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allusion

A direct or indirect reference to something which is presumably commonly known, such as an event, book, myth, place, or work of art. Allusions can be historical, literary, religious, topical, or mythical. There are many more possibilities, and a work may simultaneously use multiple layers of allusion. "plan ahead, it wasn't raining when noah built the ark." Don't act like a Romeo in front of her." - "Romeo" is a reference to Shakespeare's Romeo, a passionate lover of Juliet, in "Romeo and Juliet".

conceit

A fanciful expression, usually in the form of an extended metaphor or surprising analogy between seemingly dissimilar objects. A conceit displays intellectual cleverness as a result of the unusual comparison being made. i.e., the tongue in Anzaldua. repeated metaphor. while allegory is more whole story. An extended metaphor. Popular during the Renaissance and typical of John Donne or John Milton. Unlike allegory, which tends to have one-to-one correspondences, a conceit typically takes one subject and explores the metaphoric possibilities in the qualities associated with that subject. allegory more general. conceit more specific thing within the text. Conceit is a figure of speech in which two vastly different objects are likened together with the help of similes or metaphors. A comparison turns into a conceit when the writer tries to make us admit a similarity between two things of whose unlikeness we are strongly conscious. For this reason, conceits are often surprising. "Thou counterfeit'st a bark, a sea, a wind; For still thy eyes, which I may call the sea, Do ebb and flow with tears; the bark thy body is, Sailing in this salt flood; the winds, thy sighs; Who, raging with thy tears, and they with them, Without a sudden calm, will overset Thy tempest-tossed body." He compares Juliet to a boat in a storm. The comparison is an extended metaphor in which he compares her eyes to a sea, her tears to a storm, her sighs to the stormy winds, and her body to a boat in a storm.

apostrophe

A figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or personified abstraction, such as liberty or love. It is an address to someone or something that cannot answer. The effect is to give vent or to display intense emotion, which can no longer be held back. ex; william wordsmith addresses John Milton as he writes "Milton, thou shouldst be living at this hour:/England hath need of thee." "O value of wisdom that fadeth not away with time, virtue ever flourishing that cleanseth its possessor from al venom! O heavenly gift of the divine bounty, descending from the father of lights, that thou mayest exalt the rational should to the very heavens! Thur art the celestial nourishment of the intellect" Turning one's speech from one audience to another. Most often, apostrophe occurs when one addresses oneself to an abstraction, to an inanimate object, or to the absent. Turning one's speech from one audience to another. Most often, apostrophe occurs when one addresses oneself to an abstraction, to an inanimate object, or to the absent. ex; Antony addresses Caesar's corpse immediately following the assasination in Shakespeare's Julius Caesar:O, pardon me, thou bleeding piece of earth, That I am meek and gentle with these butchers! Thou art the ruins of the noblest man That ever lived in the tide of times.

Metaphor

A figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly unlike things or the substitution of one for the other, suggesting some similarity. Metaphorical language makes writing more vivid, imaginative, thought provoking and meaningful. e.g. In simple English, when you portray a person, place, thing, or an action as being something else, even though it is not actually that "something else," you are speaking metaphorically. The following phrase is an example of metaphor, "My brother is the black sheep of the family," because he is neither a sheep nor is he black. However, we can use this comparison to describe an association of a black sheep with that person. A black sheep is an unusual animal, which typically stays away from the herd, and the person being described shares similar characteristics. "But thy eternal summer shall not fade ..." William Shakespeare was the best exponent of metaphors, having made wide-ranging use of them throughout his works. Sonnet 18, also known as Shall I Compare Thee to a Summer's Day, is an extended metaphor between the love of the speaker and the fairness of the summer season. He writes that "thy eternal summer," here taken to mean the love of the subject, "shall not fade."

analogy

A similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship between them. An analogy can explain something unfamiliar by associating it with or pointing out its similarity to something more familiar. Analogies can also make writing more vivid, imaginative, or intellectually engaging. ex; he that voluntarily continues ignorance is guilty of all the crimes which ignorance produces, as to him that should extinguish the tapers of a lighthouse might justify be imputed the calamities of shipwrecks. ex; The structure of an atom is like a solar system. The nucleus is the sun, and electrons are the planets revolving around their sun. Here, an atomic structure is compared to a solar system by using the word "like." Therefore, it is a simile. Metaphor is used to relate the nucleus to the sun, and the electrons to the planets, without using the words "like" or "as." Hence, similes and metaphors are employed to develop an analogy. An analogy is a comparison in which an idea or a thing is compared to another thing that is quite different from it. It aims at explaining that idea or thing by comparing it to something that is familiar.

