Bio 101 Exam 3

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What is an angiosperm? What are its characteristics?

1. ANGIOSPERMS: A FLOWERING PLANT, WHICH FORMS SEEDS INSIDE A PROTECTIVE CHAMBER CALLED AN OVARY a) Angiosperms are flowering plants 2. Has seeds 3. Appear 130-140 mya. 90% of all plant species alive today are angiosperms a) Angiosperms dominate the modern landscape. About 250,000 angiosperm species have been identified, compared to about 700 species of gymnosperms. Several unique adaptations account for the success of angiosperms. For example, refinements in vascular tissue make water transport even more efficient in angiosperms than in gymnosperms. Of all terrestrial adaptations, however, it is the flower that accounts for the unparalleled success of the angiosperms. 4. The adaptions (derived traits) of angiosperms are flowers and fruits 5. They are the most widespread and diverse of all plants and make up more than 90% of all plant species 6. Single phylum: anthophyta (greek anthos for flower) 7. Seeds contained in fruits, which are mature ovaries 8. THERE ARE THREE ANGIOSPERM TRAITS: a) Flowers: 1) Complete flowers: have all 4 basic floral organs (stamen, petal, sepal, and carpel) 2) Incomplete flowers: lack one of the basic floral organs 3) From roses to dandelions, flowers are the site of procreation. This showiness helps to attract go-betweens—insects and other animals—that transfer pollen from one flower to another of the same species. Angiosperms that rely on wind pollination, including grasses and many trees, have much smaller, less flamboyant flowers. In those species, the plant's reproductive energy is allocated to making massive amounts of pollen for release into the wind. b) Fruits c) Double fertilization 1) It is called double fertilization because 2 sperm reach the female gametophyte. One sperm fuses with the egg. The other sperm fuses with the two polar nuclei in gametophyte forming a triploid nucleus. This triploid nucleus becomes the endosperm or the food storing tissue for the seed. Then each ovule becomes a seed, and the ovary becomes a fruit

What are the characteristics of all animals?

1. ANIMALS: A EUKARYOTIC, MULTICELLULAR, HETEROTROPHIC ORGANISM THAT OBTAINS NUTRIENTS BY INGESTION 2. Animals are tubes a). All animals are basically either a tube or a kind of pouch b) Humans are tubes with our mouth opening at one end, traveling through of digestive system to a tube on the other side 3. Animals are consumers: 4. They are multicellular, heterotrophic eukaryotes with tissues that develop from embryonic layers 5. They usually process food inside of their bodies by digestion 6. They often have both nerve and muscle cells to help detect and capture food 7. Most animal cells lack the cell walls 8. Animal body plans: a) BODY PLAN: SET OF MORPHOLOGICAL AND DEVELOPMENTAL TRAITS IN A WHOLE, LIVING ANIMAL b) Animals can be categorized according to to body plan in four different ways: 1) SYMMETRY 2) TISSUES: 3) PROTOSTOME VS DUETEROSTOME DEVELOPMENT 4) BODY CAVITIES: A FLUID-FILLED SPACE SEPARATING THE DIGESTIVE TRACT FROM THE OUTER BODY WALL A. Most animals have a body cavity. This is a fluid or air-filled space between digestive tract and outer body wall formed from the mesoderm B. We call the body cavity a coelom: 1) It cushions organs and prevents internal injury 2) It acts like a skeleton in soft-bodied animals 3) It makes it so internal organs are independent of outer body walls

What is alternation of generation in plants?

1. Alternation of generations in plants are derived traits of plants a) ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS: A LIFE CYCLE IN WHICH THERE IS BOTH A MULTICELLULAR DIPLOID FORM, THE SPOROPHYTE, AND A MULTICELLULAR HAPLOID FORM, THE GAMETOPHYTE; A CHARACTERISTIC OF PLANTS AND MULTICELLULAR GREEN ALGAE 2. Plants alternate between two multicellular stages, a reproductive cycle called ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS a) Thus, genetic information flows through alternating generations

What is an amnion?

1. Amniotes are animals that have an amniotic egg and a rib cage that helps to ventilate the lungs a) AMNIOTES: MEMBER OF A CLADE OF TETRAPODS THAT HAS AN AMNIOTIC EGG CONTAINING SPECIALIZED MEMBRANES THAT PROTECT THE EMBRYO. AMNIOTES INCLUDE MAMMALS AND REPTILES INCLUDING BIRDS 2. Includes reptiles, birds and mammals 3. A key adaptation to life on land. This adaption made reproduction less dependent on the presence of water a) Also helped to create the amniotic egg, which is a fluid-filled egg with a waterproof shell that encloses the developing embryo. The amniotic egg functions as a self-contained "pond" that enables amniotes to complete their life cycle on land

What is bilateral symmetry? What is radial symmetry?

1. Animals can be compared based or body symmetry, or lack thereof (many sponges lack symmetry). 2. The symmetry of an animal often fits its lifestyle 3. Radical symmetrical animals are often sessile or planktonic (drifting or weakly swimming) a) RADIAL SYMMETRY: AN ARRANGEMENT OF THE BODY PARTS OF AN ORGANISM LIKE PIECES OF A PIE AROUND AN IMAGINARY CENTRAL AXIS. ANY SLICE PASSING LONGITUDINALLY THROUGH A RADIALLY SYMMETRIC ORGANISM'S CENTRAL AXIS DIVIDES THE ORGANISM INTO MIRROR-IMAGE HALVES. 4. Bilateral animals typically move actively and have a central nervous system a) BILATERAL SYMMETRY: AN ARRANGEMENT OF BODY PARTS SUCH THAT AN ORGANISM CAN BE DIVIDED EQUALLY BY A SINGLE CUT PASSING LONGITUDINALLY THROUGH IT. A BILATERALLY SYMMETRIC ORGANISM HAS MIRROR-IMAGE RIGHT AND LEFT SIDES.

What is a sponge?

1. Animals in the phylum porifera are known informally as sponges. No muscles, no nerves, no tissues at all a) SPONGES: AN AQUATIC STATIONARY ANIMAL CHARACTERIZED BY A HIGHLY POROUS BODY, CHOANOCYTES (SPECIALIZED CELLS USED FOR SUSPENSION FEEDING) AND NO TISSUES 2) They are sedentary (they never move around) and they live in marine waters of fresh water 3) Sponges are filter feeders, capturing food particles suspended in the water that passess through their body 4) Sponges lack tissues, groups of similar cells that act as functional units....They sometimes seem radically symmetric, but really have no body plan symmetry and true tissues means no internal tissue cavities 5) They are the simplest of all animals 6) Sponges have spicules that make up their skeleton. Some skeletons are made of calcium carbonate or proteins, some are glass. The one with protein skeletons are the natural sea sponges that people use in the shower

Which animals have a notochord?

1. Animals inside the Chordata phylum have notochords a) CHORDATES: AN ANIMAL THAT AT SOME POINT DURING ITS DEVELOPMENT HAS A DORSAL, HOLLOW NERVE CORD, A NOTOCHORD, PHARYNGEAL SLITS, AND A POST-ANAL TAIL. CHORDATES INCLUDE LANCELETS, TUNICATES, AND VERTEBRATES 2. Chordates share four key features that appear in the embryo and sometimes in the adult. a) These four chordate characteristics are (1) a dorsal, hollow nerve cord; (2) a notochord, which is a flexible, longitudinal rod located between the digestive tract and the nerve cord; (3) pharyngeal slits, which are grooves in the pharynx, the region of the digestive tube just behind the mouth; and (4) a post-anal tail, which is a tail to the rear of the anus. b) Although these chordate characteristics are often difficult to recognize in the adult animal, they are always present in chordate embryos. c) For example, the notochord, for which our phylum is named, persists in adult humans only in the form of the cartilage disks that function as cushions between the vertebrae. Back injuries described as "ruptured disks" or "slipped disks" refer to these notochord remnants. 3. NOTOCHORD: A FLEXIBLE, CARTILAGE-LIKE, LONGITUDINAL ROD LOCATED BETWEEN THE DIGESTIVE TRACT AND NERVE CORD IN CHORDATE ANIMALS, PRESENT ONLY IN EMBRYOS IN MANY SPECIES 4. Two groups of chordates are invertebrates: tunicates and lanclets 5. All other chordates are vertebrates

What are the characteristics of animals in the phylum annelida?

1. Annelids are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic coelomates with no hemocoel 2. their bodies composed of a series of fused rings they live in water or damp soil 3. Representative of Phylum Annelida: leeches a) most leeches live in fresh water; some are marine or terrestrial b) parasitic leeches slit the skin of their host and secrete an aesthetic to prevent detection, then they secrete another chemical called hirudin to prevent blood from coagulating

What is the biological species concept? What are some situations where it cannot be used?

