which can be categorised into open, tubular, bilaterally symmetrical and composite.

Colour

An aspect of flower avertisment, which can involve pigment, texture and iridescence.

Generation time

An aspect of life histories, a measure of how long it takes to get from one organism being born until its progeny being born. Pests have a very short one due to their short generation time, fast reproductive rate, high reproductive output, which also allows them to be flexible to track transient and patchy resources (over time and space). They can either be generalist or specialist pests.

(pest) injury

An aspect of pest effectiveness. This involves a deleterious effect on host physiology.

(pest) damage

An aspect of pest effectiveness. This involves a measurable loss of host usefulness e.g. yield quality, quantity or aesthetic (therefore ability to sell).

(pest) nuisance

An aspect of pest effectiveness. This involves being an offence or annoyance, the most human-centric and subjective aspect of effectiveness.

Unit

An aspect ot consider when measuring quantity of different species, e.g. 1 plant or 1 plot or 1 field or 1 farm?

Time

An aspect to consider when measuring quantity of different species. e.g. day/night, seasonal patterns.

(pest) outbreak

An event where there are many of a pest species at once, often as a direct consequence of increasing food production. It requires insects to be at the right place at the right time to exploit concentrated resources. Concentrated and extensive moncultures mean lots of food resource, providing for many pests. Simplified landscapes mean fewer sources of natural enemies, reduced planting time between crops means overlap of resource. Global transport of plant an animal material means increased introduction. Reliance on chemical increase resistance in pests. Environmental conditions changing can cause insects to spread or switch.

Mosquito

An example genus of species, Anopheles sp, that have specialised piercing and sucking mouthparts.

House flies

An example group of species, that have specialised sponging mouthparts.

Gypsy moth

An example species of unsuccessful classical control, 60 introductions of predators and parasitoids, which all had little effect.

Worker honeybee

An example species, Apis mellifera, that has specialised sucking mouthparts.

European Earwig

An example species, Forficula auricularia, that has specialised chewing mouthparts.

Bee hive(s)

An insect based weapon prehistoric tribes used by hurling along with other hymenopteran nests, or extracting venom for arrows. In the 16th century Hungarians plugged a city wall with these against the Turks. Often also used as catapult payloads.

Honey

An insect product as human food, product of honeybees (Apis), procesing nectar for feeding brood and storage.

Cochineal

An insect product used by humans, red dye from pulverized bodies of mealy bug Dactylopius coccus. It is a 'pest' of prickly pear cactus.

Alfalfa

An introduced forage legume, producing 46,000 tons of see per year, pollinated by a specific solitary leafcutting bee, Megachile rotundata, accidentally introduced in the 1940s.

Horse Chestnut Leaf Miner

An invasive invertebrate species from Greece in th 1970s, Austria in 1989 and found in Wimbledone, UK in 2002. The larvae eat leaves of the horse chestunut. It causes leaves to shrivel and brown, dropping off early, possibly affecting the health of trees. Usually controlled by pesticides, which is difficult and expensive, whereas cultural control is much easier by moving leaves.

Mealworm(s)

An invertebrate species (Tenebrio molitor) that can be reared on organic waste and fed to poultry. It shows improved growth rates.

Silk worm(s)

An invertebrate species, Bombyx mori. These are farmed for the strands they create and also the larval form that can be eaten. Drove the growth of sericulture.

Poikilothermic

An organism which has an internal temperature that varies considerably. This means that it uses less energy maintaining a constant body temperature, and therefore need to be fed less. Insects also have very efficient conversion of food to body mass (5-10x better than livestock). High fencundity and a fast growth rate means very high productivity.

Locomotion

Another name for general powered movement. Insect versions of this vary, e.g. walking, digging, flying, jumping, wriggling or swimming.

Urtica

Another name for itching, caused by blister beetles

Integument

Another name for the chitinous exoskeleton of insects. Made up of the epidermis and the cuticle, the former secreting the latter. Protects against mechanical, chemical and pathogen damage. Also a sensory interface. It can also have hairs and scales.

Ocelli

Another name for the simple eyespots found next to the compound eyes. They detect light intensity and photoperiod.

Dis-service(s)

Another word for a detrimental effect, usually used after the word 'ecosystem'.

Forensic Entomology

Any situation in which insects or their actions become evidence within the legal system. This includes post-mortem interval of decomposing bodies, corpse location or movement, assessment of trauma (ante/post mortem wounds), crime scene characterisitcs, abuse of the living (e.g. children or elderly) or source of human DNA or toxicological samples. Useful because they are decomposers in a temporary microhabitat, with a high diversity and abundance, with different life stages, multi-generational, with specialists and generalists, and find the host quickly (possibly within 10 minutes). Important orders include coleoptera and diptera (flies and mosquitoes and midges).

