Bio1100 Final Exam with study guide and all chapters

Expanded Structural Formula or Skeletal Formula

- shows arrangement of all bonds. Example: H H | | H — C — C — H | | H H

Condensed Structural Formula

- shows arrangement, but not every bond. ex: CH3— CH3 or CH3CH3

Molecular Formula

- shows number of atoms, but not their order. Example: C2H6

Hydrohalogenation

-A hydrogen halide (HCl, HBr, HI) is added to an alkene to yield a haloalkane

Hydration

-A water (HOH) reacts with an alkene, producing an alcohol (— OH functional group). -H— attaches to one carbon and —OH to other. -Requires an acid (H2SO4 or H3PO4) as a catalyst.

Alcohol Classification

-Alcohols are classified according to the # of alkyl groups attached to carbon atom -Primary (1o) Alcohol - one alkyl group -Secondary (2o) Alcohol - two alkyl groups -Tertiary (3o) Alcohol - three alkyl groups. PRIMARY= H | R— C — OH | H SECONDARY= R | R— C — OH | H Tertiary= R | R— C — OH | R

Functional Groups

-Alcohols; Thiols; Phenols -Nomenclature -Physical Properties -Reactions

Isomers of Alkenes

-Alkenes can have structural isomers, like alkanes. -Ex: C4H8 CH2=CH—CH2— CH3 CH3—CH=CH— CH3 CH3 | CH2=C — CH3

Sources of passive immunity

-Almost all blood or blood products. -Homologous pooled human antibody (immune globulin) Heterologou hyperimmune serum (antitoxin)

Naming Phenols

-Benzene ring w/ -OH group is phenol -If other groups are attached, ring is numbered starting w/ carbon bonded to -OH group

Aldehyde & Ketone Solubility

-Bond between O and C in carboxyl is strongly polar -Compounds with 1 - 4 C atoms are soluble in water -Ketones are good solvents for many organic compounds (ex: acetone)

Adding Functional Groups to Double Bonds

-CIS added to same side of double bond. -Trans added to opposite side of double bond.

Explain: 1.Tire pressure in winter vs summer 2.Why does a football at Browns stadium react differently in December than in Sept

-Combined Gas Law P1V1/T1= P2V2/T2 Shortened version with just beginning equation: P1V1 = T1 P=T when V is constant or 1

Polymers of Alkenes

-Common synthetic alkene polymers: -polyethylene -Teflon -Saran -Polystyrene -PETE, HDPE, PVC, LDPE, PP, PS

Naming Alkenes & Alkynes

-Compounds with two double bonds are named as: Dienes. CH2=CH — CH=CH2 CH3 | CH2=C—CH=CH—CH3

Aldehydes and Ketones

-Contain carbonyl group: -Aldehydes - carbonyl is attached to at least one hydrogen. O II CH3— C— H -Ketones - carbonyl is attached to two carbons. O II CH3— C— CH3

Alkenes

-Contain one or more double bonds between C's -carbons share two pairs of electrons - -Unsaturated hydrocarbons -fewer hydrogen atoms than alkanes -Have double bonds. H H \ / C= C / \ H H CH2=CH2

Alkynes

-Contain one or more triple bonds between C's -carbons share three pairs of electrons - H—C(trip bond)C—H CH(triple bond)CH CH3— C(trip) CH

Thiols

-Contain the —SH functional group -Many have foul or strong odors -Named by adding -thiol to name of longest carbon chain -Location of —SH group indicated by numbering. CH3 — SH CH3 CH2 CH2— SH

Ethers

-Contains an oxygen atom attached to two alkyl or aromatic groups by single bonds. -Common Names for simple ethers: --groups listed in alphabetical order followed by ether --phenyl is used for benzene --Prefix di- used for identical groups

Polymers of Alkenes

-During polymerization of alkenes: -the double bonds are broken -100 to 1000 alkenes then bond to form a long carbon chain

Ether Formation

-Ethers form by dehydration of two alcohols -Requires heat

exmaples of colloids

-Fog, clouds, hairsprays. Dispersed substance= liquid, dispersing medium= gas. -Dust, smoke: substance dispersed= solid, Dispersing Medium = Gas. -Cheese, butter: substance dispersed= liquid, Dispersing Medium = solid. -Blood plasma, paints (latex), gelatin: substance dispersed= solid, Dispersing Medium = liquid.

Inactivated Fractional Vaccines: Sununit and Toxoid:

-Fractional subunit vaccines: Hepatitis B, Influenza, acellular pertussis, lyme, hpv. -Toxoid fractional vaccine: diphtheria, tetanus.

Vegetable Oil

-From plants. -Liquid. -Contains triglycerides. -The hydrogenation process involves "sparging" the oil at high temperature and pressure with hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst, typically a powdered nickel compound. As each carbon-carbon double-bond is chemically reduced to a single bond, two hydrogen atoms each form single bonds with the two carbon atoms. The elimination of double bonds by adding hydrogen atoms is called saturation; as the degree of saturation increases, the oil progresses toward being fully hydrogenated. An oil may be hydrogenated to increase resistance to rancidity (oxidation) or to change its physical characteristics. As the degree of saturation increases, the oil's viscosity and melting point increase.

Solubility of Alcohols in Water

-Hydrocarbons are nonpolar -The hydroxyl group of alcohols is polar -Alcohols w/ short carbon chains (1 - 4 carbons) are polar and soluble in water -5 Carbons slightly soluble in water -Alcohols w/ longer carbon chains (6+ carbons) are nonpolar and insoluble in water

Naming Cycloalkenes

-If cycloalkenes have attached alkyl groups or halogens: - -The carbons in the double bond are given numbers 1 & 2. -Ring is numbered in direction that gives the next lowest number to the attached group(s). Square with line inside running parallel to left line= CH3 on bottom right corner. Hexagon with line running parallel to top line= CL on middle left point and CH3 on bottom right corner.

Properties of Phenols

-In water, phenols ionize slightly as weak acids (give off small amounts of H+) -Concentrated solutions are corrosive, irritating and cause severe burns -ingestion can be fatal

Alcohols and Phenols

-Include a Hydroxyl Group (—OH). -Alcohol - alkane (R) w/ a hydroxyl. R — OH CH3CH2 — OH -Phenol - benzene ring (Ar) w/ a hydroxyl. Ar — OH **Hexagon with circle inside of it with OH on right middle corner.

Naming Aldehydes

-Longest carbon chain is identified and named w/ an -al ending -Side groups are named and numbered, starting w/ carbonyl carbon as carbon 1 -Unbranched carbons w/ one to four carbons or benzene have common names: -formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, propionaldehyde, butyraldehyde and benzaldehyde

Naming Ketones

-Longest carbon chain is identified and named w/ an -one ending -Chain is numbered starting at end nearest carbonyl group -Indicate carbon number of carbonyl group

Addition Reactions

-Most common reaction for alkenes is the addition reaction -atoms or groups of atoms are added to the carbons of the double bond.

Carboxylic Acids

-Nomenclature: -C-C-C-C1=OOH (Butanoic Acid). -Carboxylic Acids have higher BP due to hydrogen bonding at OH

Reduction of Aldehydes & Ketones

-Opposite of oxidation reactions -Aldehydes are reduced to primary alcohols. Example: O II CH3— C— H + H2 --> OH | CH3— C H2 -Ketones are reduced to secondary alcohols. Example: O II CH3— C— CH3 +H2 -->>>> OH | CH3— C— CH3 | H

Oxidation & Reduction

-Oxidation - addition of oxygen or loss of hydrogen **Alkanes oxidize (lose hydrogens) to form alkenes, which oxidize to form alkynes -Reduction - addition of hydrogen or loss of oxygen

Polymers

-Polymers - long-chain molecules consisting of repeating units of monomers (smaller carbon molecules) -Ex: cellulose, starch, silk, wool, DNA, RNA, plastics, nylon, biopolymers -Polymerization (making of a polymer) requires high temps. and pressures or a catalyst such as an enzyme

Cycloalkenes

-Similar to cycloalkanes, except they have a double bond between two of the carbon atoms in the ring. Cyclobutene= Square with line parallel to right line. Cyclopentene: Pentagon with line running parallel to upper right line. Cyclohexene: Hexagon with line inside running parallel to top line.

Properties of Ethers

-Solubility: more than alkanes, less than alcohols -Ethers w/ short C-chains are soluble in water -Ethers w/ long C-chains are not soluble in water -Used as an anesthetic -Highly flammable

Functional Groups

-Specific grouping of atoms that will always react in a specific way. -Determines family name (ex: alkanes) -Determines chemical reactivity w(ex: alkanes undergo combustion in O2) - -List of Functional Groups on back cover of textbook and lab book

Halogenation

-The addition of Br or Cl to an alkene. -Yields a dihaloalkane. -X—X indicates Br2 or Cl2.

Oxidation of Ethanol in Body

-The term alcohol usually refers to ethanol -Oxidation of ethanol occurs in the liver to form the acetaldehyde ethanal (impairs mental & physical coordination) -Ethanol is furthered oxidized to acetic acid -Acetic acid is converted to CO2 and H2O in the Krebs Cycle of cellular respiration

Passive immunity

-Transfer of antibody produced by one human or other animal to another. -temporary protection. -Transplacental most important source in infancy.

Hydrogenation

-Two atoms of hydrogen are added across a double bond of an alkene to convert it to a saturated bond of an alkane. -Catalyst (platinum or nickel) speeds up reaction

Oxidation of Primary Alcohols

-Two hydrogens are removed from a primary alcohol to form an aldehyde and water. EXAMPLE: OH | CH3— C H2 --->>> O II CH3— C— H + H2O. -Aldehyde oxidizes further by the addition of oxygen to form carboxylic acid: O II CH3— C— H--->>> O II CH3— C— OH (Carboxylic Acid)

Oxidation of Secondary Alcohols

-Two hydrogens are removed from a secondary alcohol to form a ketone and water. Example: OH | CH3— C— CH3---> | H O II CH3— C— CH3+ H2O. -Tertiary alcohols do not oxidize nThe alcohol carbon has no hydrogen atoms

Inactivated Vaccines: Whole-cell vaccines, viral and bacterial

-Viral whole-cell vaccines: polio, hepatitis A, rabies (influenze) -Bacterial whole-cell vaccines: pertussis, typhoid, cholera, plague.

