BEM 211 (Day 1): Motivation 1

Evidence on Expectancy Theory

- Successful in predicting motivated actions of students and employees - The stronger the individual's expectancy, instrumentality, and valence beliefs, the higher the... ----> Task effort ---->Persistence in searching and applying for jobs ----> Job performance and productivity ----> Class grades ----> Job choice ----> Retention (as opposed to turnover) in the organization

EPO from book

Increasing E-to-P ExpectanciesE-to-P expectancies are influenced by the individual's belief that he or she can successfully complete the task. Some companies increase this can-do attitude by assuring employees that they have the necessary skills and knowledge, clear role perceptions, and necessary resources to reach the desired levels of performance. An important part of this process involves matching employee abilities to job requirements and clearly communicating the tasks required for the job. Similarly, E-to-P expectancies are learned, so behavior modeling and supportive feedback (positive reinforcement) typically strengthen the individual's belief that he or she is able to perform the task. Increasing P-to-O ExpectanciesThe most obvious ways to improve P-to-O expectancies are to measure employee performance accurately and distribute more valued rewards to those with higher job performance. P-to-O expectancies are perceptions, so employees also need to believe that higher performance will result in higher rewards. Furthermore, they need to know how that connection occurs, so leaders should use examples, anecdotes, and public ceremonies to illustrate when behavior has been rewarded. Increasing Outcome ValencesOne size does not fit all when motivating and rewarding people. Organizational leaders need to find ways to individualize rewards or, where standard rewards are necessary, to identify rewards that do not have a negative valence for some staff. Consider the following story: Top-performing employees in one organization were rewarded with a one-week Caribbean cruise with the company's executive team. Many were likely delighted, but at least one top performer was aghast at the thought of going on a cruise with senior management. "I don't like schmoozing, I don't like feeling trapped. Why couldn't they just give me the money?," she complained. The employee went on the cruise, but spent most of her time working in her stateroom.45 One other observation about increasing outcome valences is to watch out for countervalent outcomes that offset outcomes with positive valences. For example, several employees in one work unit were individually motivated to perform well because this achievement gave them a feeling of accomplishment and rewarded them with higher pay. But their performance was considerably lower when they worked together with others because peer pressure discouraged performance above a fairly low standard. In this situation, the positive valence outcomes (feeling of accomplishment, higher pay) were offset by the negative valence outcome of peer pressure. CRITICS: critics have a number of concerns with how the theory has been tested. Another concern is that expectancy theory *ignores the central role of emotion in employee effort and behavior.* The valence element captures some of this emotional process, but only peripherally. Finally, expectancy theory outlines how expectancies (probability of outcomes) affect motivation, but it *doesn't explain how employees develop these expectancies.* Two theories that provide this explanation are organizational behavior modification and social cognitive theory

Values and Expectancy Theory (EPO) (IMPORTANT)

To motivate employees (and yourselves)... - Identify their/your values - Select jobs, tasks, and goals to match these values - Tradeoffs for each set of values (SCHWARTZ) - Openness (creativity, innovation, and change ) vs. conservation (following direction and supporting the status quo) - Self-interest (task and career success) vs. other-interest(helping and supporting others)

Solutions to EPO Breakdowns (IMPORTANT)

(1) E-->P: Do I feel that more effort will lead to success? If not... - Improve training to enhance knowledge and skills - Provide more opportunities to use skills and perform effectively - Create clearer metrics for evaluating performance (2) P-->O: Does success lead to rewards? If not... - Make rewards dependent on performance - Make procedures for earning rewards consistent and visible (3) O: Are the rewards valued? - If not, provide more valued outcomes But how do we know what outcomes people value? *To motivate people, we need to understand what's important to them...* --> SCHWARTZ VALUE WHEEL

[learned needs theory]

-Need strength can be altered through social influences. - person's needs can be strengthened or weakened through reinforcement, learning, and social conditions. - McClelland examined three "learned" needs: achievement, affiliation, and power 1) need for achievement: a learned need in which people want to accomplish reasonably challenging goals and desire unambiguous feedback and recognition for their success. - HIGH: working alone, choose tasks with moderate degree of risk (not easy not impossible), like unambiguous feedback and recognition for success-->succesful entrepreneurs - money = weak motivator, except when it provides feedback and recognition - LOW: perform work better/more responsive to money incentive, 2) need for affiliation: a learned need in which people seek approval from others, conform to their wishes and expectations, and avoid conflict and confrontation. - when strong: try to project a favorable image of themselves, actively support others, smooth conflict, - good @ coordinating roles, sales, long term relationship cultivating roles - bad @ decisions, allocating scarce resources 3) need for power: a learned need in which people want to control their environment, including people and material resources, to benefit either themselves (personalized power) (type 1) or others (socialized power) (type 2) - effective leaders should have a high need for *socialized* power. need high degree of altruism and social responsibility and be concerned about the consequences of their own actions on others.