1. BIOLOGICAL SPECIES CONCEPT: THE DEFINITION OF A SPECIES AS A POPULATION OR GROUP OF POPULATIONS THE MEMBERS OF WHICH HAVE THE POTENTIAL IN NATURE TO INTERBREED AND PRODUCE FERTILE OFFSPRING 2. The biological species concept defines species as a group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed with one another in nature and produce fertile offspring (offspring that can reproduce) a) A species is a group whose members have the potential to breed and produce viable, fertile offspring 3. There are several different definitions of "species" in biology. This is the one used by our textbook. Other definitions include the Morphological Species Concept and the Ecological Species Concept 4. We cannot apply the biological species concept to all situations. For example, basing the definition of species on reproductive compatibility excludes organisms that only reproduce asexually (producing offspring from a single parent), such as most prokaryotes. And because fossils are obviously not currently reproducing sexually, they cannot be evaluated by the biological species concept. In response to such challenges, biologists have developed other ways to define species. For example, most of the species named so far have been classified based on measurable physical traits such as number and type of teeth or flower structures. Another approach defines a species as the smallest group of individuals sharing a common ancestor and forming one branch on the tree of life. Yet another approach proposes defining a species solely on the basis of molecular data, a sort of bar code that identifies each species. 4. Each species concept is useful, depending on the situation and the questions being asked. The biological species concept, however, is particularly useful when focusing on how species originate—that is, when we ask: What prevents a member of one group from successfully interbreeding with a member of another group?

What is bipedalism?

1. Bipedalism: walking upright on two legs 2. Present-day humans and chimpanzees clearly differ in two major physical features: Humans are bipedal (walk upright) and have much larger brains. When did these features emerge? In the early 1900s, scientists hypothesized that increased brain size was the initial change that separated hominins from other apes. That hypothesis was overturned when a team of researchers in Ethiopia unearthed a stunning 3.24-million-year-old female hominin that had a small brain and walked on two legs. Officially named Australopithecus afarensis, but nicknamed Lucy by her discoverers, the individual was only about 3 feet tall and with a head about the size of a softball. Corroborating evidence of early bipedalism was found soon after—the footprints of two upright-walking hominins preserved in a 3.6-million-year-old layer of volcanic ash. Since these initial discoveries, many more Australopithecus afarensis fossils have been found, including most of the skeleton of a 3-year-old member of the species. Other species of Australopithecus have also been discovered 3. Scientists are now certain that bipedalism is a very old trait.

What is a bryophyte? What are its characteristics?

1. Bryophyte is a nonvascular plant and includes liverworts, hornworts, and mosses a) BRYOPHYTES: A TYPE OF PLANT THAT LACKS XYLEM AND PHLOEM; A NONVASCULAR PLANT. BRYOPHYTES INCLUDE MOSSES AND THEIR CLOSE RELATIVES 2. Bryophytes are represented today by three phyla of small herbaceous plants: a) Liverworts, phylum Hepatophyta b_ Hornworts, phylum Anthocerophyta c) Mosses, phylum Bryophyta. Mosses are most closely related to vascular plants. 1) Usually less than 15 cm tall, and sometimes much smaller, they can carpet forests floors, and cling to hard surfaces like rocks or tree trunks 2) Spanish moss and reindeer moss are called moses but are actually lichens 3. Characteristics of Bryophytes: a) Mosses display two of the key terrestrial adaptions that made the move onto land possible: 1) A waxy cuticle that helps prevent dehydration 2) Retention of developing embryos within the female plant b) Mosses need water to reproduce because their sperm need to swim to reach eggs located within the female plant c) In addition, because most mosses have no vascular tissue to carry water from soil to aerial parts of the plant, they need to live in damp places. d) There are two distinct forms of the moss plant: 1) Gametophyte: A. The multicellular haploid form in the life cycle of organisms undergoing alteration of generations; results from a union of spores and mitotically produces haploid gametes that unite and grow into the sporophyte generation B. Gametophytes produce gametes (sperm and eggs), C. Gametophytes produce gametes that unite to form zygotes, which develop into new sporophytes. D. GAMETOPHYTE: HAPLOID AND MULTICELLULAR E. Produces haploid gametes by mitosis. Gametes will fuse into a zygote that grows into the sporophyte 2) Sporophyte: A. The multicellular diploid form in the life cycle of organisms undergoing alternation of generations; results from a union of gametes and meiotically produces haploid spores that grow into the gametophyte generation B. Cannot live independently C. Grows out of gametophyte archegonia D. Absorb sugars, nutrients, water from "parent" E. Smallest and simplest sporophytes of all extant plant groups F. sporophytes produce spores. A spore is a haploid cell that can develop into a new individual without fusing with another cell (two gametes must fuse to form a zygote). Spores usually have tough coats that enable them to survive in harsh environments. Seedless plants, including mosses and ferns, disperse their offspring as spores rather than as multicellular seeds. G. And sporophytes produce spores that give rise to new gametophytes. H. SPOROPHYTE: DIPLOID AND MULTICELLULAR I. Produces haploid spores by meiosis. These spores grow into the gametophyte

What are the four major divisions of geological time?

1. Cenozoic 2. Mesozoic 3. Palezoic 4. Precambrian

What is a clade?

1. Clade: ancestral species and all of its descendants; an ancestral species and all its descendants-a distinctive branch in the tree of life 2. Once homologous characters—characters that reflect an evolutionary relationship—have been identified for a group of organisms, how are these characters used to construct phylogenies? The most widely used approach is called cladistics. In cladistics, organisms are grouped by common ancestry. A clade (from the Greek word for "branch") consists of an ancestral species and all its evolutionary descendants—a distinct branch in the tree of life. Thus, identifying clades makes it possible to construct classification schemes that reflect the branching pattern of evolution.

What is the fungus we derive LSD from?

1. Claviceps purpurea is a fungus that grows on rye and other grains. It creates structures called ergots 2. When the grain is ground up for flour, the ergots are ground in with the grain 3. Toxic compounds in the ergot can cause a range of conditions that include nervous spasms, hallucinations, and death 4. During the middle ages in France, there was an epidemic of ergotism that killed 40,000 people 5. These plagues were sometimes called dancing plagues because of the spasmodic convulsions accompanying the ergotism 6. Lysergic acid (LSD) is made from ergot 7. LSD is manufactured from lysergic acid, which occurs naturally in the ergot fungus that grows on wheat and rye

What are the characteristics of the cnidarians (in phylum cnidaria)

1. Cnidarians are organized into 2 clades, Meduozoans and Anthozoans 2. Jellyfish are included in the cnidarian group a) of the 4000 jellyfish species, only about 50 are box jellies. Box jellies have a very potent poison that can be fatal. Some people die of cardiac arrest in the water when stung. Others suffer from Irukandji Syndrome-with pain and nausea lasting for days

What kinds of evidence are used to back up evolution's claims?

1. Evolution is defined as descent with modification a) Darwin used this phrase to describe the process by which a species of organism accumulates differences from their ancestors and adapts to their environment over time 2. Evolution has a pattern that can be described by observing organisms and fossils through time 3. Evolution is also a process by which mechanisms will cause those observed patterns of change 4. EVOLUTION IS SUPPORTED BY AN OVERWHELMING ABUNDANCE OF SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: a) DIRECT OBSERVATIONS OF CHANGE: 1) Example is rock pocket mice b) HOMOLOGY: c) FOSSIL RECORD: 1) Past organisms differed from present day organisms 2) Many species have gone extinct 3) Organisms have tended to become more complex (not better and better, just more complicated)

What are the characteristics of the animals in Phylum Mollusca?

1. Example of Phylum Mollusca: Cephalopods a) cephalopods have many adaptations that other members of the phylum Mollusca do not b) Cephalopods have a closed circulatory system, well-developed sense organs, and a complex brain. c) octopi are considered the most intelligent invertebrate. d) squids have a very well-developed eye 2. Cephalopods have a brain with a specialized area for memory storage a) octopi can solve a maze and remember the solution later b) octopi have been observed to do things that humans would think of as "play." A scientists, Jennifer Mather, thinks that perhaps octopi developed this massive brain to cope with the complexity of life in coral reefs 3. Octopi and other cephalopods have specialized skin cells called chromatophores to help them to change color very quickly

Why do some plants have flowers?

1. FLOWER: IN AN ANGIOSPERM, A SHORT SHOOT WITH FOUR SETS OF MODIFIED LEAVES, BEARING STRUCTURES THAT FUNCTION IN SEXUAL REPRODUCTION 2. A flower is a short stem bearing modified leaves that are attached in concentric circles at its base. The outer layer consists of the sepals, which are usually green. They enclose the flower before it opens (think of the green "wrapping" on a rosebud). When the sepals are peeled away, the next layer is the petals, which are often colorful—these are the showy structures that attract pollinators. Plucking off the petals reveals the stamens, the male reproductive structures. Pollen grains develop in the anther, a sac at the top of each stamen. At the center of the flower is the carpel, the female reproductive structure. It includes the ovary, a protective chamber containing one or more ovules, in which eggs develop. The sticky tip of the carpel, called the stigma, traps pollen.

What is a fruit?

