BUAD 309 Exam #2
Criticisms of Herzberg's theory
-Limited because it relies on self-reports - he asked people to list what they found satisfying versus dissatisfying at work. -The reliability of methodology is questioned. -No overall measure of satisfaction was utilized, so he forced people to group factors into the two categories. -Herzberg assumed a relationship between satisfaction and productivity, but the research methodology he used looked only at satisfaction, not at productivity. -Typically when we study motivation, we do so because we are interested in the relationship between motivation and performance.
Problems through the stages
-Groups don't always successfully navigate through all stages. -Groups that get caught in the storming stage may spend excessive time dealing with conflicts and never make it to performing - these groups tend to be unsuccessful. -Progression through the stages may not be as prescribed as it appears - some groups are in two or more stages at the same time (e.g., norming and performing)
Group Decision Making
-Groups generate more complete information and have more knowledge at their disposal to generate more diverse alternatives -Groups increase decision acceptance -Decisions made by groups are seen as more legitimate than those made by an individual -Group decision making is slower -Groupthink can undermine critical thinking and result in a poor quality decision -Diffusion of responsibility reduces individual accountability
Characteristics of Effective Teams
-Have a clear understanding of their goals -Have competent members with relevant technical and interpersonal skills -Exhibit high mutual trust in the character and integrity of their members -Are unified in their commitment to team goals -Have good communication systems -Possess effective negotiating skills -Have appropriate leadership -Have both internally and externally supportive environments
Identify early theories of motivation and evaluate their applicability today
-Hierarchy of Needs Theory -Theory X and Theory Y -Two-Factor Theory -McClelland's Theory of Needs -These theories provided the foundation for much research as well as new theories. -They are also still used by managers, probably because of their intuitive appeal.
What to pay (Equity Theory)
-Internal Versus External Equity -Pay Structures are created to balance market demands with value of jobs to an organization -Use market surveys and job evaluation to create pay structures
How Can Jobs Be Redesigned?
-Job Rotation=Referred to as cross-training. Periodic shifting from one task to another. Strengths of job rotation: reduces boredom, increases motivation, and helps employees better understand their work contributions. Weaknesses include: creates disruptions, extra time for supervisors addressing questions, training time and efficiencies. -Job Enrichment expands jobs by increasing the degree to which the worker controls the planning, execution, and evaluation of the work Organizes tasks to allow the employee to do a complete activity, increases freedom and independence, increases responsibility, and provides feedback that the employee uses to correct their own performance The evidence on job enrichment shows it reduces absenteeism and turnover costs and increases satisfaction, but not all programs are equally effective. Some recent evidence suggests job enrichment works best when it compensates for poor feedback and reward systems -Work design can be redesigned by increasing motivating potential -- changing content or increasing autonomy.
Is everyone motivated by enriched jobs?
-Jobs high in the five core job dimensions have a high motivating potential score and are considered to be enriched jobs. -Individuals with high growth need respond more positively to enriched jobs than those with low growth need. -Bottom line: not everyone is motivated by enriched jobs.
Group Size
-Larger groups are better at problem solving due to more diverse input while smaller groups are better at task completion -Social loafing = the tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than when working individually.
Summary and Implications for Managers
-Managers should be sensitive to individual differences. -Spend the time necessary to understand what's important to each employee. -Use Goals and Feedback. Employees should have firm, specific goals, and they should get feedback on how well they are faring in pursuit of those goals. -Allow employees to participate in decisions that affect them. -Link rewards to performance. -Check the system for equity.
Group Properties
-Norms -Conformity -Groupthink -Status Systems -Group Size -Group cohesiveness -Group Diversity
Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs
-Physiological needs that include hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs. -Safety needs that include security and protection from physical and emotional harm. -Social needs and it includes affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship. -Esteem: Internal well-being including self-respect, achievement, autonomy, independence and external well being including recognition, status, and attention -Self-actualization needs. This is the drive to become what one is capable of becoming; includes growth, achieving one's potential, and self-fulfillment. As a need becomes substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant. No need is ever fully gratified; a substantially satisfied need no longer motivates. has received wide recognition, particularly among practicing managers.
Types of Work Teams
-Problem-solvingn team -Self-managed work team -Cross-functional teams -Virtual Teams -Multiteam Systems
Reinforcement Theory
-Reinforcement theory ignores the inner state of the individual and concentrates solely on what happens when he or she takes some action (black-box theory) -In its pure form, reinforcement theory ignores feelings, attitudes, expectations, and other cognitive variables known to affect behavior. -Reinforcement is undoubtedly an important influence on behavior, but few scholars are prepared to argue it is the only one.
Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory (Motivation-Hygiene Theory)
-Satisfaction and dissatisfaction cannot be measured on a single continuum because they are different constructs -Satisfaction derives from the intrinsic nature of the work (motivating factors) -Dissatisfaction is caused by failure to provide for basic needs; it is caused by extrinsic factors (hygiene factors) -Based on the premises above, extrinsic factors (pay, benefits, job security, etc.) are related to job dissatisfaction, but not satisfaction; when they are adequate, you will be neither satisfied or dissatisfied -Satisfaction can only be influenced by intrinsic factors (personal growth opportunities, promotions, recognition, achievement, etc.). When these are present, you will be satisfied. When they are absent, you will be in a neutral state with regards to satisfaction
Why do goals improve performance?
-Specific goals are salient, they get our attention -Difficult goals energize our efforts -Difficult goals increase persistence -Feedback helps us identify discrepancies and discrepant information guides behavior
Advantages of Using Teams
-Teams outperform individuals. -Teams provide a way to better use employee talents. -Teams are more flexible and responsive. -Teams can be quickly assembled, deployed, refocused, and disbanded.
Why Do Companies Use Teams?
-Teams typically outperform individuals when the tasks being done require multiple skills, judgment, and experience. -Organizations turn to teams to utilize talents. -Employee involvement as a motivator—teams facilitate employee participation in operating decisions.
Virtual Teams
-operate in a geographically dispersed manner using technology and on-line tools. -Can do everything that other teams do (communicate, collaborate, share information, complete projects, etc.) -Tend to be more task oriented (less emphasis on the group member satisfaction roles) -Some people greatly enjoy and thrive working in virtual teams while others find it difficult
Why Do People Form Groups: Social Identity Theory
-our tendency to take personal pride or embarrassment for the accomplishments of a group. -One's own self-esteem is tied to group performance -When a group that you are connected with (e.g., sports team) does badly, you feel dejected and may even reject that part of your identity by rejecting the team)
Cross-functional teams
-people from various work areas brought together to leverage complementary skill sets. -Pharmaceutical R&D group - brings scientists, marketing, regulatory, and clinical groups to work through developing and commercializing a new drug
Self-Determination Theory
-proposes that people prefer to feel they have control over their actions, loose interest when you have no control -Anything that makes a previously enjoyed activity feel like an obligation rather than a freely chosen activity will negatively impact motivation -Self-determination theory acknowledges that extrinsic rewards can improve even intrinsic motivation under specific circumstances. e.g., if you perceive a pay increase as praise for work well done, motivation may be enhanced; it's a different interpretation of the meaning of money - control versus recognition
Informal groups
-social groups -Groups that are independently formed to meet the social needs of their members
Group cohesiveness
-the degree to which group members are attracted to one another and share the group's goals. -Groups that have a lot of internal disagreement and conflict tend to perform worse than teams that generally agree, like each other, and cooperate -One exception is when groups are cohesive but have poor attitudes - a negative attitude can be contagious in a highly cohesive team
Adjourning
-the final stage of group development for temporary groups during which group members are concerned with wrapping up activities rather than task performance. -Includes debriefing, lessons learned, celebration
Forming Stage
-the first stage of group development in which people join the group and then define the group's purpose, structure, and leadership; boundaries are established to ensure acceptable behavior -The forming stage ends when people begin to define themselves as a group -e.g., Project team charter - used to define purpose of the project, stakeholders, intended outcomes, and team roles
Preforming Stage
-when the group is fully functional and works on the group's task. Energy moves from getting to know each other to working on the task(s). -Last stage of development for permanent teams
Formal groups
-work groups -Work groups defined by the organization's structure that have designated work assignments and tasks
Apply the key tenets of expectancy theory to motivating employees
An employee will be motivated to exert a high level of effort when he/she believes that: Effort will lead to a good performance appraisal (Instrumentality). A good appraisal will lead to rewards (Expectancy). The rewards will satisfy his/her personal goals (Valence).