Improving Procedural Justice

1) Give employees "voice" in the process; encourage them to present their facts and perspectives on the issue. - Voice also provides a "value-expressive" function; employees tend to feel better after having an opportunity to speak their mind. 2) decision maker is perceived as unbiased, relies on complete and accurate information, applies existing policies consistently, and has listened to all sides of the dispute. - If employees still feel unfairness in the allocation of resources, their feelings tend to weaken if the company has a way of appealing the decision to a higher authority. 3) ppl feel less injustice when they are given a full explanation of the decision and they are treated with respect throughout the complaint process. - If employees believe a decision is unfair, refusing to explain how the decision was made could fuel their feelings of inequity. For instance, one study found that nonwhite nurses who experienced racism tended to file grievances only after experiencing disrespectful treatment in their attempt to resolve the racist situation. A study noted that employees have stronger feelings of injustice when the manager has a reputation of treating people unfairly most of the time Consequences of Procedural injustice: Research suggests that being treated unfairly *threatens our self-concept and social status* *particularly when others see that we have been unjustly treated.* -Employees retaliate to restore their self-esteem and reinstate their status and power in the relationship with the perpetrator of the injustice. Employees also engage in these counterproductive behaviors to educate the decision maker, thereby trying to minimize the likelihood of future injustices.

Equity Theory (book)

Distributive justice: perceived fairness in the individual's ratio of outcomes to contributions relative to a comparison other's ratio of outcomes to contributions. Procedural justice: perceived fairness of the procedures used to decide the distribution of resources EQUALITY principle: believe that everyone in the group should receive the same outcomes (i.e. all get subsidized meals in the company cafeteria) NEED principle: believe those with the greatest need should receive more outcomes than others with less need. EQUITY principle infers that people should be paid in proportion to their contribution. The equity principle is the most common distributive justice rule in organizational settings - employees determine feelings of equity by comparing their own outcome-input ratio to the outcome-input ratio of some other person. - outcome-input ratio is the value of the outcomes you receive divided by the value of the inputs you provide in the exchange relationship. - compare own ratio to other persons ratio - When people believe they are under- or overrewarded, they *experience negative emotions (called inequity tension).*

EPO: How Individuals Determine Effort (IMPORTANT)

EFFORT --> PERFORMANCE --> OUTCOME VALENCES (E-->P): "Expectancy beliefs" If I put forth effort, can I perform/succeed? (P-->O): "instrumentality beliefs" If I perform, will I get rewarded? (O): "Valence beliefs" Do I value the reward/ outcome? What matters...EPO IS IN THE EYE OF THE BEHOLDER - *Employees' perceptions of the answers to these questions* MATTER. NOT the "objective" answers or managers' answers - Employee motivation is influenced by all three components of the expectancy theory model. If any component weakens, motivation weakens. in class: Why didn't anyone want my dollar? I'm in the back row (EP) I don't trust you (PO) Hey John...It's only a dollar! (O)

Key Takeaways

Expectancy Theory (EPO Framework) - Expectancy, instrumentality and valence beliefs about outcomes/rewards need to be high for people to be motivated - A single break in this chain, results in reduced motivation - Managers have a key role to play in motivating their employees, but must focus on what employees actually care about, not what they think employees care about - Value of rewards determined by... 1) Values: Openness vs. Conservation; Self- vs. Other-Interest 2) Perceived Equity (ratio of Outputs to Inputs) relative to others 3) Distributive justice (fairness of outcomes) vs. Procedural justice (fairness of the process used to reach outcomes) People who feel overreward inequity would reverse these actions. - Some overrewarded employees reduce their feelings of inequity by working harder; others encourage the underrewarded coworker to work at a more leisurely pace. *A common reaction, however, is that the overrewarded employee changes his or her perceptions to justify the more favorable outcomes*, such as believing the assigned work is more difficult or his or her skills are more valuable than the lower-paid coworker. Evaluating equity theory: hard to put in practice b/c doesn't identify the comparison other and doesn't indicate which inputs or outcomes are most valuable to each employee. The best solution here is for leaders to know their employees well enough to minimize the risk of inequity feelings-->Open communication is also key, enabling employees to let decision makers know when they feel decisions are unfair. - A second problem is that equity theory accounts for only some of our feelings of fairness or justice in the workplace. Experts now say that procedural justice is at least as important as distributive justice

