Bio exam test 2 (cheeks)

alveolus

(plural: alveoli) Any of the tiny, air-filled sacs of a mammalian lung.

Explain the functional effect of pH on hemoglobin oxygen binding in the lungs and in body tissues

As blood nears the lungs, the carbon dioxide concentration decreases, causing an increase in pH. This increase in pH increases hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen through the Bohr effect, causing hemoglobin to pick up oxygen entering your blood from your lungs so it can transport it to your tissues.

Compare the source of CO2 fixed by the Calvin cycle in C4, C3, and CAM plants

C3(a 3-carbon molecule) called 3-phosphoglyceric acid. one-step process, the enzyme RuBisCO (ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase) causes an oxidation reaction in which some of the energy used in photosynthesis is lost in a process known as photorespiration. The result is about a 25% reduction in the amount of carbon that is fixed by the plant and released back into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide C4(4 carbon molecule produced) AKA Hatch-slack pathway. Carbon fixation pathways used by C4 and CAM reduce the loss of carbon during the process. CAM(crassulacean acid metabolism) succulents that are efficient at storing water due to the dry and arid climates they live in. https://biologydictionary.net/c3-c4-cam-plants/

advantages and disadvantages of C4 and CAM carbon fixation

C4 plants also produce more biomass and have a higher photosynthetic rate per unit of nitrogen than C3 plants. which mean that they can grow and reproduce even on nitrogen- poor soils extra step (first carboxylation) takes 2 extra ATP if low light, energy is in short supply - C4 no good light below 12 degrees IN THE LIGHT may damage chloroplasts (CAM) has the advantage of essentially eliminating (water loss through gas exchange) during the day, allowing CAM plants to survive in inhospitable climates where water loss is a major limiting factor to plant growth. A disadvantage for CAM plants is that they often have low photosynthetic capacity, slow growth, and low competitive abilities because their photosynthetic rates are limited by vacuolar storage capacity and by greater ATP costs, similar to those for C4 species. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=13h5oC4jIsk

Polysaccharide

Carbohydrates that are made up of more than two monosaccharides

Cytosol

The semifluid portion of the cytoplasm.

Catabolism

The sum total of all processes in an organism which break down chemicals to produce energy and simple chemical building blocks.

Metalloproteins

Proteins with a mineral element as an essential part of their structure.

Compare the effect of blue light and abscisic acid on stomata

blue light opens the stomata abscisic acid is a hormone that cause the plant to reduce water availability which cause the stomata to open

Explain physical limitations of extracting oxygen from water by comparing oxygen content, density, and viscosity of air and water as respiratory media

oxygen is more dense than air and its harder to extract oxygen from water because it is more viscose. Also the amount of oxygen in the water depend on the solubility of oxygen in water. the higher the temperature and salt in the water, the lower the O2 level is in the water.

mitochondria matrix

where the citric acid cycle takes place

Macronutrients

A chemical substance that an organism must obtain in relatively large amounts

Symbiosis

A close relationship between two species that benefits at least one of the species.

pigment

A colored chemical compound that absorbs light, producing color.

glycosidic linkage

A covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction.

Disaccharide

A double sugar, consisting of two monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis.

cooperativity

A kind of allosteric regulation whereby a shape change in one subunit of a protein caused by substrate binding is transmitted to all the other subunits, facilitating binding of additional substrate molecules to those subunits.

ATP synthase

A large membrane-bound protein complex that uses the potential energy stored in a proton gradient to couple proton transport and ATP synthesis. alveolus

affinity

A likeness, a natural relationship, a kinship

Substrate

A specific reactant acted upon by an enzyme

Starch

A storage polysaccharide in plants consisting entirely of glucose.

Competitive inhibitor

A substance that reduces the activity of an enzyme by entering the active site in place of the substrate whose structure it mimics.

Anabolism

Constructive metabolism; the process of building up larger molecules from smaller ones.