Carboxylic Acid reactions

-With Bases, add NaOH to get salt and HOH -Basis of Soap with the polar / nonpolar ends -Polar reacts with water -Non polar forms a micele (circle with fat in middle and polar on outside)

Colloids •have

-medium-size particles •cannot be filtered •can be separated by semipermeable membranes •In our body Colloids make up protein complexes and gelatin like material under our skin ; also our plasma proteins

Name 3 compounds Cholesterol is the base for. What function does cholesterol have in our body. How does a statin work

. 1. Bile acids 2. Fat soluble vitamins K, A,D,E, 3. Hormones (testosterone, estrogen, progesterone, cortisol (cortisone) 4. Anabolic Steroids. Statins inhibit an enzyme in liver that is necessary to make cholesterol.

If 38.2 mL of a 0.163 M KOH solution is required to titrate 25.0 mL of a H2SO4solution, what is the molarity of the H2SO4 solution? H2SO4(aq)+2KOH(aq) → 2H2O(l)+K2SO4(aq)

.124

how many oxygen in propane

0

How many Oxygens in butanol

1

Naming Alkenes & Alkynes

1) Find longest C-chain that contains both C atoms of the double or triple bond(s) Replace -ane with -ene (double) or -yne (triple) 2) Number chain from end nearest double/triple bond. Place the lower # of the C atom that is part of the double or triple bond in front of parent name 3) Number any branches and name them as we did with alkanes

Naming Branched-Chain Alkanes

1) Find longest unbranched chain of carbons and name it as parent chain 2) Number carbon atoms in parent chain from end nearest first alkyl group 3) Determine location & name of each alkyl 4) Place number & names of alkyl groups in front of parent name in alphabetical order - Use prefixes (di-, tri-) for alkyl groups that appear more than once. •Ex: C4H10 CH3— CH2— CH2— CH3 Butane ^^ CH3— CH— CH3 | CH3 ^^2-methylpropane^^

Naming Alcohols

1) Select parent alkane name (based on # C's). Change -e ending to -ol. 2) Number chain starting at end closest to -OH. 3) Include number for position of -OH. 4) Give names & numbers of any side chains.

Structural Formulas

1) Write out the C's in parent chain 2) Number the chain and attach the branches 3) Add the H's and write a condensed structural formula Ex: 2,4-dimethylpentane

Factors Affecting Enzymes

1. Cofactors - nonprotein portion required by many enzymes to catalyze a reaction -Metal Ions (Cu2+, Fe2+, Zn2+, Mg2+, Mn2+) -Coenzymes - small organic molecules, usually vitamins (Vitamin B, C) - 2. Substrate Concentration -Increasing amount of substrate increases the rate of the reaction until all of the enzyme sites are full. 3. Temperature -At low temperatures, enzymes show little activity -As temp. increases, rate of reaction increases -Most enzymes are active at optimum temp. of 37°C -Above 37 °C, most enzymes begin to denature - 4. pH -All enzymes have an optimum pH -At pH values above or below the optimum, enzyme activity is altered -At extreme pH values, enzymes are denatured -Ex: Pepsin - optimum pH 1.5

3 types of carbohydrates

1. Monosacchrides glucose. 2. Disaccharides sucrose, lactose. 3. polysacchrides starch

Enzyme-catalyzed Reaction

1. Substrate attaches to active site of enzyme, forming enzyme-substrate complex 2. Substrate is converted into product within the enzyme, forming enzyme-product complex 3. Shape of the product is different from shape of substrate, so the product is released 4.Reaction can also go in reverse 5.Enzyme is not affected and can be used over

Enzyme, (a protein) how does it work? Explain the lock and key model of an enzyme? What affects enzyme activity at least 4 items

1. Temperature 2. pH 3. Cofactors 4. Substrate concentration

Name 5 types of lipids

1. Waxes 2. Fats / Oils 3. Phospholipids 4. Glycolipids 5. Steroids

Problems: 760 mm Hg = 1 ATM. Use conversion factors. . Solution:

1. What is 475 mmHg expressed in atmospheres? A. 475 atm B. 0.625 atm C. 3.61 × 105 atm Answer : B. .625 atm 475 mmHg X 1atm/760mmHg= .625atm 2. The pressure in a tire is 2.00 atm. What is this pressure in millimeters of mercury? A. 2.00 mmHg B. 1520 mmHg C. 22 300 mmHg Answer: B. 1520 mmHg. 2.00atm X 760 mmHg/1 atm= 1520mmHg.

1. ____ 2% NaCl solution 2. ____ 1% glucose solution 3. ____ 0.5% NaCl solution 4. ____ 5% glucose solution. -- A. isotonic B. hypotonic C. hypertonic

1. _C__ 2% NaCl solution 2. _B__ 1% glucose solution 3. _B__ 0.5% NaCl solution 4. _A__ 5% glucose solution

Name 5 ways that proteins are denatured?

1. pH change 2. Add ethanol 3. Add heat 4. Aggitate or stir 5. Add certain organic compounds 6. React with heavy metals

Types of Lipids

1.) Type. 2.) Composition -1.) Waxes. 2.) fatty acid & long-chain alcohol. -1.)Fats and Oils. 2.)fatty acids & glycerol -1.) Phospholipids. 2.) .fatty acids, glycerol, phosphate, amino alcohol. -1.)Glycolipids. 2.)fatty acids, glycerol, monosaccharides. -1.) Steroids. 2.)3 cyclohexanes & 1 cyclopentane

Reactions of Alkenes

1.Addition Reactions 1.Hydrogenation 2.Halogenation 3.Hydration

3 Buffering Systems in Body

1.Bicarbonate = Fastest Blood- chemicals in blood try to buffer pH and change to normal 2.Urinary = Slowest -urinary output; acid or alkali urine is eliminated 3.Breathing = medium speed expel CO2 •Blood pH = 7.35 to 7.45

Properties of Organic Compounds

1.Carbon compounds 2.Covalent bonds 3.Low melting and boiling points 4.Most burn in air 5.Most soluble in nonpolar solvents 6.Most are nonelectrolytes 7.Can be large molecules w/ many atoms

Properties of Ketones and Aldehydes

1.Carbonyl Group C=O 2.Aldehydes and Ketones have higher Boiling Point than Alkanes 3.Aldehydes having 3-10 carbons are liquids 4.Ketones and Aldehydes with 4 carbons or less are soluble in water

Enzymes- Special Type of Protein

1.Catalyze almost all chemical reactions in our bodies 2.Speed up chemical reactions in our cells (make a reaction go 10 million times faster) 3.Not used up by the reaction 4.Very specific ® an enzyme will only catalyze certain reactions • •The names of most enzymes end in -ase -ex: lipase, sucrase, oxidases

Organelles of Cells

1.Cell membrane 1. Surrounds cell 2.Cytoplasm 1. liquid inside 3.Mitochondria 1. makes energy 4.Nucleus 1.holds DNA 5.Ribosomes 1. helps makes proteins 6.Endoplasma reticulium 1. where proteins are made

Low-Density Lipoprotein (LDL) Receptor

1.Cells take up cholesterol by receptor-mediated endocytosis. 2.Cholesterol is an essential component of all cell membranes. Most cells can, as needed, either synthesize cholesterol or acquire it from the ECF. 3.Human cells get much of their cholesterol from the liver and, if your diet is not strictly "100% cholesterol-free", by absorption from the intestine.

Alcohol Reactions

1.Combustion w/ Oxygen. CH3CH2— OH + 3O2--> 2CO2 + 3H2O + energy. 2.Dehydration (loss of water) -Requires heat -Produces an alkene. H OH | | CH2 — CH2 --->>>> HEAT--> CH2=CH2+ H2O

Properties of Inorganic Compounds

1.Contain metals in salts and oxides 2.Ionic or polar bonds 3.High melting and boiling points 4.Few burn in air 5.Most soluble in polar solvents 6.Most are electrolytes 7.Usually small w/ few atoms

Waxes

1.Found in many plants & animals 2.Provide waterproof coating 3.Ester of a saturated fatty acid & a long-chain alcohol (17+ carbons).

Triglyceride Reactions

1.Hydrogenation 2.Oxidation 3.Hydrolysis 4.Saponification

Many Ways Antibiotics Work

1.Inhibitors of cell wall synthesis 1.Glycopeptides-Vancomycin 2.Inhibitors of cell wall formation polyglycans 1.Tetracylcines- tetracycline Penecillin 3.Inhibitors of protein synthesis 1.Macrolides stopping ribosomes from making proteins-erythromycin; 2.Aminoglycosides-gentamicin 4.Inhibitors of nucleic acid synthesis 1.Sulfonamides-trimethoprim 2.Quinolones - ciprofloxacin 5.Inhibitors of other metabolic processes

Properties of Phospho- and Glycolipids

1.Phospholipids 1.Extremely abundant in cell membranes 2.Make up sheath that protects nerve cells 3.Combine w/ cholesterol in blood to make them more soluble ● 2.Glycolipids 1.Abundant in the brain 2.Also in myelin sheaths of nerve cells

Why Vegetable Oil?