Motivating Through Flexible Benefits
Developing a Benefits Package -The idea is to allow each employee to choose a benefit package that is individually tailored to his/her own needs and situation. -An organization sets up a flexible spending account for each employee, usually based on some percentage of his or her salary, and then a price tag is put on each benefit. -Benefits are a part of meeting basic needs (e.g., health care)
Goal-Setting Theory proposed by Edwin Locke
Goals tell an employee where to direct their effort and how much effort is needed. Evidence of thousands of studies strongly suggests that specific goals increase performance, that difficult (but attainable), goals when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals; and that goals combined with feedback leads to higher performance than goals without feedback.
impact of Intrinsic Rewards on Motivation
Intrinsic Rewards are used in Employee Recognition Programs -Organizations are increasingly recognizing that important work rewards can be both intrinsic and extrinsic. -Rewards are intrinsic in the form of employee recognition programs and extrinsic in the form of compensation systems. -financial incentives may be more motivating in the short term, but in the long run it's non financial incentives -research found that recognition, recognition, and more recognition was key to employee motivation.
Compare and contrast the main ways jobs can be redesigned.
Job Rotation Job Enrichment Work design
Conformity
Most people have a desire to be accepted and liked, and therefore conform to the norms of the group; pressure to conform can be subtle (social cues) or overt (formal rules/policies)
Management by Objectives
Organizational Practice based on goal setting theory. Four common components: -Specific, measurable and attainable goals -Participation in goal setting process -Time bound -Performance feedback Three factors that can cause failure -Insufficient rewards tied to goal accomplishment -Unrealistic goals -Lack of commitment to the goals by top management
How do groups become successful?
Organizational resources - include knowledge, skills ability and other characteristics of group members - group composition is important -Groups comprised of people with complementary skills have a better chance of success -Personality also plays a key role - consider a group with members low on agreeableness and conscientiousness (Big Five) Group Properties -defines roles, norms, conformity, status systems, group size, group cohesiveness and leadership Roles -getting the work done (task accomplishment role) versus keeping people happy (group membership satisfaction role) -Both roles are important for effective group performance -Role issues: role ambiguity, role expectations, role conflict
Building Effective Teams
Organizations spend a great deal of time and money trying to build high performance teams. -Many organizations use training/team building to improve performance. -The best approach to building teams is to: -ensure that everyone on the team understands how their work fits into the overall mission of the organization -The team has clear goals -The team has the right talents and resources to accomplish goals -The team receives feedback and recognition for their work
Give examples of employee involvement measures and show how they can motivate employees.
Participative Management
How to Pay
Pay for Performance Plans Merit Pay - pay tied to employee performance Bonuses tied to individual and company performance
Contemporary Theories of Motivation
Self-Determination Theory cognitive evaluation theory Goal-Setting Theory Goal Acceptance
Contemporary Theories of Motivation
Self-Efficacy Theory Goal-Setting vs. Reinforcement Theory Operant conditioning theory Equity Theory Interactional Justice Informational Justice Expectancy theory
Apply the predictions of self-determination theory to intrinsic and extrinsic rewards.
Self-determination theory acknowledges that extrinsic rewards can improve even intrinsic motivation under specific circumstances. e.g., if you perceive a pay increase as praise for work well done, motivation may be enhanced; it's a different interpretation of the meaning of money - control versus recognition
McClelland's Theory of Needs
The theory focuses on three needs: achievement, power, and affiliation. -Need for achievement (nAch): the drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed. -Need for power (nPow): the need to make others behave in a way they would not have otherwise. -Need for affiliation (nAff): is the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships While nAch does seem to be related to success in some jobs, it is difficult to measure and has very little practical utility
Proposed by Douglas McGregor:
Theory X assumptions are basically negative. Employees inherently dislike work and, whenever possible, will attempt to avoid it. They must be coerced, controlled, or threatened with punishment. Theory Y assumptions are basically positive. Employees can view work as being as natural as rest or play. The average employee can learn to accept, and even seek, responsibility.
What are the implications for managers?
This is best explained by using Maslow's framework Theory X assumes that lower-order needs dominate individuals. Theory Y assumes that higher-order needs dominate individuals. McGregor himself held to the belief that Theory Y assumptions were more valid than Theory X. There is no evidence to confirm that either set of assumptions is valid.
JCM concept
evidence support the concept that the presence of a set of job characteristics—variety, identity, significance, autonomy, and feedback—does generate higher and more satisfying job performance.
Group Diversity
performance is equal in diverse and non-diverse groups; diverse groups may experience conflict and lower satisfaction with the group initially, but this effect may diminish over time.
Interactional Justice
refers to an individual's perception that they are treated with dignity, concern, and respect by management
Informational Justice
refers to the perceived openness and clarity of communication provided by management
Psychological Contract
refers to the relationship between an employer and its employees, and specifically concerns mutual expectations of inputs and outcomes fairness or balance (typically as perceived by the employee) between: how the employee is treated by the employer, and what the employee puts into the job.