Define each variable in Fick's Law of Diffusion and explain how each variable affects gas diffusion rate

D*A*(C2-C1)/X)*t D= diffusion rate A= Area (C2-C1)= concentration X= thickness of membrane t= time if the thickness membrane increase then it'll be harder to diffuse across the membrane. Ex: if you have more debris in you lungs it'll be hard for oxygen to move across the membrane.

Mycorrhizae

Ecological relationship between the mycelium of a fungus and the roots of certain plants

· Explain how C-H bonds are the source of energy for cellular respiration

Electrons are shared between atoms in covalent bonds. -An electron loses potential energy when it shifts from a less electronegative atom toward a more electronegative one (oxidation). -The oxidation of C-H bonds (particularly in glucose) to oxygen causes the release of chemical energy for work.

activation energy

Energy needed to get a reaction started

· List 2 electron carriers and explain the function of each when in the oxidized state and in the reduced state

Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide (FAD) Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NAD) Oxidation and reduction are coupled reactions in which electrons are transferred form one atom to another atom. Reduced compounds donate oxygen or accept hydrogen and oxidized compounds accepts oxygen or donates hydrogen. So, when the electron carriers are in reduced condition, they accept hydrogens from different metabolic pathways, like glycolysis and citric acid cycle, etc. In oxidized state they enter into electron transport chain (ETC) and donate protons for ATP synthesis. .

The Calvin Cycle

Functions like a sugar factory within the stroma of a chloroplast. Regenerates the starting material with each turn. Makes direct use of CO2, ATP, and NADPH to make sugar.

Define free energy and ΔG

G is the change in free energy of a system as it goes from some initial state(reactants to final state(products), This value tells us the maximum usable energy released/absorbed during the reaction.

Describe the properties of respiratory surfaces

Gas exchange is fast when the area for diffusion is large and the path for diffusion is short. As a result, respiratory surfaces tend to be large and thin.

Predict changes in ATP synthesis if the H+ concentration gradient changes

Low [H+] gradient = less ATP synthesis: not as many protons come through

Thylakoids

Membranous sacs inside chloroplasts. Light reactions are located in this membrane

Compare ATP production between NADH and FADH2 and explain why it differs for each electron carrier

NADH and FADH2 are the two major electron carriers, which plays an important role in ATP production. In oxidized state they enter into ETC and donate protons for ATP synthesis. For example, 1 NADH gives between 2-3 ATP and 1 FADH2 gives 1-2 ATP. NADH = starts with Complex I: pumps more protons across gradient FADH = produces 2 ATP; starts with Complex II

Pyruvate

Organic compound with a backbone of three carbon atoms. Two molecules form as end products of glycolysis

List 6 ways plants obtain nutrients I need 3 more ways.

Plants can absorb inorganic nutrients and water through their root system Plants get the carbon dioxide from the air through leaves. CO2 diffuse through small holes in the underside of the leaf called stomata. leaves collect sunlight, through their leaves

nitrogen fixation

Process of converting nitrogen gas into ammonia

Stomata

Small openings on the underside of a leaf through which oxygen and carbon dioxide can move

Glycogen

Storage form of glucose

Inhibition of Metabolic Pathways

Sulfonamides, Trimethoprim (disrupt metabolic)

Identify the direct source of energy for the specific reaction that synthesizes ATP

The [H+] gradient and proton-motive force: phosphorylation of ADP production of ATP requires a concentration gradient of H+, with a high concentration at the inter membrane space and a low concentration in the matrix.

Explain why hemoglobin has lower oxygen affinity when pH decreases

The affinity that hemoglobin has on oxygen is decreased when the pH of the solution is decreased. When the solution is at a lower pH, hemoglobin tends to release more oxygen because it doesn't have as much affinity to keep the oxygen binded to the heme group.