1.Shortening - to give pastry a crumbly texture. 2.Texture - oils can serve to make other ingredients stick together less. 3.Flavor - while less-flavorful oils command premium prices ,some oils, such as olive, sesame, or almond oil, may be chosen specifically for the flavor they impart. 4.Flavor base - oils can also "carry" flavors of other ingredients, since many flavors are present in chemicals that are soluble in oil. ● 5.High Flash point. Boils at higher temperatures so can cook foods with it

New type of AntibioticSpiral Antibiotic2015

1.Tail of polypeptide can make hole in cell membrane (cell wall) 2.Creates a hole in cell wall 1.Material in cytoplasm leaves through hole and cell collapses 2.Works on gram negative or gram positive bacteria

How many carbons in ethanol?

2

What is the name of this compound?

2 Butene, BUT, indicates 4 ENE indicates single and double bond.

Disulfide bonds

2 Sulfurs bonded together, found esp in hair proteins

Calculate the grams of NaOH needed to prepare a 2 L of a 6 M NaOH solution. (You need periodic table and calculator for this question.) Chose the closest answer.

2L X 40 (NaOH) = 80. 80 X 6= 480g.

What is a triglyceride

3 fatty acids combned. Way fatty acids are stored in cells

Pressure on a can was 1.2 ATM with a volume of 4 Liters. What is the new volume of the can if the pressure goes to 1.4 ATM?

3.4L

How many carbons in hexane?

6

What is the name of the following compound? c-c-c-c-c-c

6= hex single bonds = ane hexane

What is the normal pH of blood? Choose closest answer.

7.4

How many carbons in 2 methyl octane?

9

A compound reacts and has a CIS isomer formed, which is INCORRECT? A. The reactant can be an alkene or alkyne B. The added elements are both on the same side of the C=C (Carbon to carbon double bond) C. The bond between a double bonded carbon (in reactants) is broken and a single bond is formed D.

??

Which of the following is most soluble in water? A. Butanone B. Butanoic Acid C. Butane D. Ethanoic Acid

??

If a compound reacts and has a CIS product of the compound created; All the following is CORRECT but;

?? GOT WRONG WHICH MEANS THIS IS TRUE -->The added elements are both on the same side of the C=C (a carbon to carbon double bond)

To titrate 50 ml of 0.2 M HCl, how many ml of 0.6 M NaOH is needed? Chose closest answer. Answers:A. 0.2 ml B. 1.7 ml C. 17 ml D. 34 ml E. 64 ml

???

Which of the following compounds is most reactive? A. Hexanol B. 2 pentanol C. 2 methyl butanol D. 3 methyl butanol

?Not B.

Which of the following is INCORRECT?

A Thiol has an O-H group

Disaccharides

A disaccharide •consists of two monosaccharides linked together •is formed when two monosaccharides combine in a dehydration reaction. The most common disaccharides are maltose, lactose, and sucrose

Kinetic Molecular Theory

A gas consists of small particles that 1.move rapidly in straight lines 2.have essentially no attractive (or repulsive) forces 3.are very far apart 4.have very small volumes compared to the volume of the container they occupy 5.have kinetic energies that increase with an increase in temperature

Hypertonic Solution Why are IVs a specific concentration?

A hypertonic solution •has a higher solute concentration than RBCs •causes crenation: RBCs shrink in size In a hypertonic solution, water goes out of the cells by osmosis.

Hypotonic SolutionWhy are IVs a specific concentration

A hypotonic solution •has a lower solute concentration than RBCs •means water flows into cells by osmosis • The increase in fluid causes the cells to swell and burst, a condition called hemolysis.

Steroid Nucleus

A steroid nucleus consists of •three cyclohexane rings and one cylopentane ring, fused together •rings designated as A, B, C, and D •numbered carbon atoms beginning in ring A •two methyl groups at positions 18 and 19

What is CORRECT about the word SPON

A word that represents the polar elements in organic compounds

How can you tell if an organic compound has been oxidized during a chemical reaction? Answers:A. An Oxygen or oxygen bond is added to an organic compound B. An oxygen or oxygen bond is lost from the organic compound C. An organic compound is split into two or more fragments D. An organic compound has been joined with another compound

A. An Oxygen or oxygen bond is added to an organic compound

Identify the monosaccharides in each of the following: A. Lactose (1) α-D-glucose (2) β-D-fructose (3) β-D-galactose B. Maltose (1) α-D-glucose (2) β-D-fructose (3) β-D-galactose C. Sucrose (1) α-D-glucose (2) β-D-fructose (3) β-D-galactose

A. Lactose (1) α-D-glucose (3) β-D-galactose B. Maltose (1) α-D-glucose C. Sucrose (1) α-D-glucose (2) β-D-fructose

Melibiose is a disaccharide that is 30 times sweeter than sucrose. A. What are the monosaccharide units in melibiose? B. What type of glycosidic bond links the monosaccharides? C. Identify the structure as α- or β-melibiose.

A. What are the monosaccharide units in melibiose? a-D-galactose and a-D-glucose B. What type of glycosidic bond links the monosaccharides? a-1,6-glycosidic bond C. Identify the structure as α- or β-melibiose. α-melibiose

Identify each of the following as a fatty acid, steroid, or triacylglycerol. A. cholesterol B. stearic acid C. glyceryl tristearate D. estradiol E. contains no fatty acids

A. cholesterol, steroid B. stearic acid, fatty acid C. glyceryl tristearate, triacylglycerol D. estradiol, steroid E. contains no fatty acids, steroid

When placed in each of the following, indicate whether a red blood cell will A. not change B. undergo hemolysis C. undergo crenation 1. ____ 5% glucose solution 2. ____ 1% glucose solution 3. ____ 0.5% NaCl solution 4. ____ 2% NaCl solution

A.not change B. undergo hemolysis C. undergo crenation 1. _A__ 5% glucose solution 2. _B__ 1% glucose solution 3. _B__ 0.5% NaCl solution 4. _C__ 2% NaCl solution

Which of the following is INCORRECT

Alkanes are more reactive than alcohols

Which of the following DOES NOT affect enzyme reaction rate?

All the above affect reaction rate

What basic subunit are proteins made of?

Amino Acids

What makes up the primary structure of proteins

Amino acid sequence

An enzyme that breaks down glucose bonds in starch during digestion

Amylase

Which of the following is INCORRECT?

An alcohol contains a carbonyl group

Isotonic Solutions

An isotonic solution •exerts the same osmotic pressure as body fluids such as red blood cells (RBCs) •of 5.0% (m/v) glucose or 0.90% (m/v) NaCl is a typical isotonic solution

Chemistry Link to Health: Anabolic Steroids

Anabolic steroids •are derivatives of testosterone •are used illegally to increase muscle mass •have side effects including fluid retention, hair growth, sleep disturbance, and liver damage

What makes up the tertiary structure of proteins ?

Any side chain bonding except hydrogen bonding

Atmospheric Pressure

Atmospheric pressure 1.is the pressure exerted by a column of air from the top of the atmosphere to the surface of Earth 2.decreases as altitude increases 3.is 1 atm at sea level 4.What is Cleveland's Atmospheric pressure? (1 atm) 5.760 mmHg = 1 atm

Which cells make antibodies?

B cells

Which cells make antibodies?

B lymphocytes cells

What is INCORRECT about Phenol? Answers:A. Phenol has a benzene ring B. Phenol has NO double bonds C. Phenol has a hydroxyl group D. Phenol is an aromatic compound

B. Phenol has NO double bonds. it has double bonds

Which one of the following is part of the body's 3 major buffering systems? Read the answers carefully!

B. Urinary excretion

If a compound is an aromatic, it has to have;

Benzene ring

Bile Salts

Bile salts •are synthesized in the liver from cholesterol and stored in the gallbladder •have polar and nonpolar regions that act like soaps to make fat soluble in water •help in absorption of cholesterol When large amounts of cholesterol accumulate in the gallbladder, gallstones are formed.

What is the function of bile acids (salts). What is special about the structure of a bile salt?

Bile salts are a molecule that allows food fats to combine with the water part of the digestive juices so the fats can be digested. They have a polar (to mix with water) and non polar part (to mix with fats). Stored in gall bladder.

Chemistry Link to Health: Blood Types

Blood types A, B, AB, and O are determined by terminal saccharides attached to the surface of red blood cells. Blood type •O has three common terminal monosaccharides: N-acetylglucosamine, galactose, and fucose •A contains the same three monosaccharides, but in addition, a molecule of N-acetylgalactosamine is attached to galactose in the saccharide chain •B also contains the same three monosaccharides, but in addition, a second molecule of galactose is attached to the saccharide chain •AB consists of the same monosaccharides found in blood types A and B •

What is a buffer? Answers:A. Substance added to a solution t make it acidic B. Substance used to make the pH of a solution 7 C. Substance added to a solution to keep the pH constant D. Substance added to a solution to make it basic E. A substance used in titration

C. Substance added to a solution to keep the pH constant

Which of the following is INCORRECT

C. Alkanes are more reactive than alcohols

Which of the following is INCORRECT?

C. An alcohol contains a carbonyl group

What is INCORRECT about Carboxylic Acids Answers:A. Carboxylic acids that have 4 carbons are soluble in water B. Carboxylic Acids have a carbonyl group C. Carboxylic acids can not have branches D. Carboxylic Acids have a hydroxyl group

C. Carboxylic acids can not have branches

Fatty Acids

CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-C-OH || O Lauric Acid MP = 44o C

Inactivated Virus:

Cannot replicate. Less interference from circulaation antibody than live vaccines. Generally requires 3-5 doses. Immune response mostly humoral. Antibody titer diminishes with time.

Cell Membranes

Cell membranes •separate cellular contents from the external environment •consist of a lipid bilayer made of two rows of phospholipids •have an inner portion made of the nonpolar tails of phospholipids with the polar heads at the outer and inner surfaces

Cholesterol in Foods

Cholesterol •is considered elevated if plasma cholesterol exceeds 200 mg/dL •is synthesized in the liver and obtained from foods A diet that is low in foods containing cholesterol and saturated fats appears to be helpful in reducing the serum cholesterol level.