parallelism

Also referred to as parallel construction or parallel structure, this term comes from Greek roots meaning "beside one another." It refers to the grammatical or rhetorical framing of words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to give structural similarity. This can involve, but is not limited to, repetition of a grammatical element such as a preposition or verbal phrase. a famous example is "It was best of times, it was worse of times, it was age of wisdom, age of foolishness, epoch of belief, epoch of incredulity...." The effects are numerous but frequently they act as an organizing force to attract the reader's attention, add emphasis and organization, or simply provide musical rhythm. This method adds balance and rhythm to sentences, giving ideas a smoother flow and thus persuasiveness, because of the repetition it employs. For example, "Alice ran into the room, into the garden, and into our hearts." We see the repetition of a phrase that not only gives the sentence a balance, but rhythm and flow as well. This repetition can also occur in similarly structured clauses, such as, "Whenever you need me, wherever you need me, I will be there for you."In literature, parallelism is used in different ways to impress upon the readers certain messages or moral lessons. The use of parallel structures in speech or writing allows speakers and writers to maintain a consistency within their work, and create a balanced flow of ideas. Moreover, it can be employed as a tool for persuasion. e.g. "My lord, we have Stood here observing him: Some strange commotion Is in his brain: he bites his lip, and starts; Stops on a sudden, looks upon the ground, Then, lays his finger on his temple; straight, Springs out into fast gait; then, stops again, Strikes his breast hard; and anon, he casts His eye against the moon: in most strange postures We have seen him set himself." The use of multiple verbs in the above lines creates a dramatic effect in the speech of Norfolk, which makes his description vivid.

invective

An emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language. The tool of invective also acts as an opportunity for the speaker to convey his heartfelt bitter emotions toward people in power, or other such annoyances. Invective is not, however, a powerful tool of persuasion as sometimes is thought, but is a device employed to get a sort of reaction from the interlocutor."I cannot but conclude the bulk of your natives to be the most pernicious race of little odious vermin that nature ever suffered to crawl upon the surface of the earth." Swift's quote above highlights the use of some fascinating and impressive invective

Chiasmus

Chiasmus is a figure of speech in which 2 successive phrases or clauses are parallel in syntax, but reverse the order of the analogous words. ex; the land was ours before we were the lands. Pleasures a sin, and sometimes sins a pleasure. Sitting together at lunch, the kids talked incessantly; but they said nothing at all in the dentists office.But O, what damned minutes tells he o'er Who dotes, yet doubts; suspects, yet strong loves. It is boring to eat; to sleep is fulfilling. "Never let a Fool Kiss You or a Kiss Fool You." Chiasmus is a rhetorical device in which two or more clauses are balanced against each other by the reversal of their structures in order to produce an artistic effect.

enumeratio

Figure of amplification in which a subject is divided into constituent parts or details, and may include a listing of causes, effects, problems, solutions, conditions, and consequences; the listing or details of the parts of something. e.g.; i love her eyes, her hair, her cheeks, her lips. e.g.; who's gonna turn down a jr mint? Its chocolate, its peppermint, its delicious... its very refreshing. Enumeration is a rhetorical device used for listing details, or a process of mentioning words or phrases step by step. In fact, it is a type of amplification or division in which a subject is further distributed into components or parts. Writers use enumeration to elucidate a topic, to make it understandable for the readers. It also helps avoid ambiguity in the minds of the readers. "I remember the neckcurls, limp and damp as tendrils; And her quick look, a sidelong pickerel smile; And how, once startled into talk, the light syllables leaped for her, And she balanced in the delight of her thought ... " In the above lines, the speaker recalls how Jane - a dead student - looked. He gives details by remembering her smile, her hair, and her beautiful spirit.

didactic

From the greek, didactic literally means "teaching". didactic works have the primary aim of teaching or instructing, especially the teaching of moral or ethical principles. Didacticism in literature aims at offering something additional to its readers, rather than merely offering pleasure and entertainment. Some critics may argue that didacticism may reduce literature to a tool for boring instructions, nevertheless it definitely gives readers a chance to improve their conduct, and comprehend evils which may lead him astray. George Orwell's Animal Farm is an allegory, or a moral and didactic tale, that uses animals on a farm to describe the overthrow of the last of the Russian Tsar, Nicholas-II, and exposes the evil of the Communist Revolution of Russia before WWII. Clearly, the actions of the various animals on the farm are used to expose the greed and corruption of the revolution. It also contains a depiction of how powerful people can alter the ideology of a society. One of the cardinal rules on the farm is: "All animals are equal but a few are more equal than others."

genre

The major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are prose, poetry, and drama. However, genre is a flexible term; within these broad boundaries exist many subdivisions that are called genres. for example, prose can be divided into fiction, or nonfiction. Poetry can be divided into lyric, dramatic, narrative, epic etc. On the AP lang exam expect the majority of the passages to be from the following genres; autobiography, biography, diaries, criticism, essays, and journalistic, political, scientific, and nature writing. Genre means a type of art, literature, or music characterized by a specific form, content, and style. For example, literature has four main genres: poetry, drama, fiction, and non-fiction. All of these genres have particular features and functions that distinguish them from one another. Hence, it is necessary on the part of readers to know which category of genre they are reading in order to understand the message it conveys, as they may have certain expectations prior to the reading concerned. Different genres have different roles. For example, fiction and dramatic genres help students and writers learn and improve their communication skills. A poetic genre, on the other hand, enhances imaginative and emotional power of the readers. Non-fictional texts and essays help readers develop analytical and persuasive capabilities. However, the major function of genre is to establish a code of behavior between the writers and audience, and keep the readers informed about the topics discussed or the themes presented. 5 types of genre- non fiction, fiction, prose, drama, poetry.

