Ch 15 T's and Q's

Cossacks

Cossack's were free gorps of warrior bands which peasants joined. As landlords demanded more from the serfs who survived the persecutions, growing numbers of peasants fled to the wild, recently conquered territories to east and south to join cossacks. Ivan responded to this by tying peasants ever more firmly to the land and to noble landholders. Simultaneously, he ordered that urban dwellers be bond to their towns and jobs so that he could tax them mire heavily. When Russia entered the "Time of Troubles" cossacks and peasants rebelled against nobles and officials, demanding fairer treatment. The Cossack's rebellion, however, was crushed and brought Michael Romanos to the throne.

Peter Paul Rubens

He was a prolific seventeenth-century Flemish Baroque painter, and a proponent of an exuberant Baroque style that emphasized movement, color, and sensuality. He is well-known for his Counter-Reformation altarpieces, portraits, landscapes, and history paintings of mythological and allegorical subjects. In addition to running a large studio in Antwerp which produced paintings popular with nobility and art collectors throughout Europe, Rubens was a classically-educated humanist scholar, art collector, and diplomat who was knighted by both Philip IV, king of Spain, and Charles I, king of England. Peter Paul Rubens was probably born on June the 28th 1577 in Siegen, Germany. His parents Jan Rubens and Maria Pypelinckx had left the catholic Spanish-dominated city of Antwerp because of their Calvinist sympathies. The family had moved to Cologne with the children. Father Rubens, however, nearly escaped death sentence in Cologne after an affair with the princess of Orange.

Sovereignty

Sovereignty is the right to rule over subjects without any interference from other countries or outsiders. The idea of sovereignty began after the Peace of Westphalia ruled that nation and states had the right to rule in their disclosed territory without other states interfering. This was very important at the time because before the Peace of Westphalia, states had freely meddled in each other's business which led to conflict and war. In religious terms, the Sovereignty of God is the biblical teaching that all things are under God's rule and control, and that nothing happens without His direction or permission.

Stadholder

Stadholder was the term given to the magistrate of the Dutch colonies from the 15th to 18th century. Stadholders, which literally means state holder, had to preside of provincial assemblies, appoint officers and command provincial armies. They were the Dutch form of the Spanish viceroy. The Stadholder was the lieutenant of the colony. They had to maintain the peace and provincial order of the colony they were assigned to. Since the Dutch did very well in the lucrative fur-trade in the New World, the stadholder was very powerful in their assigned province and ended up becoming very wealthy due to taxes and Dutch fur-trade profits.

Sword Nobles

Sword Nobles are the old and traditional nobility, who have been around since the middle ages. These were the nobles seen at court, extravagantly prominent at Versailles, and these were the nobles who ran the provinces. Thought they held the most prestige, many of these nobles had small incomes, which were spent making them look wealthy. Sword Nobles were French nobleman whose nobility and position was based on their family history of position as a knight and titles attached to large pieces of land or estates. Sword Nobles were called Sword Nobles because they fought and served for the king and in exchange were given estates and large sums of money. Sword Nobles, unlike Robe Nobles had the right to carry and a sword.

The Glorious Revolution

The Glorious Revolution was the overthrow of King James II of England by a union of English Parliamentarians with the Dutch stadtholder William III of Orange-Nassau. William's successful invasion of England with a Dutch fleet and army led to his ascending of the English throne as William III of England.King James's policies of religious tolerance met with increasing opposition by members of leading political circles. After only two minor clashes between the two opposing armies in England, and anti-Catholic riots in several towns, James's regime collapsed. The Revolution permanently ended any chance of Catholicism becoming re-established in England.

What happened as a result of the war?

The Peace of Westphalia helped end the war and as a result, religious conflicts receded. Another result was the kings power now being limited and every citizen being granted freedom of religion.

Briefly explain the order and aspects of peasant life in the seventeenth century socially, politically, and economically

The order and aspects of peasant life in the seventeenth century was not a very good tie in history. Climate was unpredictable, causing many agricultural and manufacturing slumps, which in turn led to food shortages and a decrease in population. The small number of peasants in each village who owned enough land to feed themselves were leaders of the peasant villages. These leaders employed landless poor, rented out livestock and tools, and served as agents for noble lords. Villagers worked as laborers and servants. Bread was the primary element of all peasants' diets, more specifically brown bread. The peasants had a difficult life because they could not do much to begin with and their lives where made even more difficult with the little ice age occurring.