Cholesterol in the Body

Cholesterol •is obtained from meats, milk, and eggs •is synthesized in the liver •is needed for cell membranes, brain and nerve tissue, steroid hormones, and vitamin D •clogs arteries when high levels form plaque Cross-sections of arteries show how plaque clogs the arteries.

Cholesterol

Cholesterol •is the most important and abundant steroid in the body •has an hydroxyl group (— OH) on carbon 3 •has a double bond between carbons 5 and 6 •has methyl groups at carbons 10 and 13 has an alkyl chain at carbon 17

Types of Steroids

Cholesterol - in cell membranes & brain tissue Bile salts - made in liver & secreted into small intestine to break apart fats Fat-Soluble Vitamins (K,E,D,A) - nonpolar compounds that are stored in body fat Sex hormones - synthesized from cholesterol; (estrogen, progesterone, testosterone) Anabolic Steroids - used for muscle growth

a nonprotein metal ion or an organic molecule that is necessary to help an enzyme work

Cofactor

D and L Isomers of Glucose Fischer Projection

D glucose H O II C I H- C-OH I OH- C -H I H- C- OH I H- C- OH I CH2OH

Which of the following is NOT an enzyme ? A. AmylASE B. LipASE C. oxidASE D. Alanine

D. Alanine

Which of the following is INCORRECT?

D. thiol group is OH (its SH)

Amino acids that must be supplied by the diet because they are not synthesized by the body

Essential

Ethane is more soluble in water than ethanol?

False

True or False: Cycloalkanes have double bonds.

False -ane, indicates SINGLE BOND

Properties of Fats & Oils

Fats - solid at room temperature - most come from animal sources - have more saturated fatty acids than oils - melting pts. higher than oils Oils - liquid at room temperature - most come from vegetable sources - have more polyunsaturated acids (more double bonds) than fats - melting pts. lower than fats

Properties That Describe a Gas

Gases are described in terms of four properties: pressure (P), volume (V), temperature (T), and amount (n). We will use P, V, T.

Titration Problem. If 38.2 ml of 0.163 M NaOH solution is required to titrate 25.0 ml of a solution of H2SO4 What is the Molarity of H2SO4 A. 0.1 M B. 0.25 M C. 0.5 M D. 1.0 M

Got wrong, answer is NOT ---> a. .1M

What is a steroid?

Has chemical base of cholesterol

Steroids: Cholesterol, Bile Salts, and Steroid Hormones

High- and low-density lipoproteins transport cholesterol between the tissues and the liver.

What makes up the secondary structure of proteins?

Hydrogen bonding

in tertiary structure of proteins:

Hydrophobic core region contains nonpolar side chains. Polar side chains on the outside of the molecule can form hydrogen bonds to water. **Folded conformation in aquaeous environment.

Reverse Osmosis

In a process called reverse osmosis, •a pressure greater than the osmotic pressure is applied to a solution forcing it through a purification membrane •the flow of water is reversed because water flows from an area of lower water concentration to an area of higherwater concentration, leaving behind the molecules and ions (salt) in solution Reverse osmosis, used in a few desalination plants to obtain pure water from sea (salt) water, requires a large amount of energy.

Dialysis

In dialysis, •solvent and small solute particles pass through an artificial membrane •large particles are retained inside •waste particles such as urea from blood are removed using hemodialysis (artificial kidney). -•The movement of small particles through a semipermeable membrane from a high solute concentration to a lower solute concentration •Ions (Na+, Cl -), small solute particles (sugars) can pass through membrane ¤Larger particles of a colloid (starch, proteins) can't pass through membrane

In osmosis,

In osmosis, •water (solvent) flows from a higher water concentration to a lower water concentration •the level of the solution with the higher solute concentration rises •the concentrations of the two solutions become equal with time

Fluid Mosaic Model: Cell Membrane

In the fluid mosaic model of a cell membrane, •proteins and cholesterol are embedded in a lipid bilayer of phospholipids •the bilayer forms a membrane-type barrier with polar heads at the membrane surfaces and the nonpolar tails in the center away from the water

Disaccharides

Lactose is a disaccharide found in milk and milk products. It contains the monosaccharides, galactose and glucose.

Test for electrolytes

Light Bulb Glowing; Proof of Charge. •Test for electrolytes requires a pair of probes attached to a light bulb, the probes are placed in a solution to complete a circuit. Electrolytes in solution allow a charge to go from 1 probe to light and then back to solution strong electrolytes - light bulb glows brightly due to high charge weak electrolytes - light bulb glows dimly nonelectrolytes - light bulb does not glow • •CaCl2, NaCl, HCl are all strong electrolytes and will bulb to glow

Lipoproteins: Lipid Transport

Lipids are nonpolar and made more soluble by combining them with glycerophospholipids and proteins to form water-soluble complexes called lipoproteins. Cholesteryl esters are the predominant form of cholesterol in the blood.

Types of Lipoproteins

Lipoproteins •differ in density, composition, and function include low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) and

Lipoproteins

Lipoproteins •surround nonpolar lipids with polar lipids and protein for transport to cells •are soluble in water because the surface consists of polar lipids

Transport of Lipoproteins in the Body

Lipoproteins such as HDLs and LDLs transport nonpolar lipids and cholesterol to cells and the liver.

What is starch made of?

Many glucose molecules

How to calculate molarity

Molarity (M) = M stands for moles/L Ex: 8.0 moles NaCl dissolved in water to make 2.0 L of solution 8 moles = 4 moles/L or 4 M (short way to write Molarity) 2.0 L

What is dialysis?

Particles going through a semipermeable membrane from high concentration of particles to low concentration of particles

Carbon Cycle

Photosynthesis 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy -----> Respiration <---- C6H12O6 + 6O2

Pressure

Pressure is a measure of the gas particle collisions with sides of a container and is measured in units of •millimeters of mercury (mmHg) •atmospheres (atm) •pounds per square inch (psi) Gas particles in the air exert pressure on us. It is called atmospheric pressure.

What structure is denatured?

Primary secondary, tertiary

What is respiration, photosynthesis?

Products and reactants

Turkey thermometer; How Does It Work?

Red Turkey thermometer has a spring in it that holds a red plastic probe. Hole that the probe is in will increase in size when temperature gets to 180 degrees F. At 180, the hole in red plastic becomes large enough (it melts) for the spring to cause the probe to "pop" up.

What makes a compound soluble in water?

SPON

Saturated fats, compare them to oils.

Saturated fat has 1. double bonds, 2. from animals 3. Solid fatty acids. Oils are 1.from plants 2.are liquids

Live virus exposure risk:

Severe reactions possible. Interference from circulation antibody. Fragile- must be stored and handled carefully.

•Mixture of a solute and a solvent:

Solute - substance dissolved in a solution Solvent - substance doing the dissolving •Solutions take on the state of the solvent

Which of the following is NOT a function of proteins?

Some proteins make Fatty Acids

IUPAC stem names

Stem # Carbons Meth- 1 Eth- 2 Pro- 3 But- 4 Pent- 5 Stem # Carbons Hex- 6 Hept- 7 Oct- 8 Non- 9 Dec- 10

Steroid Hormones

Steroid hormones are 1.chemical messengers that serve as a communication system for the body 2.produced from cholesterol 3.male sex hormones, testosterone and androsterone 4.female sex hormones, estrogens and progesterone 5.adrenal corticosteroids from adrenal glands - mineralocorticoids (electrolyte balance) - glucocorticoids (regulate glucose level)

Adrenal Corticosteroids

Steroid hormones called adrenal corticosteroids •are produced by the adrenal glands located on the top of each kidney •include aldosterone, which regulates electrolytes and water balance by the kidneys •include cortisone, a glucocorticoid, which increases blood glucose level and stimulates the synthesis of glycogen in the liver

What are the 4 structures of a protein?

Structures; 1.(primary) Sequence of amino acids 2. (secondary) Hydrogen bonds 3. (tertiary) Other bonds 4. (quaternary) How many chains of amno acids are in protein proteins are not straight lines but are curled or twisted

Transport Pathways through Cell Membranes

Substances are transported across a cell membrane by diffusion (passive) transport, facilitated transport, or active transport.

Cell Membranes

Substances are transported across a cell membrane by either diffusion, facilitated transport, or active transport.

What is an isomer? What are complex carbohydrates made of.

Sugars. starch is made of thousands of glucoses bonded together.

Combustion product is formation of CO2 and HOH

TRUE

One product of photosynthesis is Oxygen

TRUE

Structural Isomers have the same molecular formula but differ in the way they are arranged in space

TRUE

Name 4 steroids

Testosterone, estrogen, progesterone, cortisol, anabolic steroids

What is the cholesterol base?

The 4 ring structure.

Passive immunity?

The antibodies are injected in you from someone else. This is often temporary for only 6-10 weeks

Fluid Mosaic Model: Cell Membrane

The lipid bilayer •contains proteins, carbohydrates, and cholesterol •has unsaturated fatty acids that make cell membranes fluid-like rather than rigid •has proteins and carbohydrates on the surface that communicate with hormones and neurotransmitters

Chemistry Link to Health: Blood Types

The structures of monosaccharides N-acetylglucosamine, N-acetylgalactosamine, fucose, and galactose are as follows:

Temperature

The temperature of a gas relates to the average kinetic energy of the molecules and is measured in the Kelvin (K) temperature scale. When the temperature of a gas is 1.decreased, the molecules have fewer collisions 2.increased, the molecules have more collisions

Transport through Cell Membranes

The transport of substances through cell membranes involves •diffusion (passive transport), which moves particles from a higher to a lower concentration •facilitated transport, which uses protein channels to increase the rate of diffusion •active transport, which moves ions against a concentration gradient

Volume

The volume of a gas 1.is the same as the volume of the container it occupies 2.is usually measured in liters or milliliters 3.increases with an increase in temperature at a constant pressure

mneumonic SPON stands for. S= Sulfur; P = phosphorus, O = Oxygen; N = Nitrogen.