1. FRUIT: A RIPENED, THICKENED OVARY OF A FLOWER, WHICH PROTECTS DORMANT SEEDS AND AIDS IN THEIR DISPERSAL 2. A fruit is the ripened ovary of a flower. Thus, fruits are produced only by angiosperms. As seeds are developing from ovules, the ovary wall thickens, forming the fruit that encloses the seeds. A pea pod is an example of a fruit with seeds (mature ovules, the peas) encased in the ripened ovary (the pod). Fruits protect and help disperse seeds. Many angiosperms depend on animals to disperse seeds, often passing them through the digestive tract. Conversely, most land animals, including humans, rely on angiosperms as a food source, directly or indirectly.

How are fungi and plants alike and different?

1. FUNGI: A HETEROTROPHIC EUKARYOTE THAT DIGESTS ITS FOOD EXTERNALLY AND ABSORBS THE RESULTING SMALL NUTRIENT MOLECULES. MOST FUNGI CONSIST OF A NETLIKE MASS OF FILAMENTS CALLED HYPHAE. MOLDS, MUSHROOMS, AND YEASTS ARE EXAMPLES OF FUNGI. 2. Fungal diversity may have arisen during an adaptive radiation that occurred when organisms first colonized the land 3. When was land first colonized: 500 mya 4. Fungi and plants moved to land together 5. 420 mya fossils of mycorrhizae on vascular plants 6. Today, most fungi are terrestrial DIFFERENCES AND SIMILARITIES OF FUNGI AND PLANTS: 1. Fungal Nutrition: a) Fungi are heterotrophs that acquire their nutrients by absorption. A fungus digests food outside its body by secreting powerful digestive enzymes into the food. The enzymes decompose complex molecules to simpler compounds that the fungus can absorb. Fungi absorb nutrients from such nonliving organic material as fallen logs, animal corpses, and the wastes of live organisms. b) Plants are autotrophs because they make their own food 2. Fungal Structure: a) The bodies of most fungi are constructed of threadlike filaments called hyphae (singular, hypha). Fungal hyphae are minute threads of cytoplasm surrounded by a plasma membrane and cell wall. The cell walls of fungi differ from the cellulose walls of plants. b) Fungal cell walls are usually built mainly of chitin, a strong but flexible polysaccharide that is also found in the external skeletons of insects. Most fungi have multicellular hyphae, which consist of chains of cells separated by cross-walls with pores. In many fungi, cell-to-cell channels allow ribosomes, mitochondria, and even nuclei to flow between cells. Fungal hyphae branch repeatedly, forming an interwoven network called a mycelium (plural, mycelia), the feeding structure of the fungus. Fungal mycelia usually escape our notice because they are often subterranean, but they can be huge. c) A mycelium maximizes contact with its food source by mingling with the organic matter it is decomposing and absorbing. A bucketful of rich organic soil may contain as much as a kilometer of hyphae. A fungal mycelium grows rapidly, adding hyphae as it branches within its food. The great majority of fungi are nonmotile; they cannot run, swim, or fly in search of food. But the mycelium makes up for the lack of mobility by swiftly extending the tips of its hyphae into new territory. 3. Fungal reproduction: a) Mushrooms arise from an underground mycelium. Although the mycelium obtains food from organic material via absorption, the function of the mushroom is reproduction. Unlike a truffle, which relies on animals to disperse its spores, a mushroom pops up above ground to disperse its spores on air currents. b) Fungi typically reproduce by releasing haploid spores that are produced either sexually or asexually. The output of spores is mind-boggling. For example, puffballs, which are the reproductive structures of certain fungi, can spew clouds containing trillions of spores. Easily carried by wind or water, spores germinate to produce mycelia if they land in a moist place where there is food. Spores thus function in dispersal and account for the wide geographic distribution of many species of fungi. The airborne spores of fungi have been found more than 160 km (100 miles) above Earth.

Are fungi autotrophs or heterotrophs?

1. Fungi are heterotrophs and absorb nutrients from outside of their body 2. They secrete hydrolytic enzymes to break down complex molecules into smaller organic compounds that can be absorbed 3. Fungi exhibit diverse lifestyles as: a) Decomposers b) Parasites c) Mutualists

What is gene flow?

1. GENE FLOW: INTRODUCTION OF NEW ALLELES INTO POPULATIONS VIA MOVEMENT OF BREEDING ADULTS/GAMETES; THE GAIN OR LOSS OF ALLELES FROM A POPULATION BY THE MOVEMENT OF INDIVIDUALS OR GAMETES INTO OR OUT OF THE POPULATION 2. Mechanisms like natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow can alter allele frequencies in a population 3. One way to think of gene flow is as migration

What is a gymnosperm? What are its characteristics?

1. GYMNOSPERMS: A NAKED-SEED PLANT. ITS SEED IS SAID TO BE NAKED BECAUSE IT IS NOT ENCLOSED IN AN OVARY a) Gymnosperm have "naked" seed 2. Has seeds a) SEED: A PLANT EMBRYO PACKAGED WITH A FOOD SUPPLY WITHIN A PROTECTIVE COVERING 3.Dominated terrestrial Earth during Mesozoic (250-65 mya). Still many species alive today 4. Compared with germs, most gymnosperms have three additional adaptions that make survival in diverse terrestrial habitats possible: a) Further reduction of the gametophyte 1) The first adaptation is an even greater development of the diploid sporophyte compared with the haploid gametophyte generation. A pine tree or other conifer is a sporophyte with tiny gametophytes living in its cones. In contrast to what is seen in bryophytes and ferns, gymnosperm gametophytes are totally dependent on and protected by the tissues of the parent sporophyte. b) Pollen 1) A second adaptation of seed plants to dry land came with the evolution of pollen. A pollen grain is actually the much-reduced male gametophyte; it houses cells that will develop into sperm. In the case of conifers, pollination, the delivery of pollen from the male parts of a plant to the female parts of a plant, occurs via wind. This mechanism for sperm transfer contrasts with the swimming sperm of mosses and ferns. In seed plants, the use of tough, airborne pollen that carries sperm-producing cells to the egg is a terrestrial adaptation that led to even greater success and diversity of plants on land. c) Seeds 1) The third important terrestrial adaptation of seed plants is the seed itself. A seed consists of a plant embryo packaged along with a food supply within a protective coat. Seeds develop from ovules, structures that contain the female gametophytes 2) In conifers, the ovules are located on the scales of female cones. Once released from the parent plant, the seed can remain dormant for days, months, or even years. Under favorable conditions, the seed can then germinate, or sprout: Its embryo emerges through the seed coat as a seedling. Some seeds drop close to their parents, and others are carried far by the wind or animals.

What causes new alleles?

1. Genetic variation makes evolution possible a) Individuals, including humans vary in their phenotypes. b) For example, people can vary in their blood type, in their hair color, or skin color. These differences often reflect the genetic variation, or differences in their genes (DNA sequence) 2. Mutation: a change in the nucleotide sequence of an organism's DNA a) Mutation is the source of genetic variation 3. There are three causes (mechanisms) of evolution: All of these can cause allele frequencies in a population to change from 1 generation to the next a) Natural selection b) Genetic drift c) Migration

What are homologous structures?

1. HOMOLOGY: SIMILARITY IN CHARACTERISTICS RESULTING FROM A SHARED ANCESTRY 2. Related species have similar characteristics-these features make little sense outside the context of evolution 3. Anatomical homologies: similar structures due to common ancestry but may have different function 4. Molecular homologies: all organisms have DNA and the genetic code is universal a) Very different species share genes b) Shows how deep our ancestral connection really is 5. Similarities in vertebrate embryos

what are the phylums in the vertebrates and invertebrates?

1. INVERTEBRATES: a) Porifera b) cnidaria c) lophotrochozoa d) ecdysozoa e) deuterostomia (some) 2. Vertebrates: a) chordata

What is a fern? What are its characteristics?

1. Including lycophytes and monilophytes 2. They do not have seeds 3. Ferns are the most diverse seedless vascular plants with more than 12,000 species a) They are most diverse in the topics but also thrive in temperate forests b) FERNS: ANY OF A GROUP OF SEEDLESS VASCULAR PLANTS 4. Horsetails were diverse during the carboniferous period, but are not restricted to the genus equisetum 5. Whisk ferns resemble ancestral vascular plants but are closely related to modern ferns 6. The evolution of vascular tissue allowed ferns to colonize a greater variety of habitats than mosses. 7. Ferns are by far the most diverse seedless vascular plants, with more than 12,000 known species. However, the sperm of ferns, like those of mosses, have flagella and must swim through a film of water to fertilize eggs. Most ferns inhabit the tropics, although many species are found in temperate forests, such as many woodlands in the United States 8. During the Carboniferous period, from about 360 to 300 million years ago, ancient ferns were part of a much greater diversity of seedless plants that formed vast, swampy tropical forests over much of what is now Eurasia and North America. As the plants died, they fell into stagnant wetlands and did not decay completely. Their remains formed thick organic deposits. Later, seawater flooded the swamps, marine sediments covered the organic deposits, and pressure and heat gradually converted them to coal. Coal is black sedimentary rock made up of fossilized plant material. Like coal, oil and natural gas also formed from the remains of long-dead organisms; thus, all three are known as fossil fuels. Since the Industrial Revolution, coal has been a crucial source of energy for people. However, burning these fossil fuels releases and other gases that contribute to global climate change

What is the function of the endosperm?