Pheremones

Chemical signals usually used for different types of communication, e.g. sex, aggregation, warning (alarm), and trail-marking (in ants). They can be used as a chemical control method, aggregation, dis-aggregation, sex: mating disruption. They are non-toxic, specific and give behavioural responses. Can be used to control many species e.g. codling moth.

Cultural services

Components of the ecosystem that provide spriritual, recreational and aesthetic benefits to humans.

(Pest) Forecasting

Looking into the future to see what could happen to pest populations, through a number of methods. Simple statistical models e.g. calculating 'action threshold' from no insects/plant, or complex computer models e.g. stored grain advisor pro that takes into account biology, environmental conditions, maps and economics.

Culture

Non-genetic information passed down generation by innovation, diffusion and transmission.

Varroa mite(s)

One of the main suggested causes for the decline in bees. A parasitic invertebrate that lives in brood cells and on adults, transferred originally from A. cerana to A. mellifera. Spreads viruses within the hive (e.g. deformed wing virus), considered the most likely cause of colony death in many countries. Beekeepers often treat with chemicals and management. In beehave modelling they have been seen to cause gradual declines in the peak number of bees every season, until all colonies going extinct.

Honeybee(s)

One of the most studied hymenoptera species, with a complex social structure, early to do as they are already managed by beekeepers for honey production, pollination and medicine.

Nuisance

One of the things that make insects a pest for humans - including species such as flies, wasps, cockroaches, silverfish. Depends on perception of insects - carriers 'filthy', harmful. Often triggered by density.

Stigma

Part of the carpel, on the end of the style that recieves the pollen.

Style

Part of the carpel, that positions the stigma in order to receive the pollen.

Ovary

Part of the carpel, the source of the female gamtes, the ovules.

Anther

Part of the stamen, the male part of the flower. This is the section that contains the pollen, the male gametes.

Filament

Part of the stamen, the male part of the flower. it supplies the anther with nutrients it needs to create pollen.

Goods

Something produced by some ecosystem services that economists prefer as a price can be put on it.

Aperture(s)

The 'folds' in the exine of pollen - the number and type of these can be used to identify the species.

COLOSS

The European-wide bee monitoring scheme, aiming to standardise data collection and methodologies in order to collate information from all over

Beebase

The UK bee monitoring scheme.

Beekeeping

The act of having bees as a hobby, and making use of their many services and products. Maintaining hives has happened for >4500 years. It's good for community development due to the income for small communities (e.g. Nepal), and empowering women by giving them an important community role. Also used in Kenya for protecting crops. Many challenges include sociality, swarming, mites/disease, harvesting honey savely, supplementary feeding and the changing landscape.

Nectary

The area of a flower that produces nectar.

Transport conditions

The aspect that must be crucial when moving insects from a crime scene. Specimens must be as complete as possible. Immature stages can be raised to adults for identification (but not on the corpse flesh). Preserving some specimens at all ages is also important. Insect DNA can also be used.

Bacillus thuringiensis

The bacterial species that is used as a biopesticide, due to its production of cry-toxin. This can also be used extracted and used as a pesticide or the gene transferred to a plant to create GM crops.

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment

The benchmark document published in 2005, that started to lay the groundwork for assessing ecosystem services. It is concerns a wider scope than the follow up report published in 2011.

UK National Ecosystem Assessment

The benchmark document published in 2011, specifically to the United Kingdom. This is a bit more readable than the other.

Ecosystem Services

The benefits people obtain from ecosystems. This can be direct or indirect benefit to health, wealth or well-being. In contrast to 'dis-services'. This is a human-centric definition, but a way of measuring function.

Tuta absoluta

The binomial classification for the tomato leaf miner.

Apis mellifera

The binomial classification of the most widely used honeybee. They are a eusocial species with perennial colonies of 60,00-100,000 individuals, with a 3 caste system. The brood is reared in vertical wax combs.

Macrolophus pygmaeus

The biological control fo the tomato leaf miner, Tuta absoluta. When the density of the prey is too low it will eat the top of the tomato plant.

Bumblebee Conservation Trust

The citizen science organisation that focuses on pollinators, often abbreviated to BBCT. They do BeeWatches, BeeWalks and nest surveys, getting the public involved. Buglife also do similar surveys.