These 4 elements are charged elements (POLAR elements) and they allow organic compounds to be soluble in water. We will also see when studying the Lipids and Proteins, that they will react with each other and cause special bonding. To have a water soluble compound, a polar element and a short chain (4 carbons or less) should be present. 5 carbons or more are not soluble in water.

What is NOT TRUE about bile salts? A. They provide their function in small intestinal tract B. They are small proteins C. They are a molecule that has a polar part and a nonpolar part that combines with fats and allows fats to be digested D. They are stored in the gallbladder until a fatty meal is eaten

They are a small protein<< is false. they help break down proteins.

An organic compound must have a polar group to be soluble in water

True

Dehydrogenase is an enzyme that takes hydrogens from a compound

True

If there is ASE at end of a word, it is usually an enzyme

True

The active site if an enzyme reaction is where the enzyme and substrate meet

True

Thiols have an SH functional group.

True

T or F: Structural isomers have the same molecular formula but different arrangements of atoms when you write the structure.

True.

The Combined Gas Law

Under water, the pressure on a diver is greater than the atmospheric pressure. The combined gas law comes from the pressure-volume-temperature relationships for gases that we have studied. P1V1 = P2V2 ------------------ T1 = T2

Active immunity

VACCINATED: Active immunity produced by vaccine. Immunity and immunologic memory similar to natural infection but without risk of disease. INACTIVATED VACCINES: Whole: -viruses. -bacteria. Fractional: -Protein-based toxoid or subunit. -polysaccharide-based: pure or conjugate.

live attenuated vaccines, Viral vs Bacterial

Viral: measles, mumps, rubella, vaccinia, varicella, yellow fever, intranasal influenza, oral polio, rotavirus. Bacterial: BCG, oral typhoid.

Properties of Gases

We all live at the bottom of the sea of gases called the atmosphere. The gases in the atmosphere include: -O2, 21% of the atmosphere, is vital to all life processes of plants and animals -N2,78% of the atmosphere -O3, or ozone, is formed in the upper atmosphere by the interaction of oxygen with ultraviolet light -Other gases include argon, CO2 (carbon dioxide) and water vapor, less than 1%

If a compound is an aromatic, it has to have

a benzene ring

Maltose is •

a disaccharide also known as malt sugar •composed of two a -D-glucose molecules •obtained from the hydrolysis of starch •used in cereals, candies, and brewing •found in both the a and β forms. Maltose is linked by an a-1,4-glycosidic bond formed from the a —OH on carbon 1 of the first glucose and — OH on carbon 4 of the second glucose.

What is a vaccination?

a foreign particle is injected into your body and you make antibodies to the particle

What type of transport is an Ion going from low concentration to high concentration in a cell A. Diffusion B. passive transport C. Active transport D. Osmosis

active transport

Which functional group contains triple bonds?

alkyne

steroids

all steroids have a cholesterol base

Peptide

amino acid chain not long enough to be called a protein

What is the subunit that a protein is made of?

amino acids

Essential Amino Acids

amino acids you must eat, your body cannot make these

What does glycogen and cellulose have in common?

both have glucose subunits

What happens to a cell put into a hypertonic solution?

cells shrink

Carboxylic Acids

contain carboxyl group (COOH). •Carboxyl will attach to an alkyl or aromatic group

The transport of particles across a cell membrane from a high concentration to a low concentration is called

diffusion.

Lactose •is a

disaccharide found in milk and milk products •makes up 6-8% of human milk and about 4-5% of cow's milk. Lactose is a disaccharide of β-D-galactose and α- or β-D-glucose. The bond in lactose is a β-1,4-glycosidic bond because the —OH group on carbon 1 of β-D-galactose forms a glycosidic bond with the —OH group on carbon 4 of a D-glucose molecule.

•Strong Electrolytes;

dissociate in water as ions

•Weak electrolytes:

dissolves in water mostly as molecules

Proteins that catalyze biological reactions

enzymes

2 methyl heptane has 7 carbons

false

2- methyl 2 hexanol is soluble in water

false

A cell will shrink when placed in an isotonic solution

false

Butene has 10 hydrogens

false

Cyclobutane is an aromatic compound

false

Cyclohexanes have double bonds

false

HDL transports bad choesteol True False

false

An exothermic reaction requires heat to allow it to go to completion

false, releases heat but require no heat

What is NOT TRUE about the "head "of the lipids in a cell membrane? A. It can be on the outside of the cell membrane towards nutrients trying to enter B. It is polar C. It has a phosphate group in it D. It is a fatty acid

fatty acid

What molecule type makes up the major part of nonpolar section of a cell membrane? A. Phosphate groups B. Fatty acids C. Cholesterol D. Proteins

fatty acids

Starch basic subunit is ?

glucose

One way to denature a protein

heating over 65 degrees celcius

What is the name of the compound C-C-C-C-C-C--OH

hexanol

What makes a reaction go faster?

increased temp. catalyst.

A 0.9% NaCl solution is

isotonic with the solute concentration of the blood cells of the body.

What molecule is deficient in lactose intolerance?

lactase

What is the substrate for lactase?

lactose

Explain Lactose intolerance; why does a disaccharide like lactose have problems in being absorbed by intestine

lactose is a disaccharide and we can only ingest monosacchrides so lactose must be broken into a monosacchride by using enzyme lactase

What does denatured mean?

loses its biological activity; doesn't do its job

What is a lipid?

molecule that is not water soluble

The basic subunit of RNA is ?

nucleic acids

Which of the following is a liquid?

octane

Competitive inhibition

one enzyme competing for 2 substrates

What is the pH of 10-8 M

pH = 8

Which of the following DO NOT use cholesterol as its basic chemical structure? A. Bile salts B. Testosterone C. Estrogen D. Phopholipids

phospholipids

•Nonelectrolytes:

polar organic compounds, do not conduct electricity

Which of the following is NOT an adrenal cortico steroid A. Aldosterone B. Cortisol C. Cortisone D. Prednisone

prednisone

What are antibodies?

proteins that react with a material that is foreign to our body

The process used in animal cells that utilizes glucose and oxygen to provide energy

respiration

Fatty acids that have no double bonds; they are usually solid at room temperature

saturated

What is the substrate for Amylase ?

starch

Class of lipid composed of multicyclic ring system

steriod

The reactant in an enzyme catalyzed reaction

substrate

A disaccharride consisting of fructose and glucose

sucrose

Sucrose, or table sugar, •is obtained from

sugar cane and sugar beets •consists of α-D-glucose and β-D-fructose •has an α,β-1,2-glycosidic bond between carbon 1 of glucose and carbon 2 of fructose •cannot form an open chain and cannot be oxidized •cannot react with Benedict's reagent and is not a reducing sugar

Which of the following has the largest particles? Answers:A. Suspension B. Colloid C. True Solution D. All of the above have the same sized particles

suspension

Which is NOT TRUE of bile salts? A. They can attach to fatty acids B. They are stored in the gall bladder C. They have a cholesterol base D. They are a hormone

that they are a hormone

nucleic acid

the basic part of DNA and RNA

•Solvent:

the liquid substance that is already in the container

•Solute;

the substance (or compounds) that are mixed into a container

2-butanol is soluble in water

true

Alcohols have an OH functional group

true

Alkanes with 14 Hydrogens are insoluble in water

true

All alkanes have single bonds

true

An alkane with 10 carbons is a liquid

true

Benzene contains 3 double bonds

true

Bile salts are made in liver True False

true

Butene is an unsaturated hydrocarbon

true

CCl4 is an organic compound

true

Tertiary alcohols are more reactive than primary alcohols

true

blood has basic pH?

true

colloid larger than true solution?

true

propanol is more soluble in water than octanol

true

2 propanol is more soluble in water than 2 pentanol?

true?

What is one of the final products of cell respiration?

water

What is active immunity?

you make antibodies to a foreign material; 1. By vaccination or 2. By getting the disease or infection and recovering

Saccahrin

• •If temperatures rise above 300° C saccharin will boil. • Saccharin's relative low level of reactance makes this substance ideal for cooking because it remains stable at high temperatures. •Saccharin can also be dissolved easily into water, another good quality for food preparation. It is non-reactive in water at temperatures of as much as 150° C and at common pH levels measuring anywhere from 2 to 7. It's natural density is 0.828 g/mL. •The hydrogen bond is what reacts to cause the sensation of a sweet taste in the mouth. Upon digestion saccharin does not break down; it remains unchanged throughout digestion

Clinical Significance of Bile Acids

•1. Way to eliminate excess Cholesterol. Synthesis and subsequent excretion in the feces •2. bile acids and phospholipids solubilize cholesterol in the bile, thereby preventing the precipitation of cholesterol in the gallbladder. •3. they facilitate the digestion of dietary triacylglycerols by acting as emulsifying agents that render fats accessible to pancreatic lipases. •4. they facilitate the intestinal absorption of fat-soluble vitamins.