1. It is the food storing tissue for the seed. 2. After double fertilization: a) Ovule develops into a seed b) Ovary develops into a fruit enclosing the seed 3. As embryo develops, seed stockpiles food 4. Endosperm develops from the 3n central cell a) It becomes solid-filled with starch (sugar) b) This food will nourish the developing embryo 5. ENDOSPERM IS THE PART OF THE SEED THAT PROVIDES NUTRIENTS FOR THE EMBRYO

What are the characteristics of all mammals?

1. Mammary glands: produce milk for offspring a) rich in fats, sugars, proteins, minerals, and vitamins 2. Endothermic with hair and fat help to insulate body: a) digraph muscle helps to ventilate lungs b) metabolism supported by efficient respiratory and circulatory systems 3. Larger brain than other vertebrates: a) many species are good learners 4. Differentiated teeth: a) can chew variety of foods 5. Kidneys for conserving moisture. A very important adaptation to life in dry places like deserts

What is a mass extinction?

1. Mass extinctions alter ecological communities. a) Mass extinction: a period in history in which many forms of life disappeared from the fossil record and were replaced by species that diversified from the survivors 2. Types of organisms that reside in the ecosystem change 3. Ecological roles, or niches, open up in communities and new species form to fill those roles. This is called adaptive radiation. a) Adaptive radiation also occurs in groups of organisms that have a major evolutionary innovation-like seeds in plants b) Example: Dinosaurs disappear, and mammals are able to expand in number and type 4. Macroevolution includes the impact of mass extinctions on the diversity of life and the origin of key adaptations such as flight 5. The fossil record reveals that five mass extinctions have occurred over the last 540 million years. In each of these events, 50% or more of Earth's species died out. Of all the mass extinctions, those marking the ends of the Permian and Cretaceous periods have been the most intensively studied. 6. The Permian mass extinction, at about the time the merging continents formed Pangaea, claimed about 96% of marine species and took a tremendous toll on terrestrial life as well. Equally notable is the mass extinction at the end of the Cretaceous period. For 150 million years prior, dinosaurs dominated Earth's land and air, whereas mammals were few and small, resembling today's rodents. Then, about 66 million years ago, most of the dinosaurs became extinct, leaving behind only the descendants of one lineage, the birds. Remarkably, the massive die-off (which also included half of all other species) occurred in less than 10 million years—a brief period in geologic time. 7. But there is a flip side to the destruction. Each massive dip in species diversity was followed by explosive diversification of certain survivors. Extinctions seem to have provided the surviving organisms with new environmental opportunities. For example, mammals existed for at least 75 million years before undergoing an explosive increase in diversity just after the Cretaceous period. Their rise to prominence was undoubtedly associated with the void left by the extinction of the dinosaurs. The world would be a very different place today if many dinosaur lineages had escaped the Cretaceous extinctions or if none of the mammals had survived.

What is genetic drift?

1. Mechanisms like natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow can alter allele frequencies in a population 2. GENETIC DRIFT: A CHANGE IN THE GENE POOL OF A POPULATION DUE TO CHANCE. EFFECTS OF GENETIC DRIFT ARE MOST PRONOUNCED IN SMALL POPULATIONS

What are microevolution and macroevolution?

1. Microevolution: changes over time in allele frequencies in a population a) MICROEVOLUTION: A CHANGE IN A POPULATION'S GENE POOL OVER A SUCCESSION OF GENERATIONS 2. Macroevolution: broad pattern of evolution above the species level A) MACROEVOLUTION: EVOLUTIONARY CHANGE ABOVE THE SPECIES LEVEL. EXAMPLES OF MACROEVOLUTIONARY CHANGE INCLUDE THE ORIGIN OF A NEW GROUP OF ORGANISMS THROUGH A SERIES OF SPECIATION EVENTS, THE IMPACT OF MASS EXTINCTIONS ON THE DIVERSITY OF LIFE, AND THE ORIGIN OF KEY ADAPTATIONS 3. A big question for Darwin was: How does one species split into two or more species. 4. We can this speciation

What are the three classes of mammals and what are their characteristics?

1. Monotremes: only 5 species: a) have hair and milk, but lay eggs. b) the babies hatch from the egg and then are dependent on the mother 2. marsupials: a) young born very early and complete embryonic development while nursing in mother's pouch 3. Eutherians: placental mammals a) Embryo in sustained in uterus by placenta throughout embryonic development b) the baby is born from the mother

What are hyphae? What is a mycelium?

1. Most fungi are multicellular and filamentous 2. Few are unicellular (yeast) a) Many species can grow as both filaments and yeasts 3. Multicellular fungi morphology enhances their ability to absorb nutrients 4. Most fungi have cell walls made of chitin 5. The bodies of fungi are a network of tiny filaments, called HYPHAE a) HYPHAE: ONE OF MANY FILAMENTS MAKING UP THE BODY OF A FUNGUS 6. MYCELIUM: INTERWOVEN MASS OF HYPHAE; THE DENSELY BRANCHED NETWORK OF HYPHAE IN A FUNGUS a) Structure maximizes surface area: volume to aid in absorption of nutrients b) Hyphae grow very quickly in length not girth (they get longer, but not fatter) 7. As mentioned, these hyphae form a woven mass called mycelium that can attach to and infiltrate a substrate 8. One cubic centimeter of soil can contain a kilometer of mycelium

Define natural selection.

1. NATURAL SELECTION: A PROCESS IN WHICH INDIVIDUALS THAT HAVE CERTAIN INHERITED TRAITS TEND TO SURVIVE AND REPRODUCE AT HIGHER RATES THAN OTHER INDIVIDUALS BECAUSE OF THOSE TRAITS a) Individuals whose inherited traits give them a higher probability of surviving and reproducing in a given environment tend to leave more offspring than others. Differential survival based on traits b) This unequal ability of individuals to survive and reproduce will lead to the accumulation of favorable traits in a population over generations 2. Only heritable traits can be passed on, not acquired traits 3. Individuals do not evolve, the population does-over time 4. Traits are favored depending on environmental conditions 5. Mechanisms like natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow can alter allele frequencies in a population 6. The only mechanism that consistently results in adaptive evolution 7. Fitness: an individual's contribution to the gene pool of the next generation a) Fitness is all about reproductive success. Did you pass on your genes to the next generation that survives: That is fitness b) Individuals better adapted to their environment have higher relative fitness (go on to have more offspring) 8. Examples: get more food, be stronger, have better access to mates...Have better camouflage, avoid predation, protect offspring 9. If natural selection is so great, why doesn't it make all kinds of organisms, or perfectly suited organisms? a) Selection can only act on existing genetic variation b) So, evolution is limited by historical constraints. Ex: instead of evolving new limbs that became wings, bats have evolved wings from the existing forelimb pattern c) Adaptations also often represent compromises. d) A seal can swim well because of flippers, but it is not a great walker Also, there is a lot of chance involved 10. "It is not the strongest of the species that survives, not the most intelligent that survives. It is the one that is the most adaptable to change."

Make and phylogenetic tree of animals like the ones shown in class that help you to understand which traits each group has.

1. PHYLOGENETIC TREES: A BRANCHING DIAGRAM THAT REPRESENTS A HYPOTHESIS ABOUT EVOLUTIONARY RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN ORGANISMS a) They depict hypotheses about the evolutionary history or phylogeny of species b) These branching diagrams reflect the hierarchical classification of groups nested within more inclusive groups

What do pollinators do for plants?

1. Pollination: transfer of pollen to the ovule 2. Most angiosperms rely on pollinating agent-someone or something to help spread the pollen around 3. 80% of pollinators are animals a) Most of these are insects (bees, moths, butterflies, and few flies) b) Also bats and birds 4. 20% of pollinators are abiotic a) Mostly wind: these plants don't have colorful or scented flowers because they don't need them b) Very few water-some aquatic plants 5. Coevolution is evolution that occurs among interdependent species because of their interactions. The interdependent species could be mutualistic, communsals, or one could be a parasite 6. Darwin described plant-pollinator coevolution: one observing this plant species; long floral tube, he predicted that somewhere out there was a moth with the same length proboscis. It was later discovered and named for his prediction

What are the prezygotic and post-zygotic barriers to reproduction?