Why would the reign of the Great Elector be regarded as "the most crucial constitutional struggle in Prussian history for hundreds of years"? What did he do to increase royal authority? Who were the losers?

The reign of the Great Elector would be known as the "the most crucial constitutional struggle" because the Great Elector would remove representative powers and introduce absolutist power. Since the Estates of Brandenburg gave into the permanent taxation, constitutionalism would never be achieved. This caused him to have superior force and financial independence. To increase royal authority, he used permanent taxation. The losers were the peasants and the Estates of Brandenburg since they were the ones who became the ones ruled be the Frederick William the Great Elector, and had to pay his taxes

Junkers

They were the members of the landed nobility in Prussia. They owned great estates that were maintained and worked by peasants with few rights. They were an important factor in Prussian and, after 1871, German military, political and diplomatic leadership. The Junkers were very important to the German and Prussian military, diplomatic and political leader because there were so many of them that if they all agreed on something it could sway something in a good or bad direction.

Boyars

A boyar was a member of the highest rank of the feudal Bulgarian, Moscovian, Ruthenian, Wallachian, and Moldavian aristocracies, second only to the ruling princes, from the 10th century to the 17th century. The rank has lived on as a surname in Russia, Ukraine and Romania, and also in Finland. Boyars wielded considerable power through their military support of the Kievan princes. Power and prestige of many of them, however, soon came to depend almost completely on service to the state, family history of service and, to a lesser extent, land ownership. Ukrainian and Russian boyars were visually very similar to knights, but after the Mongol invasion, their cultural links were mostly lost. The boyars occupied the highest state offices and, through a council , advised the Grand Duke. They received extensive grants of land and, as members of the Boyars' Duma, were the major legislators of Kievan Rus'.

Serfs

A serf is an agricultural laborer bound under the feudal system to work on the lord's estate. Serfs occupied a plot of land, which they were required to work for the lord of the manor, in exchange for protection and the right to farm other fields on the manor for their own subsistence.They worked this plot in exchange for protection and the right to farm other fields on the manor. They could eat or sell what they garnered from these plots. After the Black Death, many lords were dead so serfs escaped. Local nobles were quick to pass laws that allowed nobles' families re-capture the serfs they owned. These re-captured serfs were subjected to even worse condition than before and riots broke out. There were even times where the peasants could go with unpaid labor for 6 days out of the week.

Absolutism

Absolute monarchy, or absolutism, meant that the ultimate authority to run a state was in the hands of a king who ruled by divine right. Divine right was the claim that a king was given his position by some higher power. The authority of the monarch included administration, taxes, justice and foreign policy. Other absolutist traits were the centralization of power, forced religious and standing military. One of the most prominent advocates of divine-right monarchy during the 17th century was Bishop Jacques-Benign Bossuet. According to Bossuet, all governments were ordained by God to allow humanity to live in an organized society. Because kings and queens were given their authority by god, their power was unconditional. Unlike a limited monarchy, the absolute monarch would not share his power with another governing body, such as parliament.

What were the reasons for the fall of the Spanish Empire?

By the seventeenth century, Spain was declining from their absolutism. The lack of a strong middle class, fiscal disorder, political incompetence, population decline, intellectual isolation, and psychological malaise contributed to such. The state debt and declining revenues caused currency devaluation and declaration of bankruptcy. Spanish kings reacted by canceling the national debt, thus ruining public confidence. They all lacked force of character and left the problems to others. Philip IV's administrator returned to the imperial tradition, reviving the war with the Dutch and creating one with France over Mantua. Spain became embroiled in the Thirty Years' War, while facing revolts in Catalonia and Portugal and defeat from France. The Treaty of Pyrenees of 1659, ended the French-Spanish wars, marked the end of Spain's great power.