Maslow's Needs Hierarchy

Maslow's Needs Hierarchy - One way of looking at what people value - Proposes 5 basic needs BOTTOM TO TOP Physiological- Survival (air, water, food, sleep) Safety - Security, Protection, Shelter Belongingness 0 Friendships, love Esteem- Self Respect, competence, respect from others Self-Actualization: Fulfillment, maximizing potential - When lower-level needs are fulfilled, people move up the hierarchy to meet the next need Often used by management consultants: - Attempt to motivate employees by satisfying... 1) Physiological needs ie. Space, lighting, working hours 2) Safety needs i.e. Organizational practices and working conditions 3) Belongingness needs i.e. Team-building, mentoring, empowerment 4) Esteem needs i.e. Promotions, salaries, awards 5) Self-actualization needs i.e. Challenge, opportunities for learning and development

pages

Motivation 1 - Read Chapter 5, pp. 84-92, 97-100 Learning Objectives: - Understand how expectancy theory can be used to predict and diagnose motivational challenges - Understand the different ways people perceive equity and fairness

What is Motivation (important)

Motivation = Processes that account for an individual's direction, intensity and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal... - Direction (What should I do?) - Intensity (How hard should I work?) - Persistence (How long should I work?) Motivated employees are willing to exert a particular level of effort (intensity), for a certain amount of time (persistence), toward a particular goal (direction). When people are motivated, they have a desire to act and expend effort. This often results in outcomes of higher... 1) Performance: *Quality* of work produced 2) Productivity: *Quantity* of work produced

PROBLEMS with Mazelow's Hierarchy (important)

Numerous problems with Maslow's Needs Hierarchy... 1) People don't actually pursue these needs in order 2) Not all people care about all "needs" 3) Are they really "needs" or just preferences? 4) Limited relevance to work organizations 5) Overall, not very useful in understanding valence (what people value) in expectancy theory - If your most important values lean toward stimulation and self direction --> probs pay attention to self actualization needs - If power and achievement @ top of value --> probs pay attention to status needs -A person's values hierarchy can change over time, so his or her needs hierarchy also changes over time - no one size fits all hierarchy Maslow's Contribution to Motivation: Although his theory failed reality test, Maslow deserves credit for bringing a more *holistic, humanistic, and positive approach Holistic: various needs should be studied together (holistically) because human behavior is typically initiated by more than one need at the same time Humanistic: Recognized human thoughts (including self-concept, social norms, past experience) play a role in motivation. Previous motivation experts had focused almost entirely on human instincts without considering that motivation could be shaped by human thought. Positive approach: focusing on the positive rather than negative aspects of life will improve organizational success and individual well-being Toward a more helpful way of looking at values...

Equity Theory (IMPORTANT)

People evaluate rewards by matching inputs to outputs If there is a fair balance, people have a sense of distributive justice.... If your outcomes are unfair, you're going to be less motivated. - Outputs: what I get from the job (pay, bonuses, benefits, perks, security, recognition, etc.) - Inputs: what I invest in the job (effort, knowledge & skills, loyalty, etc.) - Perceived ratio of outputs to inputs (O/I) = distributive justice (fairness of outcomes or rewards) Motivation should be... INCREASED by perceptions of distributive justice DECREASED by perceptions of distributive injustice (primarily under-reward and possibly over-reward) Enhanced through greater procedural justice = fairness of the procedure Reactions to Under-reward: - Distributive injustice at a personal cost Reactions: 1) Reducing effort to match rewards (output/input ratio) (Most common response) 2) Ask supervisor for a raise 3) Ask supervisor to cut others' rewards 4) Leave the organization 5) Steal more rewards 6) Sabotage the organization Employees in this situation try to restore equity....reduce my effort, or other responses Jerry Greenberg - greater your perception of procedural injustice, more likely to steal and sabotage... What Peter did in Office Space in response to feeling underrewarded (sabotage)

EPO in Hausser Food Case

Performance (P) - Selling (meeting plan), generating new ideas, submitting paperwork Outcomes (O) - Salary (small), commission (large), bonus ($500 max), no promotions - Quota increase when sales are high (negative outcome) Expectancy (E-->P) - Salespeople generally believe they are capable of selling and completing paperwork, but not necessarily in generating new ideas or reaching higher quotas Instrumentality (P-->O) - Selling increases quotas but low effect on salary - New ideas generate bonus but increase quota - Paperwork not linked Do salespeople value or devalue Os? (O) - Commission: strong positive, - Salary: weaker positive, - Bonus: mixed/negative - Quota increase: strong negative - Negatives of quota increase outweigh positives of commission

What motivation tactics matter?