1. Reproductive barrier: a factor that prevents individuals of closely related species form interbreeding 2. There are several kinds of reproductive barriers that isolate the gene pools of species 3. We can classify reproductive barriers as either prezygotic or postzygotic, depending on whether they block interbreeding before or after the formation of zygotes (fertilized eggs) a) PREZYGOTIC BARRIERS: A REPRODUCTIVE BARRIER THAT PREVENTS MATING BETWEEN SPECIES OR HINDERS FERTILIZATION OF EGGS IF MEMBERS OF DIFFERENT SPECIES ATTEMPT TO MATE b) POSTZYGOTIC BARRIERS: A REPRODUCTIVE BARRIER THAT OPERATES IF INTERSPECIES MATING ACTUALLY OCCURS AND RESULTS IN HYBRID ZYGOTES 1) (In this context, "hybrid" means that the egg comes from one species and the sperm from another species.) In some cases, hybrid offspring die before reaching reproductive maturity (reduced hybrid viability). For example, although certain closely related salamander species will hybridize, the offspring fail to develop normally because of genetic incompatibilities between the two species. In other cases of hybridization, offspring may become vigorous adults, but are infertile (reduced hybrid fertility). A mule, for example, is the hybrid offspring of a female horse and a male donkey. Mules are sterile—they cannot successfully breed with each other. Thus, horses and donkeys remain distinct species. In other cases, the first-generation hybrids are viable and fertile, but when these hybrids mate with one another or with either parent species, the offspring are feeble or sterile (hybrid breakdown). For example, different species of rice plants can produce fertile hybrids, but the offspring of the hybrids do not survive.

What characteristics separate birds and reptiles?

1. Reptiles are animals that have scales with keratin to keep them from drying out and lay shelled eggs on land a) REPTILES: MEMBER OF THE CLADE OF AMNIOTES THAT INCLUDES SNAKES, LIZARDS, TURTLES, CROCODILES, ALLIGATORS, BIRDS, AND A NUMBER OF EXTINCT GROUPS (INCLUDING MOST OF THE DINOSAURS) b) Includes tuataras, lizards, snakes, turtles, crocodilians, birds, and the extinct dinosaurs c) Reptiles have scales that protect skin from desiccation and abrasion d) Reptiles lay shelled eggs on land e) Ectothermic (this is true for all reptiles except for birds which are endothermic) 1) Nonbird reptiles are sometimes referred to as "cold-blooded" animals because they do not use their metabolism extensively to control body temperature. Reptiles do regulate body temperature, but largely through behavioral adaptations. 2) By heating directly with solar energy rather than through the metabolic breakdown of food, a nonbird reptile can survive on less than 10% of the calories required by a mammal of equivalent size. f) Reptiles have scaled waterproof skin, which prevents dehydration in dry air, and amniotic eggs with shells, which provide a watery nutritious internal environment where the embryo can develop g) Reptiles cannot breathe through their dry skin and so obtain most of their oxygen through their lungs 2. Birds are technically reptiles: a) BIRDS: MEMBER OF A GROUP OF REPTILES WITH FEATHERS AND ADAPTATIONS FOR FLIGHT b) Flight is energetically expensive. So birds, have very active metabolism c) Endothermic: use metabolism to regulate body temperature. Birds feathers help with insulation 1) Eggs must be kept warm by brooding parent d) Efficient respiratory system for more oxygen e) Acute vision and fine muscle control f) Larger brain than amphibians and reptiles g) Complex behaviors h) Birds have scaly skin on their legs and feet; even feathers—their signature feature—are modified scales. Genetic and fossil evidence shows that birds are indeed reptiles, having evolved from a lineage of small, two-legged dinosaurs called theropods. Today, birds look quite different from reptiles because of their distinctive flight equipment—almost all of the 10,000 living bird species are airborne.

What is the Cambrian explosion?

1. Scientists hypothesize that animals evolved from a colonial flagellated protist. Although molecular data point to a much earlier origin, the oldest animal fossils that have been found are about 560 million years old. Animal evolution must have been under way already for some time prior to that—the fossils reveal a variety of shapes, and sizes range from 1 cm to 1 m in length 2. Animal diversification appears to have accelerated rapidly from 535 to 525 million years ago, during the Cambrian period. Because so many animal body plans and new phyla appear in the fossils from such an evolutionarily short time span, biologists call this episode the Cambrian explosion. The most celebrated source of Cambrian fossils is located in the mountains of British Columbia, Canada. The Burgess Shale, as it is known, provided a cornucopia of perfectly preserved animal fossils. In contrast to the Precambrian animals, many Cambrian animals had hard parts such as shells, and many are clearly related to existing animal groups. For example, scientists have classified more than a third of the species found in the Burgess Shale as arthropods, the group that includes present-day crabs, shrimps, and insects. Other fossils are more difficult to place. Some are downright weird, like the spiky creature near the center of the drawing, known as Hallucigenia, and Opabinia, the five-eyed predator grasping a worm with the long, flexible appendage that protrudes in front of its mouth. 3. What ignited the Cambrian explosion? Scientists have proposed several hypotheses, including increasingly complex predator-prey relationships and an increase in atmospheric oxygen. But whatever the cause of the rapid diversification, it is likely that the set of "master control" genes—the genetic framework of information flow for building complex bodies—was already in place. Much of the diversity in body form among the animal phyla is associated with variations in where and when these genes are expressed within developing embryos. 4. In the last half billion years, animal evolution has to a large degree merely generated variations of the animal forms that originated in the Cambrian seas. Continuing research will help test hypotheses about the Cambrian explosion. But even as the explosion becomes less mysterious, it will seem no less wondrous.

What are the special adaptations of plants?

1. Since colonizing land, plants have diversified into around 300,000 known species 2. Plants supply oxygen, produce most food eaten by land animals, and create habitats for other land organisms 3. Additional derived traits evolved in many plant species, such as: a) CUTICLE: waxy covering on epidermis that helps prevent excessive water loss b) SECONDARY COMPOUNDS: help to prevent herbivory and parasitism 4. SYMBIOTIC ASSOCIATIONS between fungi and the first plant plants may have helped plants without true roots to obtain nutrients 5. THE SPECIAL ADAPTATIONS OF SEED PLANTS THAT HAVE ENABLED THEIR DOMINANCE ON LAND INCLUDE: a) #1 is the SEED - embryo and food supply, surrounded by a protective coat b) Besides seeds, the following are common to all seed plants: 1) Reduced gametophytes 2) Heterospory 3) Ovules 4) Pollen 6. Derived traits of Vascular Plants: a) Life cycles with dominant sporophytes b) Vascular tissues like xylem and phloem for transport through body-the xylem was strengthened and made rigid by lignin polymers c) Roots evolved as organs that absorb water and nutrients from soil and anchor plants in place 1) ROOTS: THE UNDERGROUND ORGAN OF A PLANT. ROOTS ANCHOR THE PLANT IN THE SOIL, ABSORB AND TRANSPORT MINERALS AND WATER, AND STORE FOOD 2) Roots typically have many fine branches that thread among the grains of soil, providing a large surface area that maximizes contact with mineral-bearing water in the soil—just one example of how plant organ systems exemplify the relationship between structure and function d) Leaves evolved to increase surface area of plant body; primary organ for photosynthesis 1) SHOOTS: THE AERIAL ORGAN OF A PLANT, CONSISTING OF STEM AND LEAVES. LEAVES ARE THE MAIN PHOTOSYNTHETIC STRUCTURES OF MOST PLANTS 2) Leaves are the main photosynthetic organs of most plants. Exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen between the atmosphere and the photosynthetic interior of a leaf occurs via stomata (singular, stoma), the microscopic pores found on a leaf's surface. A waxy layer called the cuticle coats the leaves and other aerial parts of most plants, helping the plant body retain water. 3) To transport vital materials between roots and shoots, most plants have vascular tissue, a network of tube-shaped cells that branch throughout the plant. There are two types of vascular tissue. One type is specialized for transporting water and minerals from roots to leaves, and the other distributes sugars from the leaves to the roots and other nonphotosynthetic parts of the plant. 4) Vascular tissue also solved the problem of structural support on land. The cell walls of many of the cells in vascular tissue are hardened by a chemical called lignin. The structural strength of lignified vascular tissue, otherwise known as wood, is amply demonstrated by its use as a building material.

What is allopatric speciation?

1. Speciation: when a population gets reproductively separated from other populations, it gains the potential to speciate a) There must be no gene flow for speciation to occur. Reproductive isolation arises between diverging populations 2. ALLOPATRIC SPECIATION: THE FORMATION OF A NEW SPECIES IN POPULATIONS THAT ARE GEOGRAPHICALLY ISOLATED FROM ONE ANOTHER. a) geographic separation like mountains or a big river 3. More common form of speciation 4. variety of geologic processes can isolate populations. For example, the water level in a large lake may subside until there are several smaller lakes, each with a separate fish population. A stream may change course and divide populations of animals that cannot cross the water. Over time, a river flowing over rock may carve a deep canyon that separates the inhabitants on either side. On a larger scale, continents themselves can split and move apart, and the rise and fall of sea levels can submerge or expose land bridges between continents 5. How formidable must a geographic barrier be to interrupt gene flow between allopatric populations? The answer depends partly on the ability of the organisms to move about. Birds, mountain lions, and coyotes can cross mountain ranges, rivers, and canyons. Such barriers also do not hinder the windblown pollen of pine trees or the spread of seeds carried by animals capable of crossing the barrier. In contrast, small rodents may find a deep canyon or a wide river an impassable barrier 6. Speciation is more common for a small, isolated population because it is more likely than a large population to have its gene pool changed substantially by both genetic drift and natural selection. But for each small, isolated population that becomes a new species, many more simply perish in their new environment. Life on the frontier can be harsh, and most pioneer populations become extinct. 7. Even if a small, isolated population survives, it does not necessarily evolve into a new species. The population may adapt to its local environment and begin to look very different from the ancestral population, but that doesn't necessarily make it a new species. Speciation occurs with the evolution of reproductive barriers between the isolated population and its parent population. In other words, if speciation occurs during geographic separation, the new species cannot breed with its ancestral population even if the two populations should come back into contact at some later time

What is sympatric speciation?