Angiosperm(s)

The clade of flowering plants - can do both asexual and sexual reproduction, the latter using cross-pollination. 90% of species are animal pollinated, 87 of these are crop species, 300,000 insect species are regular flower visitors therefore potential pollinators.

Scarabaeidae

The clade that includes dung beetles - 5000 species. They feed on microorganisms, nutrients in fluid and indigested plant material in dung. Compeition is high, so beetles bury dung to feed their brood. Adapatations include: attracted by volatiles, can travel long distance, amour and horns to compete for food and mates, bi-parental care, low fecundity because costly to raise offspring. Very important for cycling of nitrogen (accelerate mineralisation, reduce ammonia volatilisation, increase nutrients in soil), and bioturbation. Also increase rate of dung degradation, reduce livestock parasitism an suppress nuisance flies, and aid see dispersal.

Neoptera

The clade within insecta (and pterygota) that flex their wings back over their abdomen. This therefore does not include dragonflies and hoverflies.

Pterygota

The clade within insecta, which compises those that have wings or winged ancestors, including the majority of modern species.

Hymenoptera

The class within hexapoda that includes ants, bees, wasps, and sawflies. They are holo-metabolous and in the groups neoptera and pterygota. Mouthparts vary from chewing to sucking, characteristic narrow 'waist' between thorax and abdomen. Well developed social behaviour, found in colonies. Diets vary from herbivorous (nectar and pollen) to predation to parasitism. Fill foles as pollinators, decomposers, food, and as cultural icons.

Lepidoptera

The class within hexapoda that includes butterflies and moths. They are holo-metabolous and in the groups neoptera and pterygota. Mouthparts as caterpillars are chewing (for use on plants) whereas as an adult form a sucking coiled proboscis in order to sip nectar (herbivorous at all stages). Covered in pigmented scales, filling roles such as pests, pollinators, food, and cultural value. They are the most studied and collected of these groups, with a silk gland to spin cocoons (fuelling the silk road), pests of crops and stored products.

Blattodea

The class within hexapoda that includes cockroaches and termites. They are hemi-metabolous and in the groups neoptera and pterygota.

Siphonaptera

The class within hexapoda that includes fleas. They are holo-metabolous and in the groups neoptera and pterygota, and important animal pests.

Diptera

The class within hexapoda that includes flies. They are holo-metabolous and in the groups neoptera and pterygota. Mouthparts vary from biting to sucking. Hind wings are modified into balancing organs, known as halteres. Can feed as herbivores, predators or parasites, filling roles such as decomposers, pests, natural enemies, polinators, and cultural icons. Includes: midges, mosquitoes, blow flies, house flies, hoverflies. Vectors of: dysentry, cholera, salmonella, elephantiasis, poliomyelitis, yellow fever, malaria, sleeping sickness, zika virus.

Orthoptera

The class within hexapoda that includes grasshoppers and crickets. They are hemi-metabolous and in the groups neoptera and pterygota.

Collembola

The class within hexapoda that includes springtails. They are hemi-metabolous and do not fall into the group insecta, but we are treating them like they do for the purpose of this module.

Coleoptera

The class within hexapoda that includes the beetles. They are holo-metabolous (immature = larvae) and in the groups neoptera and pterygota. Mouthparts are chewing (often detritivores). Heavily sclerotised, forewings adapted into elytra for wing protection. Across the order they live everywhere, and eat everything, filling roles such as decomposers, food, pests, natural enemies and cultural icons. Includes: scarabs, whirligigs, dung beetles, ladybirds, weevils.

Hemiptera

The class within hexapoda that includes the true bugs. They are hemi-metabolous and in the groups neoptera and pterygota. The mouthparts are often piercing and sucking, mostly feeding on plant sap, although others are scavengers, predators or blood feeders. Includes a wide range of pests. Includes: bugs, cicadas, leafhoppers, planthoppers, aphids, whiteflies, scale insects.

Colorado Potato Beetle

The coleopteran that France developed a release system for during WWII - German research suggesting 20-40 million of the individuals would reduce the UK's food by 6%, which was a substantial deprivation when already rationed.

Japan

The country with a research facility for biological and entomological warfare, developing systems to deliver plague-infected flease to opponents, which was then used in warfare against the Chinese.

Apitherapy

The cultural 'treatment' of using bee stings in order to relieve stress.

Entomotoxicology

The detection of drugs and toxins with insects. A body may be too decomposed to take the appropriate samples, but analysis of residing insects or puparia can be done to give evidence for drugs or toxins in the remains. Effects of these on insects is unclear. Human DNA can also be taken from insect blood meals, and may give information about others associated with crime.