Ambiguity

The multiple meanings, either intentional or unintentional, of a word, phrase, sentence, or passage. vague use of language. i.e. "Duck" (not borneh) A good life depends on a liver - Liver may be an organ or simply a living person. Foreigners are hunting dogs - It is unclear whether dogs were being hunted, or foreigners are being spoken of as dogs. "I ran all the way to the main gate, and then I waited a second till I got my breath. I have no wind, if you want to know the truth. I'm quite a heavy smoker, for one thing—that is, I used to be. They made me cut it out. Another thing, I grew six and a half inches last year. That's also how I practically got t.b. and came out here for all these goddam checkups and stuff. I'm pretty healthy though." The words "they" and "here" used by the speaker are ambiguous. But the readers are allowed to presume from the context that "they" might be the professionals helping out Holden, and "here" might be a rehabilitation center.

anadiplosis

The repetition of the last word (or phrase) from the previous line, clause, or sentence at the beginning of the next. Often combined with climax.ex The love of wicked men converts to fear, That fear to hate, and hate turns one or both To worthy danger and deserved death. —Shakespeare, Richard II 5.1.66-68 The following shows anadiplosis of a phrase: ...a man could stand and see the whole wide reach Of blue Atlantic. But he stayed ashore. He stayed ashore and plowed, and drilled his rows... — Charles Bruce, "Biography" The term anadiplosis is a Greek word, which means "to reduplicate." It refers to the repetition of a word or words in successive clauses in such a way that the second clause starts with the same word which marks the end of the previous clause. you must make every effort to support your faith with goodness, and goodness with knowledge, and knowledge with self-control, and self-control with endurance, and endurance with godliness, and godliness with mutual affection, and mutual affection with love." In this verse, one is able to see how all the mentioned qualities are connected to each other with the use of anadiplosis.

figure of speech

a device used to produce figurative language. many compare dissimilar things. figures of speech include apostrophe, hyperbole, irony, metaphor, metonymy, oxymoron, paradox, personification, simile, synecdoche, and understatement. A figure of speech is a phrase or word having different meanings than its literal meanings. It conveys meaning by identifying or comparing one thing to another, which has connotation or meaning familiar to the audience. That is why it is helpful in creating vivid rhetorical effect. Figure of speech is not only used to embellish the language, but also cause a moment of excitement when reading. It is used equally in writing as well as in speech. It, in fact, provides emphasis, clarity or freshness to expression. Clarity, however, may sometimes suffer because a figure of speech introduces double meanings such as connotative and denotative meanings. It also strengthens the creative expression and description along with making the language more graphic, pointed and vivid

onomatopoeia ("Err-eh-err-eh," onomatopoeia)

a figure of speech in which natural sounds are imitated in the sounds of words. Simple examples include such words as buzz, hiss, hum, crack, whinny, and murmur. If you notice examples in an essay, notice the affect. "It went zip when it moved and bop when it stopped, And whirr when it stood still. I never knew just what it was and I guess I never will.". The buzzing bee flew away. The sack fell into the river with a splash. The books fell on the table with a loud thump. He looked at the roaring The rustling leaves kept me awake.. above are examples

clause

a grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. An independent, or main clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent, or subordinate clause cannot stand alone as a sentence and must be accompanied by an independent clause. The point that you want to consider is the question of what or why the author subordinates one element to the other. You should also become aware of making effective use of subordination in your own writing.

extended metaphor

a metaphor developed at length, occurring frequently in or throughout a work. The term "extended metaphor" refers to a comparison between two unlike things that continues throughout a series of sentences in a paragraph, or lines in a poem. It is often comprised of more than one sentence, and sometimes consists of a full paragraph. "Bobby Holloway says my imagination is a three-hundred-ring circus. Currently I was in ring two hundred and ninety-nine, with elephants dancing and clowns cart wheeling and tigers leaping through rings of fire. The time had come to step back, leave the main tent, go buy some popcorn and a Coke, bliss out, cool down." (Dean Koontz, Seize the Night. Bantam, 1999) Here, it can be seen that the "circus" has been compared to the author's "imagination."

coherence

a principle demanding that parts of any composition be arranged so that the meaning of the whole may be immediately clear and intelligible. Words, phrases, clauses within the sentence; and sentences, paragraphs and chapters in larger pieces of writing are the unit that by their progressive and logical arrangement, make for coherence. A work that has an intentional order, the order makes sense. In other words, it is a written or spoken piece that is not only consistent and logical, but also unified and meaningful. It makes sense when read or listened to as a whole. ex; "Scientific agriculture, however sound in principle, often seems strangely unrelated to, and unaware of, the vital, grueling job of making a living by farming. Farmers sense this quality in it as they study their bulletins, just as a poor man senses in a rich man an incomprehension of his own problems. The farmer of today knows, for example, that manure loses some of its value when exposed to the weather ... But he knows also that to make hay he needs settled weather - better weather than you usually get in June." This is a global level coherent text passage in which White has wonderfully unified the sentences to make it a whole. He has started the passage with a general topic, scientific agriculture, but moved it to a specific text about farmers and their roles.