Essential Amino Acids

•20 total amino acids are used to make all proteins in adult bodies •Non essential (11) Our bodies can synthesize these -alanine, arginine, asparagine, aspartic acid, cysteine, glutamic acid, glutamine, glycine, proline, serine, and tyrosine. •Other 10 (or 9 if adult) are Essential amino acids 1.must be obtained from proteins in the diet these nine are leucine, isoleucine, lysine, tryptophan, histidine, phenylalanine, valine, methionine and threonine 2.proteins from animal products contain all 10 3.Argenine is essential for young, not adults 4.vegetable proteins do not contain all 10 (lacking methionine) 5.Nuts contain very low amounts of amino acids, (esp lacking in lysine and methionine)

Plant Waxes

•3. Plant surface waxes •Plant leaf surfaces are coated with a thin layer of waxy material microcrystalline in structure. •Forms the outer boundary of the cuticular membrane; it is the interface between the plant and the atmosphere. • •Functions - limiting the diffusion of water and solutes -permitting a controlled release of volatiles. -protection from disease and insects -helps the plants resist drought.

pH Scale 1-14

•>7 = Base •<7 = Acid •7.0 = Neutral

Benedict's Test

•A test for monosaccharides includes the use of benedict's reagent (blue color) • •Once the reagent is added and heat is applied, the solution will change from blue to green, yellow or orange (depending on the concentration of sugar present) • •Cu 2+ reduced to Cu +

Acid Water

•After we found cause of acid rain, 30 years ago filters were mandated to collect Sulfur from factories before it got into air •Today Cleveland water is better but is only pH 6.4 •Everywhere in USA water is acidic due to weather patterns carrying rain to all areas, even Colorado mountains •Water will never be pH 7 again anywhere

Combustion of Alkanes

•All alkanes burn readily in oxygen • Alkane + O2 --->CO2 + H2O + heat Ex: CH4 + O2 CO2 + 2H2O + heat C3H8 + O2 3CO2 + 4H2O + heat

Complete Structural Formulas

•All bonds are shown between atoms. •Electron dots are replaced by lines. Methane (CH4): H | H — C— H | H. Ethane (C2H6): H H | | H — C — C — H | | H H

Acid Rain

•All water had original pH of 7.0 •Factories during industrial age burned cheap coal to make steel •Cheap coal was full of sulfur •H2S gas from coal went into air •H2S combined with H2O to make H2SO4 •H2SO4 (known as battery acid) came down every time it rained and covered everything and went into water sources

important carbohydrate affects

•Alpha amylase breaks down starches • •Pancreatic disease affects amylase levels

Fats & Oils

•Also called triglycerides •Esters of glycerol and three fatty acids (fatty acids may be same or different)

Amino Acids

•Amino acid are classified according to their R-group -Hydrophobic - nonpolar hydrocarbon R-group; "water-fearing" -Hydrophilic - polar R-group; "water-loving" • •Some polar amino acids are acidic or basic: -Acidic - R group contains a carboxylic acid group -Basic - R group contains an amino group

Aromatics in Health & Medicine

•Aromatic compounds are common in nature and medicine •Toluene - used to make drugs, dyes and explosives; (Tri Nitro Toluene) •Benzene ring is found in some proteins, pain killers and flavorings (vanillin)

Vapor Pressure & Boiling Point

•As altitude increases, pressure decreases and water boils at a lower temp. -Boiling pt. at sea level = 100oC -Boiling pt. in Denver = 95oC -Boiling pt. on Mt. Everest = 70oC **WHERE VOLUME IS CONSTANT. P1V1=T1 (GOES DOWN) P=T

Units Measuring Pressure

•Atmosphere (atm) =1 atm • •mm Hg= 760 mm Hg • •Pounds per square inch =14.7 lb/in2

Atmospheric Pressure

•Atmospheric pressure changes w/ altitude • -Sea level = 1 atm - -Higher altitudes < 1 atm •fewer particles in the air • -Underwater > 1 atm •water is denser than air & exerts greater pressure •100 ft down = 4 atm

Hydrogen Bonds

•Attraction between an O-atom of one water molecule and a H-atom of another •Also occur between molecules where hydrogen is bonded to O, N or F (very electronegative) •Hydrogen bonds are weaker than covalent or ionic bonds

Bad Cholesterol

•Bad cholesterol is LDL cholesterol -Made in liver and sent to cells, esp muscle for energy -Used to help make all cell membranes - -Bad cholesterol is a smaller molecule than good cholesterol so it can attach to small indentations in arteries and block the artery

Characteristics of Strong Electrolytes

•Become 100% ionized in solution •Exist only as ions in solution • •Typical of ionic compounds ¤ex: NaCl, MgCl2 • •In water: MgCl2 ® Mg+ + 2Cl -

Beeswax

•Beeswax - Glands under the abdomen of bees secrete a wax, which they use to construct the honeycomb. The wax is recovered as a by-product when the honey is harvested and refined. It contains a high proportion of wax esters (35 to 80%). • The hydrocarbon content is highly variable, and much may be "unnatural" as beekeepers may feed some to bees to improve the yield of honey. The wax esters consist of C40 to C46 molecular species, based on 16:0 and 18:0 fatty acids some with hydroxyl

Aromatic Hydrocarbons

•Benzene (C6H6) - ring of 6 C's w/ a H attached to each C - Carbons share a continual double bond. •Aromatic compounds - contain benzene

Naming Aromatic Compounds

•Benzene is named as the parent chain •Alkyl groups may take the place of a hydrogen -alkyl groups named like in cycloalkanes •Halogen (F, Cl, Br) may also take the place of a hydrogen -use fluro-, chloro-, bromo- instead of alkyl name. exmaple is circle with pentagon around it and -CH3 at the top right corner and CH3 and the right middle corner.

Buffers

•Buffers resist change in pH • •What do you have at Home that is buffered? •Shampoo, maybe hand cream

Amino Acids

•Building blocks of proteins •Contain an amino group, carboxylic acid group, side group (R) and hydrogen bonded to a central carbon • • • • • •Total of 20 different amino acids

Different Biological Enzymes

•CK Creatine Phospho Kinase •Alcohol Dehydrogenase •Lipase •Amylase •Alanine transaminase •Acid Phosphatase •Alkaline Phosphatase •GGT gamma glutamyl transaminase

Formulas for Unbranched Alkanes

•Carbons are all connected in a row (but not necessarily a straight line) •The chain may zig-zag or bend Ex: butane (C4H8): CH3— CH2 — CH2 — CH3 CH2 CH3 / \ / CH3 CH2 CH3 | CH2— CH2 | CH3

Bonding in Hydrocarbons

•Carbons can have up to 4 single bonds •Hydrogen can have only 1 bond • •Electron Dot Structure: H . . Methane (CH4): H: C: H . . H •Complete or Expanded Structural Formula •Condensed Structural Formula

Preparation of Carboxylic Acids

•Carboxylic acids can be made from the oxidation of primary alcohols or aldehydes

Properties of Carboxylic Acids

•Carboxylic acids w/ 1-4 carbons are very soluble in water -contain both a polar carbonyl & hydroxyl group •Carboxylic acids w/ 5+ carbons are only slightly soluble in water • •Ionize in water and donate H+ ® slightly acidic •Carboxylic acids will undergo neutralization in the presence of a base to form a salt and water

Plant Starch

•Composed of 2 kinds of polysaccharides: 1) Amylose (20% of starch) - composed of 250 - 4000 glucose units in an unbranched chain 2) Amylopectin (80% of starch) - branched chains of glucose units •Hydrolyze in water to form maltose and finally glucose

Bases

•Compounds that dissolve into a metal ion and a OH- (hydroxyl) in water • •Nomenclature: Metal name + hydroxide • •Ex, Ca(OH)2 • •Physical character: soapy feel, chalky

Structural Isomers

•Compounds that have the same molecular formula, but different structural formulas •Have different physical & chemical properties. •Ex: C4H10 CH3— CH2— CH2— CH3 Butane ^^ CH3— CH— CH3 | CH3 2-methylpropane^^^^^

Molarity

•Concentration based on numbers of moles

Cell Membranes

•Consist of a phospholipid bilayer: 1.Two rows of phospholipids 2.Nonpolar tails form the center of the bilayer 3.Polar heads are on the outside of the bilayer • •Bilayer is fluid because phospholipids aren't bonded to each other • •Makes cells permeable to some substances and impermeable to others • •Also contain cholesterol, glycolipids & proteins

Carbohydrates

•Consist of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen •Also called saccharides •Simple carbohydrates are sugars -Have formulas of: Cn(H2O)n - C:H:O ratio of 1:2:1 •Complex carbohydrates are contained in many foods (bread, rice, pasta)

Hydrocarbons

•Contain ONLY carbon and hydrogen •Include: Alkanes - only single bonds Alkenes - one or more double bonds Alkynes - one or more triple bonds Aromatics - one or more benzene rings

Steroids

•Contain a fused-ring structure of 3 cyclohexanes and 1 cyclopentane

Organic Compounds

•Contain carbon •Carbon is bonded mostly to: -H, N, O, P, S or halogens (F, Cl, Br, I) -6 most common elements in organic compounds - CHNOPS SPON •Have covalent bonds •Huge variety of organic compounds •Range from small to large molecules

Glycolipids

•Contain glycerol attached to 2 fatty acids and a monosaccharide (usually galactose)

Phospholipids

•Contain glycerol, 2 fatty acids, a phosphate (PO4) and an amino alcohol

Glucose Isomers

•D Glucose can have two sterioisomers

Diffusion

•Diffusion is something going from high concentration to low concentration •Both osmosis and dialysis are types of diffusion •Osmosis; water going from high concentration of water to low concentration of water through a semipermeable membrane (membrane that has microscopic holes in it) • •Dialysis; particles going from a high concentration of particles to a low concentration through a semipermeable membrane

Proteins

•Diverse group of biological molecules • •Protein molecules can be huge structures • •Composed of amino acids -ex: tryptophan, leucine, isoleucine

Oxidation of Triglycerides

•Double bonds in unsaturated fats & oils oxidize in the presence or oxygen & microbes •Produces short-chain acids & aldehydes •Causes fats & oils to become rancid (smell) -Oxygen from air and bacteria enzymes •Will occur in body oils on skin during exercise

Cycloalkanes

•Each corner represents a C attached to 2 H's Example: Cyclopropane = triangle. Cyclopentane=

Naming Alkanes

•End in suffix -ane. methane (CH4) hexane (C6H14) ethane (C2H6) heptane (C7H16) propane (C3H8) octane (C8H18) butane (C4H10) nonane (C9H20) pentane (C5H12) decane (C10H22)

Nandrolone Benefits-Anabolic Steroid

•Enhance Protein Synthesis -Inhibit Glucocorticoid Hormones; diverts glucose to help make proteins •Increases - Nitrogen Retention -Red Blood Cell Count -Collagen Synthesis -Mitochondria •Enhance Bone Mineral Content •Slowly builds muscle

Why proteins are important

•Enzymes are proteins •Heart •Liver •Pancreas •Tumor Markers are polypeptides or proteins •Hemoglobin is a protein (DNA sequencing of Amino acid placement determines sickling and thalessemias)

Esterification

•Esters are formed from the reaction of a carboxylic acid w/ an alcohol •Water is produced as a byproduct

Hydrolysis of Esters

•Esters can be split apart by a reaction with water in the presence of an acid or base. • •Acid Hydrolysis: -Reverse of esterification -Forms a carboxylic acid and alcohol. • •Saponification (Base Hydrolysis): -Results in the formation of the salt of a carboxylic acid and an alcohol.