Abdomen

The end part of an insect's segmented body.

Food insecurity

The fact that world food supply is insufficient to feed the world's population. 15% of the world's population is undernourished - it was starting to be combated however recent food price spikes and economic crises have slowed progress. Agricultural growth involving small-holders most likely to reduce extreme poverty and hunger.

Dietry diversity

The factor of having a lot of different type of food to eat - this increases with income. Cereals are the base staple. Meat consumption also dramatically increases in relation to gross national income (1961 - 2007).

Carabidae

The family of beetles that includes ground beetles, an important pest control predator group.

Coccinellidae

The family of beetles that includes ladybirds, an important pest control predator group.

Calliphoridae

The family of blowflies. They lay eggs in carcass, where maggots devour the flesh. They are decomposers but also indicators (for forensics), disease vectors, and used in medical treatments.

Tachinidae

The family of diptera that includes the true flies, an important pest control parasitoid group.

Chalcidoidea

The family of hymenoptera that includes the chalcid wasps, an important pest control parasitoid group. However, not all wasps in this group are parasitoids.

Ichneumonidae

The family of hymenoptera that includes the ichneumon wasps, an important pest control parasitoid group. All of the members of this group are parasitoids.

Proboscis

The feeding appendage that is used by lepidoptera to take up nectar, often with a length that has co-evolved with specific flowers.

Carpel

The female part of the flower that contains the stigma, style and ovary.

Skeletal

The fifth and final stage of decomposition, where just the bones remain, picked clean of other organic matter. However, these are not definite stages and do overlap.

Foundatrix

The first female to emerge from overwintered aphid eggs, the founder of the population.

Fresh

The first stage of decomposition, when the animal has just died. Flies will lay eggs in this stage. However, these are not definite stages and do overlap.

(tier 1) lab studies

The first tier of risk assessment for non-target invertebrates. Includes acute adult honeybee toxicity tests - if HQ>50, higher tier data required. New ones being introduced include chronic adult honeybee toxicity test, acute and chronic larval toxicity test.

Crime scene data

The forensic evidence to collect from the place of death, that can be indicate aspects of forensic entomology. This can include physical signs of decomposition, signs of disturbance, sites of arthoropod invasions, collect specimens from (within, around and below the corpse, flying and stationary) and leaf litter evidence. Important other information would be climatic and weather data, and context (slope, altitude, vegetation cover and if indoors heating etc). (Gennard 2012).

Post-decay

The fourth stage of decomposition, when most of the flesh has gone and the carcass becomes more leathery. However, these are not definite stages and do overlap.

Primary decomposer(s)

The front line of decomposition, including bacteria and fungi.

Head

The front part of an insect's segmented body.

Vector

The general name for something that moves another feature from one place to another. In the case of pollen, these include wind, water, and animals such as bats, birds and insects. If an insect is previously harmless, then a new disease arises that it transmits, it becomes one of these and can be considered a pest e.g. a mosquito can be harmless in countries where it does not carry malaria.

Mouthpart(s)

The general name for the feeding apparatus of insects. They are adapted for many different feeding methods, e.g. chewing, biting, piercing and sucking, sucking, siphoning, sponging.

Pollinator

The general term given to animals that transfer pollen collected from flowers. To be good at this they have to have appropriate: food choice, sensory adaptations, tongue lengths, pollen-carrying capacity, flight phenology and patters, constancy to plant species and often sociality.

Meat production

The generation of animal flesh for human consumption. Globally, it is doubled from 1980 - 2004, and in developing countries trebeled over the same time period. Globally, the poultry produce around 50 billion tonnes of faecal waste, cattle producing around 932 billion tonnes. Both livestock and feed crop production covers 70% of world agricultural land - high footprint: area, energy, water, greenhouse gases, waste.

Apis

The genus for honeybees, the most important bee species for agriculture, simply by number of hives - introduced lots of the time rather than encouraging wild bees even though bumblebees are considered more effective at pollinating 'buzzed' flowers (e.g. tomatoes, long tubed flowers like beans). Honeybees considered better at pollinating tree fruit, white clover and oilseed rape. Small to industrial scale, historically the 'only' managed pollinator, beekeepers are paid for their services.

Osmia

The genus for solitary bees, for example spp rufa, which has an early flight period so good for pollinating early flowering trees. Sold generally for orchard crops and glass houses, whereas 'nests' sold to gardeners and small-scale growers for wild bees to populate.