Stroma

The fluid of the chloroplast surrounding the thylakoid membrane; involved in the synthesis of organic molecules from carbon dioxide and water.

two stages of photosynthesis

The light reactions convert solar energy to chemical energy(ATP and NADH) and The Calvin cycle uses the products of the light reactions to make sugar from carbon dioxide.

Calvin cycle events carbon fixation Regeneration of CO2 acceptor molecule(RuBP) Calvin cycle in plants Metabolism

Use ATP and NADH produced by light reactions as reactants to convert CO2 to carbohydrates. occur in stroma in chloroplast. CO2 fixation captures CO2 from Atmosphere (atm) By attaching to RuBP( 5carbon molecule named Rubisco) once this happens it is split into two-3 carbon molecules called 3PG(3-Phosphoglycerate) CO2 reduction phase add electrons to the CO2 molecule(Electrons came from the NADH) through a series of reactions 3PG is reduced to G3P( a carbohydrate) ADP and NAD+ return to the thylakoids to be converted back to ATP and NADPH by the light reactions. one of the G3P is used as a building block for glucose and the rest of G3P move into the third phase of the Calvin cycle. Regeneration of RuBP ATP combine with the rest of the G3P Molecules to produce RuBP. Then RuBP combine with CO2 molecules. continuing the carbon reactions. the cycle has to repeat 6 times to form glucose because each turn in the cycle adds only one carbon from the incoming carbon dioxide. video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c2ZTumtpHrs

During Photosynthesis

Water is split into: Hydrogen and Oxygen. Hydrogen is transferred along with electrons and added to carbon dioxide to produce sugar. Oxygen escapes through stromata into the atmosphere.

Explain the process of cation exchange and its role in nutrient absorption by roots

When cation exchange occurs, the plant root releases a hydrogen ion. Thus, cation exchange in the root causes the pH of the immediately surrounding soil to decrease. Once water and nutrient ions enter the plant root, they move though spaces that exist within the root tissue between neighboring cells.

epiphyte

a plant that uses another plant for support, but not for nourishment

hemoglobin

a red protein responsible for transporting oxygen in the blood of vertebrates. Its molecule comprises four subunits, each containing an iron atom bound to a heme group.

active site

a region on an enzyme that binds to a protein or other substance during a reaction.

Endergonic

absorbs energy

allosteric inhibitors

binds to allosteric enzymes causing a conformational change binding of this will result in a shift that makes the active site LESS AVAILABLE for binding to the substrate

Explain how ATP provides energy for endergonic rxns

by Energy coupling Example, co-transport: The sodium-potassium pump (Na+/K+ pump) drives sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell. When ATP is hydrolyzed, it transfers its gamma phosphate to the pump protein in a process called phosphorylation. The Na+/K+ pump gains the free energy and undergoes a conformational change, allowing it to release three Na+ to the outside of the cell. Two extracellular K+ ions bind to the protein, causing the protein to change shape again and discharge the phosphate. By donating free energy to the Na+/K+ pump, phosphorylation drives the endergonic reaction.

Explain regulation of enzyme activity by co-factors, competitive inhibitors, allosteric inhibitors

competitive inhibition, an inhibitor molecule competes with a substrate by binding to the enzyme 's active site so the substrate is blocked. Allosteric inhibitors induce a conformational change that changes the shape of the active site and reduces the affinity of the enzyme's active site for its substrate. Feedback inhibition involves the use of a reaction product to regulate its own further production. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LKiXfqaWNHI

guard cells

control the opening and closing of stomata

Photo system I electron excitation and donor electrons pathway of excitation sources of electron

electrons from PSII moves electrons here. As PSI absorb more light, the electrons become energized and move out of PSI down the second electron chain, these two electrons bond with the H+ in the stroma and Produce NADH. the electrons that were in PSI is replaced by the electrons that were in PSII.

carbonic anhydrase

enzyme that catalyzes the reaction between carbon dioxide and water to form carbonic acid

Fermentation

happens in the cytoplasm in the absence of O2. Pyruvate accepts electrons from NADH and regenerate H+ NAD+ . compound converted to acetyl coA carbon dioxide is produced

citric acid cycle

happens in the matrix Acetyl coA bonds with 4 carbon molecule (oxaloacetate) produces carbon dioxide, NADH, FADH2, and ATP or GTP. doesn't use oxygen, though it does stop in the absence of oxygen because it runs out of NAD and FAD.