Good Cholesterol

•Excess cholesterol is brought back to liver by a large lipoprotein HDL •HDL forces cholesterol into liver cells

Formation of Antibodies

•Exposure; 1.Live virus/bacteria 2.Inactivated virus/bacteria; Response to polysacchrides in cell wall - ANTIBODY Response in B cells (memory cells)

Lipids

•Family of biological molecules that are insoluble in water, but soluble in organic compounds •Hydrolyzable; -Most lipids are esters • hydrolyze to give fatty acids, an alcohol and other products •Some lipids like steroids and fat soluble vitamins can not be broken to smaller units •Benefits: -insulation for internal organs -provide twice as much energy as carbs •Problems: -too much fat is associated w/ many diseases (diabetes, heart attacks, cancers)

Saponification of Triglycerides

•Fats produce soaps (sodium salts of the fatty acids) when they are heated in the presence of a strong base -NaOH produces a solid soap -KOH produces a liquid soap. Fat or Oil + strong base -->glycerol + soaps

Naming Carboxylic Acids

•Find parent carbon chain •Change -e ending to -oic acid •Number chain starting w/ C of carboxylic acid •Give number and location of any side groups • •Carboxylic acids w/ 1 - 4 carbons have common names: -formic acid, acetic acid, propionic acid, butyric acid

Physical Properties of Alkanes

•First 4 (methane, ethane, propane, butane) -gases at room temp. -anesthetics if inhaled -used as heating fuels •w/ 5 - 17 Carbons are liquids •w/ 18 or more Carbons are waxy solids •Nonpolar, Water insoluble •Among the least reactive of organics •More carbons, higher the boiling point

Osmosis

•Flow of water (Either definition can be used) 1.Flow of water from high concentration of water through a semipermeable membrane to an area of lower concentration of water 2.(Flow of water through a semipermeable membrane from a solution that has a lower concentration of solute to a higher concentration of solute) definition from book. Confusing but means the same thing as #1 •Osmosis continues until concentrations equal •Osmotic Pressure - pressure that prevents the flow of additional water into the more concentrated solution

Properties of Carbon

•Found in middle of periodic table •Low atomic mass = 12.01 •6 total electrons (4 valence electrons) •Can form 4 single covalent bonds

Esters

•Functional group similar to carboxylic acid •Carboxyl group is between two alkyl or aromatic groups: •Give smell to many fruits and rum

Important Monosaccharides

•Galactose (C6H12O6) -doesn't occur free in nature -composes the dissacharide lactose -found in cellular membranes of brain and nervous system - •Fructose (C6H12O6) -fruit sugar -composes the dissacharide sucrose (table sugar) -sweetest of the carbohydrates -converted into glucose in the bloodstream

Important Monosaccharides

•Glucose (C6H12O6) - also known as dextrose -found in fruits, veggies, corn syrup and honey -building block for many di- and polysaccharides -can be converted to glycogen and stored in liver and muscles -normally at concentration of 70 - 100 mg / 100 ml of blood

Neutralization of Carboxylic Acid

•H-C-OH + NaOH II O **Methanoic Acid ---> H-C-O- Na+ +HOH II O ***Na methanoate • •Carboxylic Acid salts are ionic

Nandrolone Side Effects

•Has estrogenic affects •Suppresses testosterone, testosterone not reduced to DHT •Reduces HDL cholesterol •If used by women, can cause male-like characteristics •Can suppress libido and increase prolactin production

Phospholipids

•Have a polar "head" and nonpolar "tails"

Alkanes

•Have only single bonds • •Considered saturated hydrocarbons -each C is bonded to 4 atoms - •Unbranched - carbon atoms connected in a row (not necessarily a straight line) • •Branched - a side group of carbon atoms is attached to a longer chain (not in a row)

•Proteins

•Help retain water in blood vessels -Albumin -Alpha Feto Protein •Immunoglobulins (antibodies) to fight infection •Hair Treatments affected by proteins

Vaccinations

•Hepatitis; A and B •MMR •Influenza •Polio •Smallpox • •Goal; to have all vaccinated to eliminate disease

Animal Starch: Glycogen

•Highly branched chain of glucose •Stored in liver and muscles of animals •Hydrolyzed in cells to provide glucose for energy between meals

Cycloalkanes

•Hydrocarbon chains can form rings •Two end carbons bond w/ each other •Have 2 less H's then straight alkane •Add cyclo- before alkane name • Ex: Cyclopropane (C3H6) CH2 / \ CH2— CH2 OR triangle symbol.

Surface Tension

•Hydrogen bonding in water causes water molecules to stick together • •Near the surface of water, the molecules become tightly pulled together forming a "skin"

Alkyl Groups

•In branched alkanes, carbon side groups are named as alkyl groups •Alkyl group - an alkane w/ one less H •Naming alkyls -ane of alkane is changed to -yl. ex: CH3— methyl CH3CH2— ethyl. •Alkyls are always attached to a longer C-chain

Hydrolysis of Carbohydrates

•In the presence of water, disaccharides and polysaccharides completely hydrolyze to form monosaccharides:

Fermentation

•In the presence of yeast, glucose & fructose will produce ethanol & carbon dioxide • (glucose or fructose)C6H12O6 -->> Yeast--->>>2C2H5OH + CO2 (ethanol) • • • •The disaccharides maltose & sucrose will also undergo fermentation •Polysaccharides and lactose will not ferment

Enzyme Action

•Induced-Fit Model -Structure of enzyme is flexible and can adjust to the shape of several similar substances -Enzyme has a broader range of specificity; LIKE A PUZZLE USED OVER AND OVER and piece is worn out. SLIPS INTO POSITION.

Enzyme Inhibition

•Inhibition - loss of catalytic activity •Inhibitors - chemicals that combine w/ enzymes, causing a change in protein structure • •Competitive Inhibition -competitive inhibitor has the same shape as the substrate and will fit into active-site of enzyme -substrate & inhibitor compete for active-site -increasing substrate concentration can counteract competitive inhibition

IUPAC Rules

•International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) rules for naming organic compounds Stem of name -identifies # of carbons in longest chain of compound -same for all families of compounds - Suffix -describe the family of the compound

Iodine Test

•Iodine (I2) is used to test for the presence of starch • •A dark blue, black or brown color develops in the presence of starch • •Iodine will remain a yellow color in the presence of mono- and disaccharides

H2SO4

•Known as battery acid. Found in car batteries. •Can make holes in clothes. •Landed on houses and cars -ruined paint •Killed grass and plants •In Cleveland made lake water pH of 5.8

Common Carboxylic Acids

•Lactic Acid •Citric Acid •Vinegar (acetic acid) • •

Common Dissacharides

•Maltose (malt sugar) -found in grains & barley -obtained from the hydrolysis of starch - •Lactose (milk sugar) -found in milk & milk products -lactose-intolerance is due to the lack of sufficient enzyme to break down lactose - •Sucrose (table sugar) -extracted from sugar cane and sugar beets

Types of Carbohydrates

•Monosaccharides -simplest carbohydrates -consist of one sugar • •Disaccharides -consist of two monosaccharides joined - •Polysaccharides -complex carbohydrates -may contain thousands of monosaccharides

Cyclic Monosaccharides

•Most 5 & 6 carbon sugars form ring structures

Passive Immunity examples

•Mother to baby; -At birth -During breast feeding •RhoGAM •Anti toxins -Snake bites •Gamma globulin shots

Naming Esters

•Name consists of two parts: -alkyl group from the alcohol -name of carboxylic acid w/ ending changed from -ic acid to -ate

Health and Fats / Oils

•Natural fats usually unsaturated CIS •Artificial saturation creates trans fats, partially hydrogenated oils •Trans fats raise LDL, decrease HDL •Why trans fat exists 1.No refrigeration of food 2.Longer shelf life 3.Lower cost to replace butter and lard 4.In deep frying trans fat can be used over and over

Polypeptides

•PTH •VIP •LH •FSH •Prolactin •TSH

Immune Status

•Passive Immunity: From already formed antibodies -Immunoglobulin shots -Mother to baby •Active Immunity: Develop antibodies from exposure; Cell mediated immunity -To a vaccine -To an infection

Peptide Bonds

•Peptides - two or more amino acids linked together -dipeptide - 2 amino acids -tripeptide - 3 amino acids -polypeptide - many amino acids ; less than 50 amino acids - •Peptide bond - amide bond between amino acids

Hydrolysis of Proteins

•Peptides are broken apart by a molecule of water in the presence of -an acid -base -enzyme •To digest the amino acids they have to be small polypeptides or single amino acids •

Fossil Fuels

•Petroleum -Contains 1 - 40 Carbon atoms. •Gasoline C5H12 - C12H26 •Kerosine C12H26 - C16H34 •Diesel Fuel C15H32 -C18H38 •Jet Fuel A blend of approximately 30% kerosene and 70% gasoline

Carbon Cycle

•Photosynthesis: -process performed by plants that produces carbohydrates (usually glucose) and O2 -requires sunlight energy, CO2 and water • •Respiration: -occurs in the cells of living organisms -glucose is oxidized to release energy and forms carbon dioxide and water

Like Dissolves Like

•Polarities of a solute and solvent must be similar in order to form a solution • ¤Polar solvents dissolve polar solutes ¤Polar solvents dissolve ionic solutes ¤Nonpolar solvents dissolve nonpolar solutes • •Why is this important to our body? Nonpolar fats are not digested like polar substances (water based). Special reactions are needed to absorb fats. Some vitamins are fat soluble and are absorbed differently than water soluble vitamins.