What are the three domains of life? Which two are prokaryotic?

1. THREE-DOMAIN SYSTEM: A SYSTEM OF TAXONOMIC CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THREE BASIC GROUPS: BACTERIA, ARCHAEA, AND EUKARYA 2. In the late 20th century, molecular studies and cladistics led to the development of a three-domain system. This current scheme recognizes three basic groups: two domains of prokaryotes—Bacteria and Archaea—and one domain of eukaryotes, called Eukarya. The domains Bacteria and Archaea differ in a number of important structural, biochemical, and functional features 3. The domain Eukarya is currently divided into kingdoms, but the exact number of kingdoms is still under debate. Biologists generally agree on the kingdoms Plantae, Fungi, and Animalia. These kingdoms consist of multicellular eukaryotes that differ in structure, development, and how they obtain matter and energy. Plants make their own food by photosynthesis. Fungi live by decomposing the remains of other organisms and absorbing small organic molecules. Most animals live by ingesting food and digesting it within their bodies. 4. The remaining eukaryotes, the protists, include all those eukaryotes that do not fit the definition of plant, fungus, or animal—effectively, a taxonomic grab bag. Most protists are unicellular (amoebas, for example). But the protists also include certain large, multicellular organisms that are believed to be direct descendants of unicellular protists. For example, many biologists classify the seaweeds as protists because they are more closely related to some single-celled algae than they are to true plants.

What is the correct order of classification categories in biology?

1. Taxonomy: biological classification of organisms 2. Biological organization and classification of organisms is hierarchical 3. CORRECT ORDER OF CLASSIFICATION CATEGORIES IN BIOLOGY (general to specific): a) Domain b) Kingdom c) Phylum d) Class e) Order f) Family g) Genus h) Species

Which of the preceding groups evolved first and which was last?

1. The algal ancestors of plants carpeted moist fringes of lakes or coastal salt marshes more than 500 million years ago. These shallow-water habitats were subject to occasional drying, and natural selection would have favored algae that could survive periodic droughts. Some species accumulated adaptations that enabled them to live permanently above the water line. A modern-day lineage of green algae, the charophytes, may resemble one of these early plant ancestors. Plants and present-day charophytes probably evolved from a common ancestor. 2. Adaptations making life on dry land possible had accumulated by about 470 million years ago, the age of the oldest known plant fossils. The evolutionary novelties of these first land plants opened the new frontier of a terrestrial habitat. Early plant life would have thrived in the new environment. Bright sunlight was abundant on land, the atmosphere had a wealth of carbon dioxide, and at first there were relatively few pathogens and plant-eating animals. The stage was set for an explosive diversification of plant life. 3. STEP 1 After plants originated from an algal ancestor approximately 470 million years ago, early diversification gave rise to nonvascular plants, including mosses, liverworts, and hornworts. These plants, called bryophytes, lack true roots and leaves. Bryophytes also lack lignin, the wall-hardening material that enables other plants to stand tall. Without lignified cell walls, bryophytes have weak upright support. The most familiar bryophytes are mosses. A mat of moss actually consists of many plants growing in a tight pack, holding one another up. Structures that protect the gametes and embryos are a terrestrial adaptation that originated in bryophytes. 4. STEP 2 The second period of plant evolution, which began about 425 million years ago, was the diversification of plants with vascular tissue. The presence of conducting tissues hardened with lignin allowed vascular plants to grow much taller, rising above the ground to achieve significant height. The earliest vascular plants lacked seeds. Today, this seedless condition is retained by ferns and a few other groups of vascular plants. 5. STEP 3 The third major period of plant evolution began with the origin of the seed about 360 million years ago. Seeds advanced the colonization of land by further protecting plant embryos from drying and other hazards. A seed consists of an embryo packaged along with a store of food within a protective covering. The seeds of early seed plants were not enclosed in any specialized chambers. These plant gave rise to the gymnosperms ("naked seeds"). Today, the most widespread and diverse gymnosperms are the conifers, consisting mainly of cone-bearing trees, such as pines. 6. STEP 4 The fourth major episode in the evolutionary history of plants was the emergence of flowering plants, or angiosperms ("contained seeds"), at least 140 million years ago. The flower is a complex reproductive structure that bears seeds within protective chambers called ovaries. This contrasts with the naked seeds of gymnosperms. The great majority of living plants—some 250,000 species—are angiosperms, including all our fruit and vegetable crops, grains and other grasses, and most trees.

What is an ectotherm? What is an endotherm?

1. Thermoregulation: animals maintain an internal temperature within a tolerable range 2. Endothermy: heat generated by metabolism a) ENDOTHERMS: AN ANIMAL THAT DERIVES MOST OF ITS BODY HEAT FROM ITS OWN METABOLISM b) Birds and mammals and many insects c) Energetically expensive-eat a lot d) Endothermic: use metabolism to regulate body temperature 3. Ectotherm: do not use metabolism to regulate body temperature a) ECTOTHERMS: AN ANIMAL THAT WARMS ITSELF MAINLY BY ABSORBING HEAT FROM ITS SURROUNDINGS b) Gave heat from external sources c) Amphibians, most reptiles, and fish d) Can use behavior for thermoregulation

What are the animals of the phylum arthropoda?

1. Three major lineages: a) chelicerates: sea spiders, horseshoe, crabs, scorpions, ticks, mites, and spiders b) myriapods: centipedes and millipedes c) pan crustaceans: lobsters, and other crustaceans, as well as insects and their relatives 2. Phylum arthropoda: insects: a) many insects undergo metamorphosis during development b) in incomplete metamorphosis, the young, call nymphs, resemble adults but are smaller and go through a series of molts until they reach full size-orthopterans (grasshoppers) are an example of a group that does this 1) after the final molt, the wings develop, and the insect becomes sexually mature c) insects with complete metamorphosis have larval stages. These include caterpillars and grubs 1) the larval stage looks entirely different from the adult stage 2) metamoprophosis from larva to adult occurs during a pupal stage

What are the distinguishing characteristics of humans?

1. humans are mammals that evolved around 200,000 years ago 2. the 20 extinct species below are more closely related to use than to chimpanzees and are called hominins 3. DERIVED CHARACTERS OF THE GENUS HOMO: a) Bipedalism: walking upright b) large brains: capability for language, symbolic thought and complex social interaction, artistic interaction and extensive tool use c) reduced jawbones and smaller digestive tracts

what are the animals in the phylum chordata?

1. ray-finned and lobe-finned fish 2. tetrapods: animals that evolved from lobe-fins to have limbs with feet 3. amphibians: animals that, like tetrapods, still are closely tied to water 4. amniotes: animals that have an amniotic egg and a rib cage that helps to ventilate the lungs 5. Reptiles: animals that have scales with keratin to keep them from drying out and lay shelled eggs on land 6. Mammalia

True or False: Arthropods, like insects, have a notochord

False

True or False: Plants want to attract pollinators because the pollen contains the egg which must be transported to another plants

False

True or False: Sponges have true tissues and bilateral symmetry

False

True or False: The Cambrian explosion was a time of mass extinction

False

True or False: The best definition for sympatric speciation is that it requires geographic separation

False

True or False: a moss is a plant that is multicellular, vascular, and has seeds

False

True or False: A moss is a bryophyte

True

True or False: After fertilization of an angiosperm, the ovary becomes the fruit

True

True or False: Animals and fungi are both groups that are eukaryotes

True

True or False: Even though they are closely related to reptiles, birds are endotherms that regulate their body temperatures internally.

True

True or False: There are some mammals that don't have a placenta and lay eggs instead

True

True or False: Things like DNA and homologous structures help scientists to classify organisms

True

What is a vestigial structure?

VESTIGIAL STRUCTURES: 1. Remnants of features that functioned in ancestor but have no purpose in present organism 2. A structure of marginal, if any, importance to an organism. Vestigial structures are historical remnants of structures that had important functions in the organism's ancestors 3. Some of the most interesting homologies are "leftover" structures that are of marginal or perhaps no importance to the organism. These vestigial structures are remnants of features that served important functions in the organism's ancestors. For example, the small pelvis and hind-leg bones of ancient whales are vestiges (traces) of their walking ancestors. The eye remnants that are buried under scales in blind species of cave fishes—a vestige of their sighted ancestors—are another example. Humans have vestigial structures, too. When we're cold or agitated, we often get goose bumps caused by small muscles under the skin that make the body hair stand on end. The same response is more visible (and more functional) in a bird that fluffs up its feathery insulation or a cat that bristles when threatened.