Plasmodium

The genus of a group of species that cause malaria, transmitted by mosquitoes. Rupture of red blood cells by this provokes symptoms: fever, sweating, failure of vital blood supply and eventually death.

Anopheles

The genus of moquitoes that transmit malaria, during blood meal, multiplying liver and infecting red blodd cells. Disease eradicated in the US, Europe, USSR but in the tropics, year round mosquitoes, resistance to insecticides and less resource for drugs against disease. WHO recommend integrated vector management.

Psyche

The greek goddess of the soul, an example of how butterflies and moths are used in symbolism (in one way) - 74 symbolic meanings. Another example is metamorphosis to a higher state, symbolising life after death.

Petal(s)

The growths found on the side of the flower, that advertise to pollinators.

(Apis) laboriosa

The honeybee species (along with dorsata) within the genus Apis that is giant, with a single open comb, high in trees or cliff faces, agressive.

(Apis) dorsata

The honeybee species (along with laboriosa) within the genus Apis that is giant, with a single open comb, high in trees or cliff faces, agressive.

(Apis) cerana

The honeybee species within the genus Apis that is primarily located in Asia, multiple combs in cavities.

(Apis) florea

The honeybee species within the genus Apis that is smaller than the others, the dwarf variety, which builds a single comb in dense shrubs.

Giant Asian Hornet

The hymenopteran species that has such potent venom that it causes 30-40 deaths in Japan in a year.

Cultural entomology

The influence of insects in literature, the arts, symbolism, religion and recreation. Not always as products or tools.

Arthropoda

The large phylum that includes the hexapoda, and other groups with an exoskeleton and segmented limbs.

Hexapoda

The largest group of Arthropods, that includes organisms with six appendages, most of which is made up of the insecta.

Megachile rotundata

The latin name for the alfalfa leafcutting bee, a solitary species that was accidentally introduced in the 1940s. It lives gregariously in holes above the ground, lining cells with cut leaves, provisioning brood cells with nectar and pollen. The larvae develop and weave cocoons, overwintering. This latter point makes them easily stored, the emergence and flight period matching alfalfa bloom, and are very good pollinators of alfalfa due to specificity (unlike honeybees).

Lucilia sericata

The latin name for the common green bottle fly, one of the most important diptera species in the world. Causes sheep fly-strike in UK and Australia, commonly result from open wounds or infected skin. Also the larvae and adults eat dead flesh, as the adult eats dung and nectar also.

Insect Community threat(s)

The list of potentially harmful impacts of human activity on the specific group of invertebrates studied. These include: habitat loss (land use change), land management change, invasive species (exotic plants, biological control), exploitation (collection), pollution (pesticides, light) and climate change.

Rothamsted

The location where moth migration research happens. Findings such as only migrating at high altitudes on nights when winds were favourable. They select flight altitude corresponding to fastest winds. They have a 'compass' and align flight heading to desired displacement. Also instrumental in the developing the study of insect crop pollination. Also monitors aphid populations (large scale), using suction traps that continually sample air, and light traps to monitor moth populations (for both pest species and species of conservation concern).

Carbon:Nitrogen ratio

The main factor that affects the rate of decomposition of organic material. Slower decomposition if this is high. Wood is 157:1, fungi 10:1, dead animals 6:1.

Pollen

The male gametes in a flower, that are produced by the anther. They have two functions, attraction and reproduction. Identified by shape, size, colour, exine structure and apertures (number and type). The timing of release varies by species. It is mostly protein, with also strong components of starch and lipids.

Stamen

The male part of the flower that contains both the anther and the filament.

Paul Muller

The man who invented DDT, in 1948 awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine - it was banned up by 1972.

Soil

The matter that makes up a large proportion of the terrestrial surface of the earth. Structure (top down): vegetation, litter, partially decayed material then humus enriched soil.

Pollination

The mechanism by which ovules are fertilized in plant sexual reproduction. The transfer of pollen to a stigma, ovule, flower or plant to allow fertilisation. This is a particularly important regulating ecosystem service. It is estimated to be worth around £430 million/year. 87 crop speices require the bee version of this, representing 35% of global food production. Birds, insects and mammals also rely on this for seed and fruit.

Waggle Dance

The method of communcation in honeybees. It is primarily used to recruit nestmates to food. They indicate direction by the angle of movement to the vertical, corresponding to the angle of food to the sun (azimuth). Distace is communicated by the length of the run - number of _______, can be measured in time.

Thorax

The middle part of an insect's segmented body.