The one employees think matter. 1. Appreciation 2. Feeling "in" on things 3. Understanding attitude 4. Job security 5. Good wages 6. Interesting work 7. Promotion opportunities 8. Loyalty from management 9. Good working conditions 10. Tactful discipline

Values....Drive our Motivation

Values = Guiding principles in life that motivate our decisions and actions - Vary along two basic dimensions Openness (list 1) (Stimulation and self-direction ) vs. conservation (list 2) (security, conformity, and tradition) Self-interest (list 3)(Achievement and power ) vs. other-interest (list 4) (benevolence and universalism)

Reducing inequity tension

WITH underreward inequity...could: 1) Reduce our inputs so the outcome-input ratio is similar to the higher-paid coworker. Some employees do this by working more slowly, offering fewer suggestions, and engaging in less organizational citizenship behavior. 2) increase our outcomes. Some people who think they are underpaid ask for a pay raise. Others make unauthorized use of company resources. 3) increase the comparison other's inputs. You might subtly ask the better-paid coworker to do a larger share of the work, for instance. 4) reduce the comparison other's outcomes. This might occur by ensuring that the coworker gets less desirable jobs or working conditions. Another action, although uncommon, is to ask the company to reduce the coworker's pay so it is the same as yours. 5)changing our beliefs about the situation(PERCEPTUAL rather than behavioral). For example, you might believe that the coworker really is doing more (e.g., working longer hours) for that higher pay. Alternatively, we might change our perceptions of the value of some outcomes. You might initially feel it is unfair that a coworker gets more work-related travel than you do, but later you conclude that this travel is more inconvenient than desirable. 6) change the comparison other. Rather than compare yourself with the higher-paid coworker, you might increasingly compare yourself with a friend or neighbor who works in a similar job. 7) if can't be reduced through other actions, you might leave the field. This occurs by moving to another department, joining another company, or keeping away from the work site where the overpaid coworker is located.

Employee Engagement

cautiously define employee engagement as: an individual's emotional and cognitive (logical) motivation, particularly a focused, intense, persistent, and purposive effort toward work-related goals. - It is an *emotional involvement in, commitment to, and satisfaction with the work.* - HIGH ABSORPTION in work: experience of focusing intensely on the task with limited awareness of events beyond that work. - Often described in terms of SELF EFFICACY—the belief that you have the ability, role clarity, and resources to get the job done - *employee engagement causes the company outcomes (success) more than vice versa.* - The challenge facing organizational leaders: most employees aren't very engaged What are the drivers of employee engagement? 1) Goal setting 2) employee involvement 3) organizational justice 4) organizational comprehension (knowing what's going on in the company) 5) employee development opportunities 6) sufficient resources 7) appealing company vision

Employee Drives and Needs

motivational "forces" or prime movers of employee behavior-->employee drives and needs - Image shows how drives and emotions are the prime sources of employee motivation and how individual characteristics (self-concept, experience, values) influence goal-directed behavior. DRIVES (primary needs): hardwired characteristics of the brain that correct deficiencies or maintain an internal equilibrium by producing emotions to energize individuals (energize action on environment) - innate and universal - prime movers" of behavior because they generate emotions, which put people in a state of readiness to act on their environment Drives, and the emotions produced by these drives--> produce human needs. NEEDS (secondary): goal-directed forces that people experience. - the motivational forces of emotions channeled toward particular goals to correct deficiencies or imbalances. "drives express themselves directly in background emotions and we eventually become aware of their existence by means of background feelings." In other words, needs are the emotions we eventually become consciously aware of. . - Everyone has the same drives; they are hardwired in us through evolution. However, people develop different intensities of needs in a particular situation - the individual's *self-concept (as well as personality and values), social norms, and past experience* amplify or suppress drive-based emotions, thereby resulting in stronger or weaker needs; 3 things^ also regulate a person's motivated decisions and behavior - individual differences also explain why needs can be "learned" to some extent