anecdote

a short narrative detailing particulars of an interesting episode or event. The term most frequently refers to an incident in the life of a person. For example, if a group of coworkers are discussing pets, and one coworker tells a story about how her cat comes downstairs at a certain time every night, then that coworker has just shared an anecdote. ex; Oh, I would never dream of assuming I know all Hogwarts' secrets, Igor. Only this morning, for instance, I took a wrong turn on the way to the bathroom and found myself in a beautifully proportioned room I had never seen before, containing a really rather magnificent collection of chamber pots. When I went back to investigate more closely, I discovered that the room had vanished. Dumbledore gives a short story here.

paradox

a statementt that appears to be self contradictory or opposed to common sense but upon closer inspection contains some degree of truth or validity. It is a statement that appears to be self-contradictory or silly, but which may include a latent truth. It is also used to illustrate an opinion or statement contrary to accepted traditional ideas. A paradox is often used to make a reader think over an idea in innovative way. e.g. Your enemy's friend is your enemy. "The child is father of the man..." This statement has a seemingly incorrect supposition, but when we look deep into its meaning, we see the truth. The poet is saying that the childhood experiences become the basis for all adult occurrences. The childhood of a person shapes his life, and consequently "fathers" or creates the grown-up adult. So, "The child is father of the man."

metonymy

a term form the greek meaning "changed label" or substitute name." Metonymy is a figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely associated with it. A news release claims "the white house declared" rather than "the president declared" is using metonymy. The substituted term generally carries a more potent emotional response. The given lines are from Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, Act I: "Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears." Mark Anthony uses "ears" to say that he wants the people present to listen to him attentively. It is a metonymy because the word "ears" replaces the concept of paying attention. For instance, "Rifles were guarding the gate" is more concise than "The guards with rifles in their hands were guarding the gate."

aphorism

a terse statement of know authorship which expresses a general truth or a moral principle. (if the authorship is unknown, the statement is generally considered to be a folk proverb.) An aphorism can be a memorable summation of the authors point. A saying, epigraph, a short statement. ex; to kill a mockingbird. You never really understand a person until you consider things from his point of view - until you climb into his skin and walk around in it

loose sentence

a type of sentence in which the main idea comes first, followed by independent grammatical units such as phrases and clauses. If a period were placed at the end of the independent clause, the clause would be a complete sentence. A work containing many loose sentences often seems informal, relaxed, and conversational Generally loose sentences create a loose style. A cumulative sentence is known as a "loose sentence," that starts with an independent clause or main clause, which is simple and straight, provides main idea, and then adds subordinate elements or modifiers. It adds subordinate or modifying elements after the subject and the predicate. Writers use these types of sentences when they want to put forth the main idea first, and provide details to elucidate the idea further thereafter. They use these details in the form of dependent or subordinate phrases or clauses. These types of sentences work better in various forms of writing, specifically in explaining theories, by giving the main idea at the beginning, and then adding more information to build up the idea further. For instance, in the sentence, "Llanblethian hangs pleasantly, with its white cottages, and orchard and other trees..." (The Life of John Sterling, by Thomas Carlyle), the main clause is short, independent, and straightforward, while the subordinate elements clarify the idea further.

asyndeton

consists of omitting conjunctions between words, phrases, or clauses. This can give the effect of unpremeditated multiplicity, of an extemporaneous rather than a labored account. Asyndetic lists can be more empathetic than if a final conjunction were used. ex; on his return he received medals, honors treausres, titles, fame. They spent the day wondering, searching, thinking, understanding. The omission of conjunctions between clauses, often resulting in a hurried rhythm or vehement effect. Veni, vidi, vici

antithesis

figure of balance in which two contrasting ideas are intentionally juxtaposed, usually through parallel structure; a contrasting of opposing ideas in adjacent phrases, clauses, or sentences. Antithesis creates a definite and systematic relationship between ideas. "It can't be wrong if it feels so right. Juxtaposition of contrasting words or ideas (often, although not always, in parallel structure. ex; he is no fool who gives what he can't keep gain to what which he can't lose. Thats one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind. Antithesis, which literally means "opposite," is a rhetorical device in which two opposite ideas are put together in a sentence to achieve a contrasting effect. ex; "Better to reign in Hell than serve in Heav'n."The contrasting ideas of reign/serve, and Hell/Heav'n are placed in this sentence to achieve an antithetical effect.

expletive

figure of emphasis in which a single word or short phrase, usually interrupting normal speech, is used to lend emphasis to words on either side of the expletive. e.g., in fact , of course, to be sure, indeed, i suppose, i hope, you know, you see, clearly, in any event, in effect, certainly, remarkably. e.g. "It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife." See, the use of it is was not necessary at the beginning of the sentence, however, it emphasizes the overall impact of this sentence. You can see the expletive words in italics.