QueenAlexandra's Birdwing

The name for a butterfly (Ornithoptera alexandrae) that is limited to a small forested area of Papa New Guinea, a specialist on Pararistolochia vines. Banned from trade since 1966, dead specimens worth around £2000. Insect Farming and Trading Agency (IFTA) supported farmers to grow vines at the forest edge where wild butterflies would lay eggs, of which the pupas would be harvested and hatched in cages. This gave an incentivisation to protect forests. It remains to be seen if this success can be maintained - butterfly farming being worth £1 million in Costa Rica.

Chironomidae

The name for a group of midges whose larvae are diverse and tolerate a variety of conditions, some indicating speicific pollutants and a wide range of oxygen levels. They act as a 'miner's canary'.

Unguis

The name for the claws found on the ends of the jointed limbs of insects, used for gripping surfaces.

Scarabidae

The name for the family of dung beetles. Revered in ancient Egypt symbolising birth-life-death-resurrection (as their larvae grows from waste and death). Used extensively in religious and funerary artwork and jewellery.

(The) Big 5 Insects

The name for the five biggest insects that are eaten: coleoptera, hymenoptera, isoptera, lepidoptera and orthoptera.

(pollinator) communities

The name for the groups of flowers and insects, that can be documented via visitation or pollination networks. The complex neworks are used to 'illustrate' or support argument that species richness is for pollination, however this does depend if you consider a wild plant community or crop pollination.

Larvae

The name for the immature instar of coleoptera, the beetles.

Maggot(s)

The name for the immature instar of diptera, the flies. They live in and feed on flesh, adults feeding on both organic waste, carcasses and human food.

Caterpillar(s)

The name for the immature instar of lepidoptera, the butterflies and moths.

Nymph(s)

The name for the immature instars of hemiptera, the true bugs.

Queen

The name for the largest member of an Apis mellifera colony, in a caste of its own, 1 (or occasionally 2) per colony. Grown from a fertilised egg that is fed on royal jelly, emerging from the bottom of a comb cell.

Elytra

The name for the modified forewings of coleoptera, the beetles, which function to protect the hind wings.

Haltere(s)

The name for the modified hind wings found on diptera (flies) that function as balancing organs.

Sclerotisation

The name for the process that happens to beetle exoskeletons, making them harder and more armoured.

Food conversion efficiency

The name for the ratio of food input to meat production output. Feed needed for 1kg of meat from different animals 7.7kg for beef; 6.3kg for sheep, 2.2kg for chicken and 1.7kg for crickets. (Rumpold and Schulter 2013).

Caste

The name for the social structure of Apis mellifera colonies. In this case, includes 1 queen, workers and drones.

Jointed

The name given to the legs of insects, meaning that they are segmented into different sections of the exoskeleton.

Optic flow

The name given to the way that bees calculate distance. It is done through the speed of image movement across their eyes.

Iscentinel

The name of a company that were attempting to use bee olfaction to detect explosives and drugs.

Oilseed rape

The name of a more recently UK cultivated field crop species, producing a seed rich in oil and of high value, used for food and biofuel. >5.3 million Ha in Europe in 2006, producing 15.5 million tonnes of seed. Supports a range of invertebrates (>20), part of a complex food web that also supports 6 major pest species - cabbage aphid, pollen beetle, cabbage stem weevil, cabbage white butterfly, cabbage stem flea beetle, cabbage seed weevil and the brassica pod midge. The various insects use every part of the plant.

Khepri

The name of one of the sun gods in ancient Egypt, who was believed to have rolled the sun across the heavens like a giant ball of dung.

Butterflies

The name of the group within lepidoptera that contains diurnal species. This is the main difference between the two.

Moth(s)

The name of the group within lepidoptera that contains nocturnal species. This is the main difference between the two.

Feed

The name of the nutrition given to farm animals. There is great potential in insects for this (diptera, coleoptera, lepidoptera), especially as they can be reared on offal and manure (recycling). Currently, farmed fish are fed with fish meal and oil, insects could be substituted but don't have some essential poly-unsaturated omega 3 fatty acids (PUFAs). Poultry are fed grasshoppers in the Philippines, no significant difference between this and fishmeal. Europeans mass-rear insects for pets and garden birds.

Pest Population(s)

The number of a species of pest that is monitored over time. Abundance/density, level of damage and correlation between abundance/density and damage are the three things needed to do this. Large scale is over time and space to facilitate forecasting - to determine range, timing and extent of attack. This can be done through a field based sampling regime and/or fixed position monitoring - a network of traps or monitors. Small scale done simple in a field, to determine thresholds for control.