Norms
standards of behavior accepted and shared by the group -Norms for this class - arrive on time, no use of cell phones, no talking when other people are talking, etc. -Norms can be enforced through organizational controls or through peer pressure -Norms can be positive or negative (leading to deviant behavior)
cognitive evaluation theory
which posits that extrinsic rewards will reduce intrinsic interest in a task (e.g., golf). People paid for work feel less like they want to do it and more like they have to it. not true or proven
Groupthink
occurs when a group exerts extensive pressure on an individual to align his or her opinion with that of others; can become a problem in decision making situations when others avoid voicing disagreement even though a different course of action is called for.
Multiteam Systems
-A "team of teams" -Multiple teams that are interdependent and share a common goal -e.g., emergency medical team=First responders, Emergency room personnel, Hospital ward team
Responses to Inequity
-Change inputs - reduce effort (under-reward) or increase effort (over-reward) -Change outcomes - increase sales to increase commission payments -Distort perceptions of self - over-reward; I actually work harder than everyone else -Distort perceptions of others - She actually works harder than most people, including me -Choose a different referent - I'm not doing as well as Person A, but much better than Person B -Leave the situation - quit the job
Four major ways to increase self-efficacy.
-Enactive mastery - most important source of self efficacy; refers to gaining experience with the task or job. -Vicarious modeling - confidence increases through the success of others (I can do that too); more effective when we see the other person as similar to ourselves -Verbal persuasion - encouragement by others -Arousal - when we are in a state of higher arousal due to some stimulus, we are more likely to be able to increase our self-efficacy (getting psyched up for a task)
Stages of Group Development
-Forming Stage -Storming Stage -Norming stage -Preforming -Adjourning
Contrast reinforcement theory and goal-setting theory.
-Goal-setting is a cognitive approach, proposing that an individual's purpose directs action. -Reinforcement theory, in contrast, takes a behavioristic view, arguing that reinforcement conditions behavior. -The two theories are clearly at odds philosophically. -Reinforcement theorists see behavior as environmentally caused, while goal-setting theory places a great deal of evidence on cognition (goal acceptance, commitment) as a mediator of the relationship between the goals and performance.
Goal-Setting vs. Reinforcement Theory
-Goal-setting is a cognitive approach, proposing that an individual's purpose directs action. -Reinforcement theory, in contrast, takes a behavioristic view, arguing that reinforcement conditions behavior. -The two theories are clearly at odds philosophically. -Reinforcement theorists see behavior as environmentally caused, while goal-setting theory places a great deal of evidence on cognition (goal acceptance, commitment) as a mediator of the relationship between the goals and performance.
Implications of Self-Efficacy Theory
-Training programs often make use of enactive mastery by having people practice and build their skills. -The best way for a manager to use verbal persuasion is through the Pygmalion effect or the Galatea effect. By simply showing someone that we have high expectations for them, we can increase their self-efficacy (e.g., setting a challenging goal for an employee). -Intelligence and personality are absent from Bandura's list, but they can increase self-efficacy. Intelligence, conscientiousness, and emotional stability are associated with higher self-efficacy
Effects of extrinsic rewards
-When extrinsic rewards are used as payoffs for performance, employees feel they are doing a good job more for the reward than for the intrinsic enjoyment of the work. -Eliminating extrinsic rewards can also shift an individual's perception of why one works on a task from an external to an internal explanation. e.g., Someone retires from a website development job and then volunteers to help a non-profit company develop their website may conclude that he must enjoy the work b/c he is willing to do it for free
Status Systems
-a prestige grading, position, or rank within a group. Can be informal (seniority, experience)or formal (job title) -Power a person holds over others -Person's ability to contribute to goals -Personal characteristics (valued attributes such as intelligence, agreeable personality, etc. -More freedom to deviate from norms -More able to resist pressure to conform -High status members may elicit groupthink
Problem-solving team
-a team from the same department or functional area that's involved in efforts to improve work activities or to solve specific problems. -Members, usually from the same department or function, share ideas on how to improve work processes and methods -No authority to implement changes
Self-managed work team
-a type of work team that operates without a manager and is responsible for a complete work process or segment. -Responsible for a complete work process or segment (high task identity) -Have the authority to implement change -Up to 50% of large companies use this type of team and find them to be successful -Product development group responsibility for staffing and developing employees within the group
Self-Efficacy Theory
-based on the assumption that people who believe that they have the ability to perform a task will be more likely to succeed. -The higher your self-efficacy, the more confidence you have in your ability to succeed -When obstacles occur, people with low self-efficacy are more likely to give up while those high in self-efficacy will persist to meet the challenge -Individuals high in self-efficacy are more likely to respond to negative feedback by increasing effort and motivation while those low in self-efficacy are more likely to reduce effort and motivation
Storming Stage
-characterized by intragroup conflict while the team works through issues around who will control the group and how the work will be completed -groups will often disagree on how a project should be structured, timelines, resources needed, role accountabilities, etc. -Requires a good project leader to manage the conflict and adopt resolutions
Team Effectiveness: Contributing Factors
-context -composition -process
Goal Acceptance
-early researchers assumed that if employees participate in the goal setting process, performance would improve -Evidence is mixed with most research indicating that it impacts goal acceptance (willingness to work toward the goal) -Participation may be more important to goal commitment (persist toward goal attainment even when obstacles are encountered) -Without participation, the purpose and the importance of the goal need to be emphasized for goal setting to work. -Goal commitment: for an individual to commit to the goal, he must believe he can achieve it and want to achieve it.