Mastering Bio videos

https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/secs-bioflix-photosynthesis-the-calvin-cycle

Gibbs free energy chart

if the products have more energy than reactants- endothermic(energy absorbed) if products have less energy than reactants than exothermic( energy release)

Predict the results of feedback inhibition of a metabolic pathway

in order to prevent waste products feedback inhibition occur. if products are being created at a rate that is faster than they can be used both resources and products are being wasted the assembly line can produce at a slower rate or stop completely to prevent waste in cells. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LKiXfqaWNHI

Compare the similarities and contrast the differences between the role of H+-ATPase in plant cells and Na+-K+-ATPase in animal cells

in plants the ATPase takes the electrons from water and release air into the atmosphere in the Na+, K+ -ATPase in animals the oxygen bonds with the electrons in H2 and produce water moves 2k+ into cell and 3Na+ out of the cell against there electron gradient.

oxidative phosphorylation

inner mitochondrial membrane. ATP is formed as a result of the transfer of electrons from NADH or FADH2 to O2 by a series of electron carriers

electron transport

inter mitochondria membrane NAD+ and FADH2 in matrix transfer electrons to electron transport electron transport proteins are embedded in folding's in the plasma membrane. electron transport chain. has may proteins in the inner mitochondrial membrane that accepts and donate electrons in sequences. ends with oxygen accepting O2 and combining with H+ to make water. if there is no oxygen, the electron protein chain cant run because there isn't oxygen to act as the final electron acceptor . which mean that the ETC will not accept e- from NADH as a source of power so NAD+ is not regenerated. net of 32-36 ATP per glucose is produced here

absorption spectrum of chlorophyll

light is not absorbed from 500nm to 600 blue and red absorb the light best. green yellow and don't absorb light.

photo system II(PSII) electron excitation and donor electrons pathway of excitation sources of electron

light reactions begin here 1) receives photons that is transferred to a chlorophyll reaction center causing electrons in the reaction center to be energized. The electrons are so excited that they escape PSII to a election adapter in the electron chain, to replace those electrons water(the O2 is release as a product) is split into 2 H+ ion and 2 electrons . Those other two electrons moves down the gradient creating a H+ gradient and then arrives at PSI. while this is happening a proteins in the electron transport pumps H+ from the stroma into the thylakoid space. The gradient of H+ contains potential energy and is used by the ATP synthase enzyme. when they go down the ATP synthase channel they used the energy produced to add a phosphate to ADP to form ATP.

List the locations of the light reactions & the Calvin cycle within the chloroplast and identify location on a diagram

light reactions occur in the thylakoid of the chloroplast. special pigments absorb light energy and transfer it to high energy electrons eventual producing ATP and NADPA (electron carrier) light reactions use photo system 1 and 2 that are embedded in the thylakoid membrane. Oxygen gas is produced as a bi product. ATP and NADPH formed by the light reactions are used in the Calvin Cycle https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c2ZTumtpHrs

Glycolysis

location: cytoplasm for prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells. ( outside of mitochondria) 2 ATP are invested in the cell that causes a sugar diphosphate molecule to form which is then split into 2 molecules . NADH takes 2 electrons from the molecules . ADP is also invested and these molecules are converted to pyruvate. oxygen does not affect the production of pruvate. but when it is present Pyruvate and NADH enter the cell. produces 2 ATP, 2 NADH, and 2 pyruvate molecules:

pyruvate oxidation

mitochondria matrix Conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA and CO2 that occurs in the mitochondrial matrix in the presence of O2. 1. carboxyl group is removed from pyruvate, which makes carbon dioxide, NAD+ is reduced to NADH and acetyl group is transferred to coenzyme a resulting in Acetyl CoA.