Hypophora

figure of reasoning in which one or more questions are asked and then answered, often at length by one and the same speaker; raising and responding to own ones questions. A common usage is to ask the question at the beginning of a paragraph and then use the paragraph to answer it. You can use hyophora to raise questions which you think the reader obviously has on his/her mind and would like to see formulated and answered. ex; when the enemy struck on that day of June 1950, what did America do? It did what it always has done in all its times of peril. It appealed to the heroism of its youth. -Eisenhower. The basic difference between hypophora and a rhetorical question is that, in a rhetorical question, the answer is not provided by the writer, since it does not require an answer. Such as, "... for if we lose the ability to perceive our faults, what is the good of living on?" (Marcus Aurelius). However, in hypophora, the writer first poses a question, and then answers that question immediately; such as in this example: "What should young people do with their lives today? Many things, obviously. But the most daring thing is to create stable communities in which the terrible disease of loneliness can be cured."

hyperbole

figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. Hyperboles often have a comic effect; however a serious effect; however a serious effect is also possible. Often, hyperbole produces irony. ex; So first of all, let me assert my firm belief that the only thing we have to fear is fear itself. The stuff is used motor oil compared to the coffee you make, my love. Hyperbole, derived from a Greek word meaning "over-casting," is a figure of speech that involves an exaggeration of ideas for the sake of emphasis. In American folk lore, Paul Bunyan's stories are full of hyperboles. In one instance, he exaggerates winter by saying: "Well now, one winter it was so cold that all the geese flew backward and all the fish moved south and even the snow turned blue. Late at night, it got so frigid that all spoken words froze solid afore they could be heard. People had to wait until sunup to find out what folks were talking about the night before." Freezing of the spoken words at night in winter, and then warming them up in the warmth of the sun during the day are examples of hyperbole, which has been effectively used in this short excerpt from an American folktale.

oxymoron

from the greek for "pointedly foolish," an oxymoron is a figure of speech wherein the author groups apparently contradictory terms to suggest a paradox. Simple examples include "jumbo shrimp" and "cruel kindness." this term doesn't usually appear in the multiple choice questions, but there is a chance you might find it in an essay. Take note of the effect which the author achieves with this term. It is important to understand the difference between an oxymoron and a paradox. A paradox may consist of a sentence, or even a group of sentences. An oxymoron, on the other hand, is a combination of two contradictory or opposite words. A paradox seems contradictory to the general truth, but it does contain an implied truth. An oxymoron, however, may produce a dramatic effect, but does not make literal sense. Examples of oxymoron are found both in casual conversations and in literature. Why, then, O brawling love! O loving hate! O anything, of nothing first create! O heavy lightness! Serious vanity! Misshapen chaos of well-seeming forms! Feather of lead, bright smoke, cold fire, sick health! Still-waking sleep, that is not what it is! This love feel I, that feel no love in this. Dost thou not laugh? We notice a series of oxymora being employed when Romeo confronts the love of an inaccessible woman. An intense emotional effect is produced, to highlight his mental conflict by the use of contradictory pairs of words, such as "hating love," "heavy lightness," "bright smoke," "cold fire," and "sick health".

litotes

from the greek word "simple" or "plain". Litotes is a figure of thought in which a point is affirmed by negating its oppsotie. its a special form of understatement, where the surface denial serves through ironic contrast, to reinforce the underlying assertion. ex; he's no fool (which implies he's wise) Not uncommon (implies that its frequent.) For example, using the expression "not too bad" for "very good" is an understatement, as well as a double negative statement that confirms a positive idea by negating the opposite (meaning it's good, by saying it's not bad). Similarly, saying "She is not a beauty queen," means she is ugly, or saying "I am not as young as I used to be," in order to avoid saying I am old. Litotes, therefore, is an intentional use of understatement that renders an ironic effect. "I am not unaware how the productions of the Grub Street brotherhood have of late years fallen under many prejudices." Now just see how Swift has used double negatives to emphasize the point that he is totally aware of it. The irony is that he is aware, but he is saying it as if he is unaware that he is not.

Euphemism

from the greek word for good speech. euphemisms are a more agreeable or less offensive substitute for a generally unpleasant word or concept. the euphemism may be sued to adhere to standards of social or political correctness or to add humor or ironic undestatement. e.g. saying earthly remains rather than corpse. Examples of euphemism referring to sex are found in William Shakespeare's Othello. In Act 1, Scene 1, Iago tells Brabantio: "I am one, sir, that comes to tell you your daughter and the Moor are now making the beast with two backs." Here, the expression "making the beast with two backs" refers to the act of having sex.