Which domains identify organisms that have prokaryotic cells? a) Archaea and bacteria b) bacteria and fungi c) bacteria and protista (protists) d) bacteria and eukaryotic

a) Archaea and bacteria

Which hominin was the first to utilize bipedalism? a) Australopithecus afarensis b) homo erectus c) homo habilis d) Homo sapiens

a) Australopithecus afarensis

Which of the following can cause allopatric speciation? a) a mountain range b) polyploidy c) hybridization d) none of the listed responses are correct

a) a mountain range

Which of the following contributes to classification? a) all of the listed responses are correct b) fossil record c) homologous structures d) comparisons of DNA sequences

a) all of the listed responses are correct

The biological species concept fails to recognize species of ________________________ a) bacteria b) primates c) vertebrates d) trees e) fish

a) bacteria

Which of the following most closely resembles the earliest plants? a) bryophytes b) seedless vascular plants c) gymnosperms d) angiosperms e) fungi

a) bryophytes

You are walking in the shallows along the beach and accidentally step on a sea urchin. After you take the spines out of your foot, you look up the classification of the animals. It is listed in the phylum ________________________ a) echinodermata b) Nematoda c) arthropoda d) chordata e) Mollusca

a) echinodermata

Primates share all of the following physical characteristics except ________________________ a) eyes on the side of the skull b) opposable thumbs c) large brain compared to body size d) flat nails

a) eyes on the side of the skull

Which of the following is a special adaptation just of angiosperms a) flowers b) seeds c) photosynthesis d) vascular tissues

a) flowers

Crossing a male horse and a female donkey produces a mule. Mules are an example of ______________________________ a) hybrid infertility (hybrid sterility) b) hybrid inviability c) temporal isolation d) behavioral isolation e) allopatric speciation

a) hybrid infertility (hybrid sterility)

Fungi differ from plants because they ___________________________ a) lack chloroplasts and cannot produce their own food b) lack chloroplasts c) cannot produce their own food d) reproduce by spores e) are multicellular

a) lack chloroplasts and cannot produce their own food

What is the difference between microevolution and macroevolution? a) microevolution refers to change within a population or species; macroevolution refers to change above the species level that can produce new species. b) microevolution refers to change above the species level that can produce new species; macroevolution refers to change within a population or species c) microevolution refers to change in small molecules; macroevolution refers to change in large molecules (for example, DNA) d) microevolution refers to change in small populations; macroevolution refers to change in large populations e) there is no difference

a) microevolution refers to change within a population or species; macroevolution refers to change above the species level that can produce new species.

The correct order, from least to most inclusive, of the classification categories is: a) species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom, domain b) species, genus, domain, order, class, phylum, kingdom, family c) species, genus, class, family, order, phylum, kingdom, domain d) species, genus, family, order, class, kingdom, phylum, domain e) species, genus, family, class, order, phylum, kingdom, domain

a) species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom, domain

_________________________ are stationary animals that appear immobile and are the simplest of all animals a) sponges b) cnidarians c) molluscs d) chordates

a) sponges

If there are two species and one mates during the day and the other during the night, this would be an examples of: a) temporal isolation b) behavioral isolation c) hybrid breakdown d) habitat isolation

a) temporal isolation

Which of the following statements is true about bryophytes? a) they lack vascular tissue and are usually found growing near a moist area b) they have specialized vascular tissue to carry water c) they form associations with plant roots d) they do not carry out photosynthesis but instead live on decaying organic material e) the flowers that they form are highly specialized for insect pollinators

a) they lack vascular tissue and are usually found growing near a moist area

What is the function of endosperm? a) to nurture the plant embryo b) to produce a smell that repels predators c) to produce a smell that attracts pollinators d) to provide eggs for fertilization e) to provide sperm to fertilize eggs

a) to nurture the plant embryo

Which of the following is not a characteristic of animals? a) unicellular b) multicellular c) eukaryotic d) heterotroph

a) unicellular

Anatomical structures such as the tailbones of humans are not critical to survival but may be very important to other animals, such as our primate relatives. In humans, the tailbone could be considered _______________________ a) vestigial b) analogous c) a mutation d) extinct

a) vestigial

What is genetic drift? a) an increase in genes in a population b) a change in allele frequency that is due to chance c) movement of alleles between populations d) generation of new alleles in a population

b) a change in allele frequency that is due to chance

a mycelium describes ___________________________ a) a single fungal strand b) an interwoven mass of numerous hyphae c) a saclike structure where fungal spores are produced d) a symbiotic relationship between fungal hyphae and plant roots e) the spore-producing stage of a fungal life cycle

b) an interwoven mass of numerous hyphae

The biological species concept fails to recognize species of _________________________ a) primates b) bacteria c) vertebrates d) trees e) fish

b) bacteria

Two individuals from different populations attempt to mate but are unable to successfully coordinate the mating dance. This is an example of a _______________________ isolating mechanism/ a) temporal b) behavioral c) mechanical d) gametic

b) behavioral

An essential distinguishing feature of hominin fossils is evidence of _______________________ a) tool use b) bipedalism c) mammary glands d) body hair

b) bipedalism

What are the four broad divisions of geological time? a) precambrian, cenozoic, mesozoic, Paleozoic b) cenozoic, mesozoic, Paleozoic, precambrian c) precambrian, Paleozoic, mesozoic, cenozoic d) mesozoic, cenozoic, precambrian, Paleozoic

b) cenozoic, mesozoic, Paleozoic, precambrian

An animal has five pairs of legs; what is it? a) arachnid b) crustacean c) insect d) echinoderm

b) crustacean

Natural selection is best described as__________________________ a) variability within a population b) differential (unequal) survival and reproduction c) selective breeding by humans d) none of the listed responses is appropriate

b) differential (unequal) survival and reproduction

Which of the following characteristics separates birds from reptiles? a) amnion b) endothermy c) jaws d) mammary glands

b) endothermy

The term used to describe humans and human ancestors is _________________________ a) Australopithecus b) hominins c) primates d) Paranthropus

b) hominins

Which is significant about the Cambrian Explosion? a) this period accounted for the extermination of 99% of Earth's populations b) modern life forms first appeared during this period c) flower-bearing plants emerged during this period d) this led to the development of eukaryotic organisms e) this destroyed animal, but not plant life

b) modern life forms first appeared during this period

Which of the following best describes the gymnosperms? a) multicellular, nonvascular, and seeds b) multicellular, vascular system, and seeds c) form spores as parts of their life cycle d) form associations with roots of other plants e) multicellular; have separate male and female plants

b) multicellular, vascular system, and seeds

Which of the following is the most common source of new alleles in a population? a) meiosis b) mutation c) genetic drift d) natural selection

b) mutation

Of the following evolutionary forces, which consistently pushes populations toward a better "fit" with their environments? a) mutation b) natural selection c) genetic drift d) gene flow

b) natural selection

You take a job as a research assistant at one of the richest fossil fields ever to be discovered. On your first day, you discover a new species, Neko bogus, that bears similarities to the modern, domesticated cat. You now begin the task of grouping you're many fossils. Can you determine which examples are from the same species by using the biological species concept? a) no, because the specimens display a wide range of body sizes b) no, because you can't determine the potential for interbreeding between samples c) yes, because of the similarities of the skeleton to other modern species d) Yes, because as long as the samples are biological, they will satisfy the concept definition

b) no, because you can't determine the potential for interbreeding between samples

Which is the following would be an example of a prezygotic barrier? a) reduced hybrid viability b) reduced hybrid fertility c) habitat isolation d) hybrid breakdown

b) reduced hybrid fertility c) habitat isolation

The term "allopatric speciation" is best defined as _________________________________ a) speciation that occurs in the absence of geographic separation b) speciation that occurs as a result of geographic separation c) speciation that takes place in period of at least a million years d) several new species descending from one species and becoming more specialized to specific habitats

b) speciation that occurs as a result of geographic separation

The plant life cycle is characterized by alternation of generations. The generation that produces spores is known as the __________________________ generation, whereas the one that produces the gametes is the ____________________ generation a) haploid; diploid b) sporophyte; gametophyte c) bryophyte; angiosperm d) neophyte; gametophyte e) parental; offspring

b) sporophyte; gametophyte

While walking through the woods, you come upon a plant that is growing on a rock; the plant is bright green and has small balloon-like structures extending from its surface. This plant is most probably a(n) ____________________________ a) angiosperm b) type of bryophyte c) type of lichen d) gymnosperm seedling e) type of fungus

b) type of bryophyte

lobsters share the same phylum with ____________________________ a) insects b) spiders c) all of the listed animals share the same phylum with lobster d) crabs e) crayfish

c) all of the listed animals share the same phylum with lobster

What is a clade? a) a poisonous portion of a fungus b) an area of the environment that consists of common trees and shrubbery c) an ancestral species and all of its evolutionary descendants d) a tool used to harvest underwater plants e) a group of tribes found in ancient Europe

c) an ancestral species and all of its evolutionary descendants

What type of supportive evidence for evolution has been obtained from comparing the forelimbs of different mammals? a) molecular homology b) developmental homology c) anatomical homology d) convergence