Active Immunity

•Polio vaccine - inactivated virus since 1999 •Pnuemococcal vaccine -2000 recommended for all -2 varieties; 13 and 23 type protection for adults -7 for children -Polysacchride coating of bacteria injected •Chickenpox 4-10% get mild chicken pox after vaccination inactivated virus •Small pox no longer given; older adults have been vaccinated. No more small pox -

Polysaccharides

•Polymer of many monosaccharides joined together • •Starch, glycogen and cellulose are all polymers of glucose

Naming Cycloalkanes w/ Alkyls

•Prefix cyclo- is placed in front of alkane name •Name of alkyl group is placed in front of cycloalkane name •If only one alkyl is present, its not numbered •For more than one alkyl, number the ring in the direction that gives the lowest numbers to the branches •More than 1 branch, name branches alphabetically; 1 ethyl-3 methyl cyclobutane

Characteristics of Nonstrong Electrolytes

•Produce no ions in solution •Exist only as molecules in solution •Do not conduct electricity • •Polar covalent compounds that dissolve in water as molecules ¤ex: sugar

Acid

•Produces hydrogen ions when dissolved in water • •Ex, H2SO4 sulfate anion; sulfuric acid • •Physical character: sour, may sting

Protein Structure

•Protein - polypeptide w/ more than 50 amino acids •Proteins have up to 4 levels of structure 1.Primary structure - sequence of amino acids in a protein 2.Secondary structure - way the amino acids are arranged in space due to hydrogen bonds 3.Tertiary structure - shape due to other types of bonds, not hydrogen between R groups 4.Quaternary structure - structure of a protein consisting of two or more polypeptide subunits ex: Hemoglobin consists of 4 subunits

Types of Fatty Acids

•Saturated fatty acids -contain only single bonds between carbons -create long, straight hydrocarbon chains -usually solids at room temp. - •Unsaturated fatty acids -Mono - one double bond in carbon chain -Poly - two or more double bonds in carbon chain -double bonds cause bends in hydrocarbon chains -usually liquids at room temp.

Condensed Structural Formulas

•Shows the structure, but does not show all of the individual C—C & C—H bonds • •Each C and its attached H's are shown as a group. H | H — C — = CH3— | H H | — C — = — CH2— | H Ethane (C2H6): H H | | H—C — C — H =CH3— CH3 | | H H. Propane (C3H8): H H H | | | H — C — C — C — H | | | H H H = CH3— CH2 — CH3

Example of solute and solvent

•Solvent = boiling water •Solute = everything that goes in water nSpaghetti (solid) nSalt (solid) nOil (liquid)

Volume (V)

•Space occupied by a gas. •Volume of a gas is equal to the size of the container in which the gas is placed • •Units ; Liters (L) or milliliters (mL)

Statins

•Statins act by competitively inhibiting HMG-Co reductase, an enzyme of the bodys metabolic pathway for the synthesis of cholesterol. •1. Statins inhibit endogenous cholesterol synthesis by liver. • •2.By reducing intracellular cholesterol levels, they cause liver cells to create more of the LDL receptor, leading to increased clearance of Low-Density Lipoprotein from the bloodstream. •Michael S. Brown and Joseph L. Goldstein received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1985 for their work in clarifying this mechanism.

Strengths of Acids and Bases

•Strong Acid dissociate almost completely to H3O+ (H+) • •Weak Acid slight dissociation

Cellulose

•Structural polysaccharide that composes wood and plants •Long unbranched chains of glucose •Very resistant to hydrolysis •Humans lack the enzyme to hydrolyze cellulose •Termites have the enzyme

Electrolytes

•Substances that form ions in solution (in water mostly) •Electrolytes conduct electricity ¤In our body electrolytes are K, Na, Ca, Cl and others ¤Carry charges to muscles and nerves

Enzyme Action

•Substrate - reactant in an enzyme reaction\ •Active-site - portion of enzyme where reaction occurs • •Lock & Key Model -Rigid shape of enzyme allows a certain substrate to fit into active-site. LIKE A PUZZLE PIECE. SNAP THE PIECES TOGETHER -Enzyme is very specific

Sacchrin

•The chemical formula for saccharin is C7H5NO3S. The molar mass for saccharin is 183.19 grams per mole. Saccharin consists mostly of carbon; carbon makes up 45.89% of the composition of saccharin by mass. •The mass of saccharin is also 2.75% hydrogen, 7.65% nitrogen, 26.20% oxygen, and 17.50% sulfur. By number saccharin is 41% carbon, 29% hydrogen, 6% nitrogen, 18% oxygen, and 6% sulfur. Saccharin melts at 228.8° to 229.7° C. •Structurally, saccharin is made up of two connected rings; the first ring is a phenyl ring and the second is a 5 membered ring with a nitrogen, a carboxyl group, and a sulfone group beside the nitrogen. Due to the presence of a nitrogen, the molecule is heterocyclic.

Hydrolysis of Triglycerides

•Triglycerides are split by water in the presence of strong acids or enzymes to produce a glycerol and 3 fatty acids (allows fatty acids to be digested.)

Monosaccharides

•Triose - 3 carbon sugar •Tetrose - 4 carbon sugar •Ribose - 5 carbon sugar •Hexose - 6 carbon sugar • •Many sugars are isomers of each other -same molecular formula -different structural formulas

Monosaccharides

•Unbranched chains of 3 - 8 carbons •One carbon is in a carbonyl group: • •Other carbons are attached hydroxyl groups (— OH)

Temperature (T)

•Units for measurement - oC •Units for calculations - Kelvins (K) • •Kelvin = degrees C + 273

Hydrogenation of Triglycerides

•Unsaturated fats are converted to saturated fats •C-C double bonds converted to single bonds by the addition of hydrogen • ----CH=CH----+H2 ---> H H | | — C — C — | | H H • • •Partial hydrogenation of vegetable oils creates the soft, semi solid fat margarine

Active Immunity examples

•Vaccines -DPaT Diphtheria, Pertussis, Tetanus •All inactivated viruses •DPT had pertussis whole cell, now acellular -MMR (live viruses) -Hepatitis B 1991 CDC recommended all new borns get vaccinated. Inactivated virus -Hepatitis A adults 3 doses, children (1-2 yrs old) 2 doses. Inactivated virus attached to aluminum

Sickling Hemoglobin Abnormality

•Valine substituted for glutamine at position 6 of Beta chain Alpha = 141 a.a.; Beta = 146 a.a. (2 pairs of chains) •2,3 DPG

Ionization of Water

•Water has Both Acid and Base parts •H+ and OH- • •Theoretical Water pH = 7

Titration: V(acid) X M(acid) = V(base) X M(base)

•Way to find concentration of an Acid by mixing it with a Base -10 ml vinegar takes 16.5 ml of 0.5 M NaOH to reach an endpoint. What is concentration of the acid vinegar? •V(acid) X M(acid) = V(base) X M(base) •10 ml X M(acid) = 16.5 ml X 0.5 M -M (acid) = .825 M of vinegar

Branched Alkanes

•When an alkane has 4 or more C's, a branch (side group of carbon atoms) is attached to a longer carbon chain • Branches are drawn above or below main C-chain. CH3— CH— CH3 | CH3 . CH3 CH3 | | CH3— C— CH2— CH— CH3 | CH3

Suspensions are:

•are heterogeneous, nonuniform mixtures •have very large particles that settle out of solution •can be filtered •must be stirred to stay suspended In our body, Examples include blood platelets, and other cells Amoxicillin is a suspension, must be shaken before use and settles out of solution quickly

Osmotic pressure is

•equal to the pressure that would prevent the flow of additional water into the more concentrated solution •greater as the number of dissolved particles in the solution increases • •Where is osmotic pressure important in our body? In blood vessels, water or plasma is kept in veins/ arteries by osmotic pressure. (proteins, electrolytes in blood)

Functional Groups

•ethers •aldehydes •ketones •carboxylic acids •esters •amines •amides. •alkanes •haloalkanes •alkenes •alkynes •aromatics •alcohols •thiols

Aspartame is

•marketed as NutraSweet and Equal •a noncarbohydrate sweetener made of aspartate and a methyl ester of the amino acid phenylalanine

Sucralose is

•marketed as Splenda •made from sucrose by replacing some of the hydroxyl groups with chlorine atoms

Pressure Units to Use

•mm Hg= Blood Pressure • •Atmosphere: =Measuring Oxygen pressure in Hyperbaric Unit • •Lb/in2 =Used in compressions; how tight to twist a valve; also tire gauges

Quick way to estimate pH Accurately.

•pH is - log of [H ion concentration] • •If concentration of H ion is 10-3 M •Logs are exponents therefore pH = 3.

•Calculate pH pH= -log[ H3O+]

•pH= -log[ H3O+] • Solution has H3O+ concentration of 6 X 10-8M pH= -Log[6X10-8] = -(log 6 + log 10-8) = -.805 +8 = 7.195 0r 7.2

Denaturation

••Denaturation - loss of protein structure causing the protein to become biologically inactive • •Denaturation can be caused by: 1.Heat 2.Acids & Bases 3.Organic compounds 4.Heavy Metal Ions 5.Agitation 6.Ethanol