Exposition

in essays, one of the four chief types of composition, the others being argumentation, description and narration. The purpose of exposition is to explain something. in drama the exposition is the introductory material, which creates the tone, gives the setting, and introduces the characters and conflict. An exposition is typically positioned at the beginning of a novel, movie, or other literary work, because the author wants the audience to be fully aware of the characters in the story. The famous children's story entitled The Three Little Bears applies this technique of exposition. "Once upon a time, there were three bears. There was a Daddy Bear, who was very big, a Mama Bear, who was middle-sized, and a Baby Bear, who was very small. They all lived together in a little cottage in the middle of the woods. Their favorite breakfast was porridge. One morning, after they made their porridge, Daddy Bear said, 'Let's go for walk in the woods until it cools.' Mama Bear and Baby Bear liked the idea, so off they went. While they were away, a little girl named Goldilocks came walking through the forest and smelled the porridge..." With the help of a single passage, the author of the story has given us an overview of the bear family, their residence, and information that sets the story in motion.

anaphora

one of the devices of repetition, in which the same expression (word or words) is repeated at the beginning of 2 or more lines, clauses, or sentences. ex; it was the best of times, it was the worst of times." They are masters who instruct us without rod or ferule, without angry words, without clothes or money. ex; This royal throne of kings, this sceptred isle, This earth of majesty, this seat of Mars, This other Eden, demi-paradise, This fortress built by Nature for herself Against infection and the hand of war, This happy breed of men, this little world, This precious stone set in the silver sea, Which serves it in the office of a wall, Or as [a] moat defensive to a house, Against the envy of less happier lands; This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England, This nurse, this teeming womb of royal kings [. . .] This land of such dear souls, this dear dear land, Dear for her reputation through the world, Is now leas'd out — I die pronouncing it — Like to a tenement or pelting farm. Repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginning of successive clauses, sentences, or lines.

diction

related to style, diction refers to the writers word choices, especially with regard to their correctness, clearness, or effectiveness. For the AP exam, you should be able to describe an author's diction (for example, formal or informal, ornate or plain) and understand the ways in which diction can complement an author's purpose. Diction, combined with syntax, figurative language, literary devices etc creates an authors style. In literature, writers choose words to create and convey a typical mood, tone, and atmosphere to their readers. A writer's choice of words, and his selection of graphic words, not only affect the reader's attitude, but also conveys the writer's feelings toward the literary work. Moreover, poetry is known for its unique diction, which separates it from prose. Usually, a poetic diction is marked by the use of figures of speech, rhyming words, and other devices. Eg "Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard Are sweeter: therefore, ye soft pipes, play on ... Notice the use of the formal "ye," instead of the informal "you." The formality here is due to the respect the urn inspires in Keats.

Diacope

repetition of a word or phrase after an intervening word or phrase. word/phrase x........ word/phrase x. We give thanks to thee, O God, We give thanks. This literary device is a repetition of a phrase or word, broken up by other intervening words. For instance, a very popular example of diacope is in William Shakespeare's Hamlet, "to be, or not to be!" In this line, you can notice that the speaker has repeated the phrase "to be," which is separated by another phrase "or not." This is called diacope. "I can picture in my mind a world without war, a world without hate. And I can picture us attacking that world, because they'd never expect it." This is another example of vocative diacope in which the author has repeated the phrase "a world without" to emphasize the world.

irony

the contrast between what is stated originally and what is really meant. the difference between what appears to be and what actually is true. In general, there are 3 types of irony; verbal irony, the words literary state the opposite of the writers true meaning. 2. situational irony, events turn out the opposite of what was expected. What the characters and readers think ought to happen. 3. dramatic irony facts or events are unknown to a character in a play or piece of FICTION, but known to the reader, audience or other characters in the work. irony is used for many reasons, but frequently its used to create poignancy or humor. In simple words, it is a difference between appearance and reality. dramatic ex We come across the following lines in Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, Act I, Scene V: "Go ask his name: if he be married. My grave is like to be my wedding bed." Juliet commands her nurse to find out who Romeo was, and says if he were married, then her wedding bed would be her grave. It is a verbal irony because the audience knows that she is going to die on her wedding bed. Shakespeare employs this verbal irony in Julius Caesar, Act I, Scene II: CASSIUS: " 'Tis true this god did shake." Cassius, despite knowing the mortal flaws of Caesar, calls him "this god". This is an example of situational irony, in which the wife sells her most prized possession - her hair - to get her husband a Christmas present; and the husband sells his most dear possession - the gold watch - to get his wife a Christmas present. By the end, it is revealed that neither has the utility of the present bought by the other, as both sell their best things to give the other one a gift. Combs, the gift for the wife, is useless because she has sold her hair. The gold watch chain, the gift for the husband, is useless because he has sold the watch to get the combs. The situation becomes ironic for such an incident.