c) anatomical homology

the major difference between gymnosperms and angiosperms is that _________________________________ a) angiosperms are less successful than gymnosperms b) gymnosperms produce larger seeds than angiosperms c) angiosperms produce flowers, whereas gymnosperms produce seed cones d) there are more species of gymnosperms than angiosperms in the world e) angiosperms produce larger seeds than gymnosperms

c) angiosperms produce flowers, whereas gymnosperms produce seed cones

Which of the following is not homologous with the others? a) elephants front leg b) dolphins front flipper c) butterfly's wing d) human arm

c) butterfly's wing

what pest of rye and wheat grains may have caused the Salem witch trials of 1691-1692? (LSD was derived from the same source) a) penicillium b) morel c) clavicles purpurea, or ergot d) aloe barbadensis e) staphylococcus aureus

c) clavicles purpurea, or ergot

Two organisms of different species mate and produce offspring that cannot mate with its siblings or with members of either parental species. This is an example of ______________________ a) gametic isolation (gamete incompatibility) b) behavioral isolation c) hybrid infertility (hybrid sterility) d) temporal isolation

c) hybrid infertility (hybrid sterility)

the biological species concept applies only to breeding populations ___________________________ a) under specific controlled conditions b) that are found in island chains c) in nature d) that are clearly recognized by specific characters

c) in nature

According to the biological species concept, a species is composed of _____________________________________ a) organisms that live together b) a group of reproductive males and females c) individuals capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring d) organisms located in the same habitat

c) individuals capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring

Which of the following is not homologous to the others? a) human arm b) front leg of a dog c) insect wing d) dolphin flipper e) bat wing

c) insect wing

Which process causes the appearance of new alleles in a population? a) natural selection b) genetic drift c) mutation d) meiosis

c) mutation

Which of the following do gymnosperms and angiosperms have in common? a) seeds b) pollen c) pollen and seeds d) cones e) fruit and seeds

c) pollen and seeds

How do reptiles and amphibians differ from fish? a) reptiles and amphibians are ectotherms while fish are not b) reptiles and amphibians have jaws while fish do not c) reptiles and amphibians have limbs present while fish do not d) reptiles and amphibians have an amnion and fish do not

c) reptiles and amphibians have limbs present while fish do not

Both animals and fungi are heterotrophs; however, unlike animals, fungi _____________________________________ a) secrete enzymes into their food after absorbing it b) photosynthesize their food before digesting it c) secrete enzymes into their food before absorbing it d) must cover the entire surface of the food before they can ingest it e) are totally reliant on other animals for food

c) secrete enzymes into their food before absorbing it

Which of the following is true about ectotherms? a) they include mammals and birds b) they maintain their body temperature internally c) they include reptiles and amphibians

c) they include reptiles and amphibians

What is radial symmetry? a) there is only one way an organism can be divided to make a mirror image b) when an organisms can be divided two ways around the central axis to make a mirror image c) when an organism can be divided multiple ways around their central axis to make a mirror image d) when an organism cannot be divided to produce a mirror image

c) when an organism can be divided multiple ways around their central axis to make a mirror image

The sequences of the ribosomal RNA (rRNA) genes from bacterial isolates A, B, and C were determined. The isolates A and B differ at 20 nucleotides; A and C differ at 45 nucleotides; and B and C differ at 5 nucleotides. Which of these isolates are most likely to be the same bacterial species? a) A and B b) A and C c) A, B, and C d) B and C

d) B and C

Which of the following are the currently accepted domains of life? a) Eukarya, Fungi, Algae b) Eukarya, Viruses, Prokaryotes c) Eukaryotes, Prokaryotes, Plants d) Eukarya, Archaea, Bacteria e) Plants, Animals, Fungi

d) Eukarya, Archaea, Bacteria

Which of the following was most recently alive? a) H. habilis b) H. erectus c) A. anamensis d) H. neanderthalensis e) H. heidelbergensis

d) H. neanderthalensis

Which of the following is used to determine whether two populations belong to the same species? a) color b) size range c) habitat choice d) ability to interbreed e) diet

d) ability to interbreed

Which of the following is a false statement about mammals? a) all have mammary glands and produce milk b) some lay eggs c) all of the listed responses are false d) all have a placenta which provides nourishment

d) all have a placenta which provides nourishment

In the modern system for classifying life used by many biologists, the three domains are _______________________________ a) bacteria, fungi, eukarya b) bacteria, plantae, eukarya c) bacteria, archaea, Animalia d) bacteria, archaea, eukarya e) bacteria, protista, eukarya

d) bacteria, archaea, eukarya

You come across a plant that has cones, which type of plant is it? a) angiosperm b) seedless vascular plant c) bryophytes d) gymnosperm

d) gymnosperm

Which of the following features is not shared by all fungi? a) hypha b) heterotrophy c) mycelium d) mobility e) eukaryote

d) mobility

Which of the following mechanisms will help organisms adapt to the environment? a) gene flow b) genetic drift c) meiosis d) natural selection

d) natural selection

Which of the following is not a defining feature of the Anthropoda? a) exoskeleton b) jointed appendages c) molting d) notochord e) coelom

d) notochord

The Darwin-Wallace theory of evolution by natural selection did not include which of the following? a) individual variation b) differential (unequal) reproductive success c) overabundance of organisms d) organisms that are driven to become perfect

d) organisms that are driven to become perfect

Why do some plants have flowers? a) plants without vascular systems rely on flowers to collect water b) plants in poor soils rely on flowers to catch mineral-rich insect droppings c) plants in sunny environments use flowers to maximize sun exposure for photosynthesis d) plants that are adapted to land rely on flowers to attract pollinators e) plants produce flowers when infected with certain fungi

d) plants that are adapted to land rely on flowers to attract pollinators

Which of the following is an adaption of seed plants? a) vascular tissues b) spores c) flagellated sperm d) pollen

d) pollen

The term "sympatric speciation" is best defined as _____________________________ a) speciation that takes place in a period of at least a million years b) speciation that occurs as a result of geographic separation c) several new species descending from one species and becoming more specialized to specific habitats d) speciation that occurs in the absence of geographic separation

d) speciation that occurs in the absence of geographic separation

An animal that has no true tissue would be classified as a ___________________ a) cnidarian b) flatworm c) annelid d) sponge

d) sponge

Bipedalism is a type of locomotion in which _______________________________ a) arms are used to swing from tree branches b) four limbs are used for walking c) none of the listed responses are correct d) two legs are used for walking upright

d) two legs are used for walking upright

Fruit can be defined as _____________________ a) a nature ovary b) a mature seed c) the female organ of a plant d) a spore-containing structure e) a seed-containing structure

e) a seed-containing structure

Which of the following are examples of evolution? a) different finch species living on different Galapagos islands b) the rise of antibiotic resistant strains of bacteria c) changes in guppy populations after the introduction of predators d) none of the listed responses is correct e) all of the listed responses are correct

e) all of the listed responses are correct

Which of the following provide(s) evidence for the process of evolution? a) homologous structures b) the fossil record c) molecular biology d) vestigial structures e) all of the listed responses are correct

e) all of the listed responses are correct

Which of the following includes the largest number of species? a) animals that are segmented b) animals with radial symmetry c) animals that are unsegmented d) animals with a backbone e) animals with a body cavity

e) animals with a body cavity

Which of the following correctly matches the classification with the example? a) seedless vascular plant-cactus b) gymnosperm-ferm c) angiosperm-pine tree d) gymnosperm-water lily e) bryophyte-moss

e) bryophyte-moss

Two organisms of different species mate and produce offspring. This offspring cannot mate with its siblings or with members of either parental species. This is an example of ________________________ a) gametic isolation b) behavioral isolation c) ecological isolation d) temporal isolation e) hybrid infertility

e) hybrid infertility

What does molecular biology contribute to the classification of organisms? a) it identifies the development of metabolic pathways over time b) it follows the passage of molecules through various species c) it identifies amino acid sequences in forensic cases d) it identifies the type of reproductive processes used by ancient organisms e) it allows the comparison of genes between organisms

e) it allows the comparison of genes between organisms

Rank the following plants in their correct evolutionary order a) moss, gymnosperm, fern, angiosperm b) fern, moss, gymnosperm, angiosperm c) moss, fern, angiosperm, gymnosperm d) moss, angiosperm, fern, gymnosperm e) moss, fern, gymnosperm, angiosperm

e) moss, fern, gymnosperm, angiosperm

the human tapeworm is classified as a(n) ___________________________________ a) annelid b) cnidarian c) brown alga d) nematode e) platyhelminth

e) platyhelminth

Plants use several methods to attract animals to their reproductive structures. How does the plant benefit from pollinators carrying away pollen after their visit? a) pollen contains the toxic by-products of photosynthesis b) fungals plant invaders force the plant to produce pollen to distribute their spores c) bacteria tend to infest the plant parts known as pollen, and the plant is trying to remove them d) if pollen accumulates on the plant, it can eventually cause the plant to die e) pollen contains the plant sperm nucleus for reproduction

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