70

The number of degrees farenheight that there are known times for Calliphora vomitoria to transfer from one stage to the next. 23 hours, then 27, 22, 130 and finally 143 to get to the final stage.

Almond

The nut species that is grown in California over 760k acres, using 1.6 million honeybee hives. Beekeepers are paid $150 per hive. However, this can be detrimental to bees - transport involves confinement, temperature fluctuation and mechanical vibration which can be especially stressful to honeybees. They are also fed on diets which include artificial supplements (concoctions akin to energy drinks and power bars). This is also an example of how our reliance on these is increasing.

Embryo

The object that zygotes develop into, in plants often containing both seeds and fruit.

Trypanosomiasis

The official name for sleeping sickness, a protozoan disease found in lifestock that is transmitted by the tsete fly (nagana in livestock). Flies feed on blood, combination of approaches to control, including insecticides to kill flies, SIT eliminated flies from Zanzibar, drugs killing them, and education.

Exine

The outer layer of pollen, the structure used as a tool to identify the species. It is indigestible.

Israeli Acute Paralysis Virus

The pathogen that coincided with the colony collapse disorder that lost the USA 1/3 of colonies 2006-2007, but now not thought to be the main cause.

Economic Threshold

The pest density at which control should be applied to prevent insect reaching EIL, also known as action threshold. This and EIL developed to manage use of insecticides and evolution of decision making tools for the farmer. But: different for different pests and crops, depends on environmental conditions affecting plants/livestock, does not account for effect of natural enemies, resistance to insecticides, local effects (weather), does not account for diseases transmitted by pests.

Economic Injury Level

The pest density at which loss caused by pest equals in value the cost of available control measures (also known as the damage threshold). Simply put, the lowest population density that will cause economic damage. This and ET developed to manage use of insecticides and evolution of decision making tools for the farmer. But: different for different pests and crops, depends on environmental conditions affecting plants/livestock, does not account for effect of natural enemies, resistance to insecticides, local effects (weather), does not account for diseases transmitted by pests.

Age-poly-ethism

The phrase referring to how in Apis mellifera colonies drones will do different jobs depending on how long they have been part of the colony. However, this is not clear cut and many overlap.

Ovarioles

The place where the wingless nymphs develop, being clonal.

Decomposition

The process of breaking organic matter down, part of nutrient cycling. Insects play an important part, eating soil, microbes and fungi, dead plant material, dead wood, dung and carrion/flesh. Besides this, they also break material into a smaller size, stimulate microbial activity (bacteria and fungi), redistribute organic matter and produce faecal pellets. Important insect orders include (from smallest to largest) bacteria and fungi, mites (arachnidae, acari), collembola (collembola), beetle larvae (coleoptera), termites (blattodea), ants (hymenoptera).

Apiculture

The process of keeping bees for honey (global production of 1 million tonnes worth around US$1.25 billion (2007), the original sweetener), wax (writing tablets, sealing wax, light, polish and waterproofing) and for the satisfaction of beekeeping, maintaining a tradition and community.

Bioturbation

The process of soil mixing and aeration. Performed by scarabaeidae. (Nichols et al 2008).

Crop pollination

The process of transferring pollen within an agricultural system, necessary for orchards, fields (oilseed rape, lupins, clover, bean), tropical and subtropical plants. It has a number of problems, such as maintaining effect pollen spread whilst minimising the exposure of these pollinators to pesitcides, or preventing pollen flow between fields, maintaining horticultural high value crops, particularly the management of pollinators in glasshouses and tunnels. Our crop dependence on pollinators has risen hugely from 1961 to 2006, as has the number of honeybee hives in the USA.

Fertilization

The process that occurs in many organisms, in plants after pollination, when the pollen combines with the ovule to create a zygote.

Sericulture

The production of silk, mostly through the use of Bombyx mori, the silkworm. The larvae feed on mulberry leaves, spin a cocoon of silk and pupate inside. No wild populations exist anymore. Lead to the silk trade.

(The) UK Butterfly Monitoring Scheme

The programme (abbreviated to UKBMS) that records data on over 1000 sites annually of lepidopetan data, one of the most important resoruces for understanding changes in insect populations. Alongside this _________ conservation produces reports on populations and how well they are doing.

The Silk Trade

The route opened up by sericulture that linked China and Europe, built in 139BC. Now most of this resource comes from cottage industry in China, Japan and India.