allegory

the device of using character/and or story elements symbolically to represent an abstraction in addition to the literal meaning. In some allegories, for example, an author may intend the characters to personify an abstraction lie, hoper, or freedom. the allegorical meaning usually deals with moral truth or a generalization about human existence. Animal farm. george orwell. A sustained metaphor continued through whole sentences or even through a whole discourse. The objective of its use is to teach some kind of a moral lesson. An allegory is a complete narrative that involves characters and events that stand for an abstract idea or event.

atmosphere

the emotional mood created by the entirety of a literary work, established partly by the setting and partly by the authors choice of objects that are described. Even such elements as description of the weather can contribute to the atmosphere. Frequently atmosphere foreshadows events. Perhaps it can create a mood. ex; "It is an unspoken hunger we deflect with knives - one avocado between us, cut neatly in half, twisted then separated from the large wooden pit. With the green fleshy boats in hand, we slice vertical strips from one end to the other. Vegetable planks. We smother the avocado with salsa, hot chiles at noon in the desert. We look at each other and smile, eating avocados with sharp silver blades, risking the blood of our tongues repeatedly." dangerous atmosphere here.

connottation

the nonliteral, associative meaning of a word; the implied, suggested meaning. Connotations may involve ideas emotions, attitudes. "She's feeling blue." connotation is a suggested meaning. vs ambiguity which has multiple meanings. "That woman is a dove at heart." - Here, the dove implies peace or gentility. ex; All the world's a stage, And all the men and women merely players; They have their exits and their entrances; And one man in his time plays many parts. Here, a stage connotes the world; players suggests human beings; and parts implies different stages of their lives.

Alliteration

the repetition of sounds, especially initial consonants in tow or more neighboring words (as in she sell sea shells)Although the term is not used frequently, you can look for alliteration in any essay. the repetition can reinforce meaning, unify ideas, supply musical sound, and/or echo the sense of the passage. ex; borneh bought books by Borneh.

imagery

the sensory details or figurative language used to desribe, arouse emotion, or represent abstractions.. On a physical level, imagery uses terms related to the the 5 sense, we refer to visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, or olfactory imagery. On a broader and deeper level, however, one image can represent more than one thing. For example, a rose may present visual imagery while also representing the color in a woman's cheeks and/or symbolizing some degree of perfection. An author may use complex imagery while simultaneously employing other figures of speech, especially metaphor and simile. In addition, this term can apply to the total of all images in a work. On the ap, pay attention to how an author creates imagery and to the effect of this imagery.. Imagery means to use figurative language to represent objects, actions, and ideas in such a way that it appeals to our physical senses. Imagery of light and darkness is repeated many times in Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet. Consider an example from Act I, Scene V: "O, she doth teach the torches to burn bright! It seems she hangs upon the cheek of night Like a rich jewel in an Ethiope's ear ..." Romeo praises Juliet by saying that she appears more radiant than the brightly lit torches in the hall. He says that at night her face glows like a bright jewel shining against the dark skin of an African. Through the contrasting images of light and dark, Romeo portrays Juliet's beauty.

Denotation

the strict, literal, dictionary of a word, devoid of any emotion attitude or color. ex, Pushy - suggests someone is loud-mouthed and irritating. "Some say the world will end in fire, Some say in ice ... But if it had to perish twice, I think I know enough of hate To say that for destruction ice ..." In the above lines, the poet has used a number of denotative meanings of words. Here, "some say" denotes a group of people, and "I know" represents personal experience. Then "end," "fire," "perish," and "destruction" denote destruction and death.`

narrative

the telling of a story or an account of an event or series of events. Epic of Gilgamesh by Anonymous "He who has seen everything, I will make known to the lands. I will teach about him who experienced all things, ... alike, Anu granted him the totality of knowledge of all. He saw the Secret, discovered the Hidden, he brought information of (the time) before the Flood." (Excerpt from Tablet-1) This is one of the oldest narrative poems written in the ancient Mesopotamia in or around 2100 B.C. This poem narrates the story of the King of Uruk, Gilgamesh, and the wild man Enkidu, who is given the task to stop Gilgamesh's brutality against his people. The poem is originally in twelve tablets some of which have been lost. The surviving tablets give a good clue to the narrative poem and the story it contains.

colloquial

the use of slang or informalities in speech or writing. Not generally acceptable for formal writing, colloquialisms give a work a controversial, familiar tone. Colloquial expressions in which writing include local or regional dialects. ex; Wanna - want to. Gonna - going to. Y'all - you all

antecedent

the word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun. What does it refer to. An example of an antecedent is the word "John" in the sentence: "John loves his dog."

generic conventions

this term describes traditions for each genre. These conventions help to define each genre, for example, they differentiate an essay and journalistic writing or an autobiography and political writing. On AP lang exam, try to distinguish the unique features of a writes work from those dictated by convention. things that help influence the reader and decide what genre the book is Weapons - the "Texas chainsaw massacre" (chainsaw) usually wielded by the killer. The weapons are usually sharp this is because you can actually see them going into the skin and releasing blood. If you shoot someone then they're just dead and there is less gore. This might drop some peoples expectations of horror films. Some people go to see horror films for gore and violence.