Equity Theory
-employees look at what they get from a job to what they put into it compared to referent others. -The referent chosen is key in determining perceptions of equity or inequity. -People are to motivated to reduce perceived inequity, especially if they feel under-rewarded. -Over-reward inequity can result in guilt, but can more easily be rationalized than under-reward inequity.
Procedural justice
-focuses on our perceptions of the fairness of organizational methods and how they are enforced/implemented. -In addition to having input into the process and reasonable explanations for outcomes, it is important that a manager is: -Consistent across people and over time -Unbiased in making decisions using accurate information -Open to appeals
What Is a Work Team?
-groups whose members work intensely on a specific, common goal using their positive synergy, individual and mutual accountability, and complementary skills. -Teams are forms of work groups, but not all work groups are teams.
Employee involvement
-is a participative process that incorporates employee input to increase commitment to organization success. -Premise: engaging employees in decisions that affect them increases their autonomy and control over work thereby increasing motivation and productivity as well as organizational commitment and job satisfaction.
participative management
-most well-known employee involvement program - based on McGregor's Theory X/Theory Y. -Common to all participative management programs is joint decision making, subordinates share a significant degree of decision-making power with their immediate superiors. -But for it to work, employees must be engaged in issues relevant to their interests so they'll be motivated, they must have the competence and knowledge to make a useful contribution, and trust and confidence must exist among all parties.
Expectancy theory
argues that a tendency to act in a certain way depends on an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. An employee will be motivated to exert a high level of effort when he/she believes that: -Effort will lead to a good performance appraisal (Instrumentality). -A good appraisal will lead to rewards (Expectancy). -The rewards will satisfy his/her personal goals (Valence). understanding of an individual's goals and the linkage between effort and performance, between performance and rewards, and finally, between the rewards and individual goal satisfaction.
Operant conditioning theory
argues that people learn to behave to get something they want (raise, promotion) or to avoid something they don't want (lose their job).
Norming stage
characterized by close relationships and cohesiveness; members identify with being part of a group; norms are accepted regarding member behavior.
Job Characteristics Model
jobs can be described in terms of five dimensions: -Skill variety - extent to which an employee can use a number of different skills and talents -Task identity - degree to which a job requires completion of a whole identifiable piece of work e.g., assembly line worker that makes the same part repeatedly (low skill variety and task identity) versus building an entire car (high skill variety and task identity) -Task significance - the extent to which a job effects the lives or work of other people e.g., a nurse that takes care of patience versus someone who cleans the rooms - not to be confused with importance -Autonomy - the degree to which an employee has freedom to perform their work independently using discretion on how the work is done e.g., Business development manager that decides when to schedule meetings and how to develop partnerships with other businesses versus a call center operator that has defined scripts and defined breaks from the phone -Feedback - extent to which your work generates direct and clear feedback about your own performance Assembling and testing ipads versus assembling them and sending them to QA for testing and revisions
Describe the three key elements of motivation
the processes that account for an individual's intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal Motivation cannot be directly measured; it is usually inferred from other key elements -Intensity is concerned with how hard a person tries. -Direction is the orientation of effort toward goals that benefits the organization; it is where someone puts there effort. -Persistence is a measure of how long a person can maintain his/her effort; motivated individuals stay with a task long enough to achieve their goals. Performance is believed to be a function of ability and motivation.
Group
two or more interacting and interdependent individuals who come together to achieve specific goals.