Secondary decomposer(s)

The second line of decomposition, that aid the process when the C:N is lowered. This includes insects and other animals.

Bloated

The second stage of decomposition, where the micro-organisms and larvae inside the organism produce carbon dioxide, swelling the inside of the animal. However, these are not definite stages and do overlap.

(tier 2) semi-field studies

The second tier of risk assessment for non-target invertebrates, in order to refine exposure estimates using applications to bee-attractive plants. Semi-tunnels or tunnel tests; bees restricted to forage on treated crop. It is a realistic, worst case prediction of exposure, assessing mortality in crop and at hive, foraging, residues and brood development.

Wild flower mixtures

The set of seeds that is sown into the margins of fields by farmers in order to encourage wild populations of pollinators, including red and white clover and birdsfoot trefoil. Even plots 0.25Ha plots were effective at boosting bee numbers.

Wax

The solid substance harvested from beehives that has many uses, including candles.

Entomological (decomposition) phases

The stages that insects go through as a body decomposes. This goes as follows: exposure (insects do not detect it), detection, acceptance (first contact, negligible physical contact), consumption (including oviposition) and dispersal.

Forensic standards

The stringent controls that should be also applied when using insects to solve crimes. Quality control is involved: custody, security, contamination and controls. Also involves repeatability of method and the reliability of indentification (for probability calculations) - comparing the data against databases only as good as the database. However, this is flawed as we are currently under-recording pre-colonisation events, lack confidence intervals for colonisation and development times. Genetics also affect maggot body size and development time too.

Puparium

The structure that blowfly larvae transform from their 3rd instar maggot into the fly itself.

Ecotoxicology

The study of harmful effects of chemicals on the ecosystem. A risk assessment is a legal requirement for development and release of a new insecticide - taking many years and millions of pounds. There is a tiered system for this.

Natural Enemies

The term given to the group of insects that can control pest species, often introduced or encouraged in biological control, killing or debilitating them. They fall into three categories: predators, parasites/parasitoids and pathogens. Each agricultural pest species is affected by an estimated 50-250 species of these.

Decay

The third stage of decomposition, where the skin breaks on the animal after bloating so much. However, these are not definite stages and do overlap.

(tier 3) field studies

The third tier of risk assessment for non-target invertebrates, precise design addresses specific issues still left with the potential new pesticide. These, with free flying bees reflect realistic foraging environment and exposure system, assessing colony strength, mortality at hive and in field, foraging activity, behaviour abnormalities, residues, assessment of brood, and disease or pest levels.

Chitin

The thread-like polysaccharide found in the exoskeleton of insects. The arrangement of these affects the properties of it.

Post-mortem interval

The time between the time of death and discovery of the body. Insects can indicate this (at least within a day). They can also indicate evidence of movement from place of death. Can also indicate wound history (ante/post mortem), crime scene characteristics, or as a source of human DNA or toxicological samples. Easier to estimate in hours in the early stages (minimum ADD/H, possibly in hours) whereas can only be estimated in days or weeks later on due to complexity of system.

Formicine (ants)

The type of ant that sprays formic acid after biting with mandibles.

Tsetse fly

The type of fly that transmits sleeping sickness, trypansomiasis.

Moth (syndrome)

The type of pollination syndrome where the flowers are bilaterally symmetrical, cream coloured, tubular and scented at night.

Bee (syndrome)

The type of pollination syndrome where the flowers are bilaterally symmetrical, purple, tubular and scented during the day.

Bird (syndrome)

The type of pollination syndrome where the flowers are bilaterally symmetrical, red, tubular and with no scent.

Beetle (syndrome)

The type of pollination syndrome where the flowers are bowl shaped, cream coloured and scented during the day.

Biological Control

The use of living organisms to suppress the population of a specific pest organism, making it less abundant or less damaging than it would otherwise be. This is done by introducing or re-introducing natural enemies, and/or recreating appropriate conditions of natural enemies to increase. This keeps it under the damage threshold; as the action threshold is only for pesticide use it is irrelevant here. In comparison to pesticides, slower action, does not eradicate pests, control may be predictable, not as simple (high populations can damage crop), shelf life (augmentation wise), more resistance proof (natural enemies evolve too), cheaper to develop (and use), more specific, fewer environmental impacts.

Legal (visit)

When a bee collects nectar from a flower through conventional means, allowing it to pick up pollen. This means pollination is carried out.

Illegal (visit)

When a bee collects nectar from a flower through non-conventional means, such as through holes in the petals bitten by other insects. This means it does not pick up pollen and carry out pollination.