mood

this term has 2 distinct technical meanings in english writing. the first meaning is grammatical and eats with verbal units and a speakers attitude. the indicative mood is used only for factual sentences. For example "Joe eats too quickly." The subjective mood is used to express conditions contrary to fact. For example, "If i were you, id get another job." The imperative mood is used for commands. For example, "shut the door!" the second meaning of mood is literary, meaning the prevailing atmosphere or emotional aura of a work. setting, tone, and events affect mood. Mood is similar to tone and atmosphere here. Mood helps in creating an atmosphere in a literary work by means of setting, theme, diction, and tone. It evokes various emotional responses in readers, and thus ensures their emotional attachment to the literary piece they read. Once the readers are emotionally stirred, they fully comprehend the message that the writer tries to convey to them. Charles Dickens creates a calm and peaceful mood in his novel Pickwick Papers: "The river, reflecting the clear blue of the sky, glistened and sparkled as it flowed noiselessly on." The depiction of idyllic scenery imparts a serene and non-violent mood to the readers.

homily

this term literally means "sermon," but more informally, it can include any serious talk, speech, or lecture involving moral or spiritual advice. Homily is a sermon or speech that a religious person or priest delivers before a group of people to offer them moral correction. The primary purpose of this speech is not doctrinal instruction, but spiritual edification. Simply, homily is a public discourse on a moral or religious subject. Priests read it from the Bible, or other religious text, to give an insight into the exact meanings of the scriptures. Afterward, they relate it to the lives of followers. Usually, religious figures deliver homilies in churches, mosques, temples, at mass gatherings, at funerals, and at baptisms and wedding ceremonies. Its main purpose is to convey a moral lesson to the people. Besides teaching moral education, it awakens people's conscience, calls them to repentance, and nourishes their faith. Another purpose is to interpret the lives of the people in such a way that they could reconcile with God Almighty and with one another. Besides this, priests use different persuasive techniques to appeal to the listening congregation. There is a fable that tells of three apprentice devils who were coming to earth to finish their apprenticeship. They were talking with Satan, the chief of the devils, about their plans to tempt and to ruin humanity. The first said, "I will tell them there is no God." But Satan said, "That will not delude many, for they know there is a God ... The most dangerous of all delusions is that there is plenty of time." Deacon Winton DeRosia delivers this homily on a website "First Sunday in Advent." This sermon is about the temptations of Satan, and how he uses human beings for his purpose.

inference/infer

to draw a reasonable conclusion from the info presented. when a multiple choice question asks for an inference to be drawn from a passage, the most direct, most reasonable inference is the safest answer choice. If an inference is implausible, its unlikely to be the correct answer. Note that if the answer choice is directly stated, it is not inferred, its wrong. You must be careful to note the connotation- negative or positive of the choice. "It was after we started with Gatsby toward the house that the gardener saw Wilson's body a little way off in the grass, and the holocaust was complete." The above excerpt is one of the examples of inference from literature. After reading this line from The Great Gatsby, by F. Scott Fitzgerald, a reader who is smart enough to make a quick inference will simultaneously understand that Gatsby's life has ended. The most significant part of this sentence is that the protagonist in the novel, Mr. Gatsby, has been murdered. Nevertheless, the circumstances surrounding his demise can be all the more interesting if looked at closely. Among the factors thatcontributed to his death, the most dominant one is his rebuttal to let go of the past. Earlier the day Gatsby was killed, there was a part where he stopped his servant from emptying the pool, even though the air was cold because he felt that summer was not over yet. Looking at this particular part more profoundly incites us to make an association between Gatsby's denial of the end of summer, and his denial of the dissolution of his relation with Daisy. So, we could say that if Gatsby had made peace with the current circumstances, and had moved on, he might not have gotten himself killed.

Juxtaposition

when 2 words, phrases, images, ideas are placed close together or side by side for comparison or contrast. Juxtaposition is a literary device that William Shakespeare uses most commonly in his play Romeo and Juliet. We notice the juxtaposition of light and darkness repeatedly. Consider an example from Act I, Scene V: "O, she doth teach the torches to burn bright! It seems she hangs upon the cheek of night Like a rich jewel in an Ethiope's ear;" Here, the radiant face of Juliet is juxtaposed with a black African's dark skin. Romeo admires Juliet by saying that her face seems brighter than brightly lit torches in the hall. He says that, at night, her face glows like a bright jewel that shines against the dark skin of an African.

figurative language

writing or speech that is not intended to carry literal meaning and is usually meant to be imaginative and vivid. e.g. Similes, metaphors, e.g. His friend is as black as coal. But a BIRD that stalks down his narrow cage Can seldom see through his bars of rage His wings are clipped and his feet are tied The caged bird sings with a fearful trill ... And his tune is heard on the distant hill for The caged bird sings of freedom. The entire poem is rich with metaphor as a bird in a cage represents a group of people who are oppressed and cannot get freedom. The cage represents physical barriers, fear, addiction, or society; while the song of the bird represents true self yearning for something greater in life.