Define energetic coupling

occurs when the energy produced by one reaction or system is used to drive another reaction or system.

Chloroplast

organelle found in cells of plants and some other organisms that captures the energy from sunlight and converts it into chemical energy

Compare co-transport mechanisms between plant and animal cells Which ion creates the electrochemical gradient? Which molecules are moved by co-transport?

plants when H+ is pumped out the ATPase it changes the gradient across the membrane (more negative charge on the inside and positive charge on the outside. k+(enter through potassium channels) and Cl( enter through Co-transport against the gradient)

Explain the role of proton pumps (H+-ATPase) in root hairs

proton pumps (H+ ATPases), which use ATP as an energy source to pump protons out of the cells and into the soils, against their electrochemical gradient. These proton pumps create a strong electrochemical gradient with a high concentration of protons and a strong positive charge outside of the cell, and a low concentration of protons and relatively negative charge inside of the cell.

Calvin Cycle

reactions of photosynthesis in which energy from ATP and NADPH is used to build high-energy compounds such as sugars

exergonic rxn

releases energy

Monosaccharide

simplest type of sugar.

limiting nutrient

single essential nutrient that limits productivity in an ecosystem

catalyst

substance that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction

enzyme activity

the ability of an enzyme to do work and is mainly dependent on substrate concentration

Compare & contrast electron transport and ATP synthesis between cellular respiration and photosynthesis - identify which aspects are similar and which are different

they both get energy from flowing electrons to drive the synthesis of a product. Plants In photosynthesis the main product is glucose. make use of photosynthesis at the thylakoid membrane within a chloroplast. photosynthetic organisms attempt to make glucose as a food source. uses the energy made from light to free electrons from the chlorophyll pigments(collect the light) . Chlorophyll molecules regain the lost electron from a molecule of water. electrons and hydrogen ions remain. Oxygen is created as a byproduct, and released into the atmosphere. cellular respiration main product is ATP (adenosine triphosphate). organelles called mitochondria break glucose down into ATP, which is the main energy carrier of the cell. the electron transport chain occurs after glucose has been broken down. 8 NADPH and 2 FADH2 remain they donate electrons and hydrogen ions to the electron transport chain. The movement of electrons galvanizes hydrogen ions across the membrane of the mitochondrion. this forms an gradient of hydrogen ions on one side, they are compelled to move back to the inside of the mitochondrion, which energize the synthesis of ATP. At the end ,oxygen accepts electrons and are , binds to the hydrogen ions producing water.

Design an experiment to identify the limiting nutrient for a particular plant species in its natural habitat

we can control the amount of water we give to each plant. 1) get 3 seeds of the same plants and plant them in 3 separate pots. all being in identical settings 2) one plant does not get water the second plant gets 15mL of water once a day and the third plants get 15mL of water twice a day. 3) record the growth of the plant in centimeters every day for two weeks water is significant Because they provide hydrogen for the PSII and PSI so that they Could produce food to grow.

Explain the role of H+-ATPase, K+, and Cl- in guard cell opening and closing

when blue light strikes photoceptors pumping of H+-ATPase increase and this changes the gradient which is negative on the inside and positive on the outside K+ enter through the potassium channels and are attracted to the negative charge inside the cell. Cl- goes against the electron gradient by co transport. H2O follows osmolarity and since the inside of the cell is concentrated water goes in and opens the stomata. when the roots detect dryness, H+ pump stops. cl- exits. K+ follow the negative charge outside the cell and H2O goes out of the cell and it shrinks.

Protein Motor Force

when the cell membrane becomes energized due to electron transport reactions by the electron carriers embedded in it. . ATP synthesis is linked to the proton motive force through oxidative phosphorylation, where a phosphate group is added to ADP.