Cardinal Mazarin

Cardinal Mazarin was Richelieu´s successor. In the service of the French crown, Mazarin's diplomatic goals were to secure peace between Spain and France. His initial years in France were full of domestic political instability and crisis with the death of Richelieu, closely followed by that of Louis XIII. The succession of the five-year-old Louis XIV to the throne in 1643 ushered in a regency government with the acting regent, the Spanish Queen Anne of Austria, holding the political authority of the king in trusteeship until he reached the age of majority when he could assume the full powers of the crown. As Richelieu's protege and Louis XIV's godfather, Mazarin became the first minister. The Fronde, developed in France during his being minister. The revolts began with the judges of the parliament or law court in Paris, spread to gain backing among some key nobles and princes, and then found popular support in Paris as well as the provinces. The causes involved royal authority, including the levying of new taxes, the perceived abuse of royal authority in dealings with the parliament, and the crown's reliance on royal commissioned officers (intendants) in the outlying provinces.

Cardinal Richelieu

Cardinal Richelieu dominated the history of France from 1624 to his death as Louis XIII's chief minister, he transmitted his ideas to the king at a young age. Richelieu is considered to be one of the greatest politicians in French history. Richelieu's time as chief minister is notable for many reasons. By restraining the power of the nobility, he transformed France into a strong, centralized state. His chief foreign policy objective was to check the power of the Austro-Spanish Habsburg dynasty. He attacked the Huguenots; reformed the navy and army; crushed any rebellions and advanced absolutism; he raised money by any methods required and he supervised a foreign policy that was designed to make France the greatest power in Europe.

Charles I

Charles I was monarch of the three kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland. Charles was the second son of King James VI of Scotland. After his succession, Charles quarreled with the Parliament of England, which sought to curb his royal prerogative. Charles believed in the divine right of kings and thought he could govern according to his own conscience. Many of his subjects opposed his policies, in particular the levying of taxes without parliamentary consent, and perceived his actions as those of a tyrannical absolute monarch. His religious policies, coupled with his marriage to a Roman Catholic, generated the antipathy and mistrust of reformed groups such as the Puritans and Calvinists, who thought his views were too Catholic. From 1642, Charles fought the armies of the English and Scottish parliaments in the English Civil War. After his defeat in 1645, he surrendered to a Scottish force that eventually handed him over to the English Parliament.

Charles II

Charles II was king of England, Scotland, and Ireland. Although the Parliament of Scotland proclaimed Charles II King, England entered the period known as the English Interregnum or the English Commonwealth, and the country was a republic, led by Oliver Cromwell. Cromwell defeated Charles II at the Battle of Worcester. Cromwell became dictator of England, Scotland and Ireland. A political crisis that followed the death of Cromwell in 1658 resulted in the restoration of the monarchy, and Charles returned to Britain. He favored a policy of religious tolerance. The major foreign policy issue of his early reign was the Second Anglo-Dutch War. Charles dissolved the English Parliament in 1681, and ruled alone until his death.

Colbert

Colbert Jean-Baptiste was a French politician who served as the Minister of Finances of France from 1665 to 1683 under the rule of King Louis XIV. He achieved a reputation for his work of improving the state of French manufacturing and bringing the economy back from the brink of bankruptcy. Colbert worked to create a favorable balance of trade and increase France's colonial holdings. Colbert worked to develop the domestic economy by raising tariffs and by encouraging major public works projects. Colbert also worked to ensure that the French East India Company had access to foreign markets, so that they could always obtain coffee, cotton, dyewoods, fur, pepper and sugar. In addition, Colbert founded the French merchant marine. He regulated the guilds.

What is constitutionalism? How does it differ from a democratic form of government? How does it differ from Absolutism?

Constitutionalism is a government where the ruling monarch is limited in their power by laws that have passed. This creates a balance between the right of citizens and the power of the government. The most vital part of a constitutionalist society was a constitution. The constitution derives its power from the government's recognition and it serves the people as a protector of their liberties, rights and property. Constitutionalist societies are either monarchies or republics but the countries electorate actually has the ultimate power over anything else. Constitutionalism is different from a democracy because in a democracy all citizens have the right to vote but in a constitutionalist society some men and usually no women can vote. Constitutionalism differs from absolutism in that an absolutist ruler is in complete charge and power and claims that his rule is God-given.

How did countries grow their militaries? What happened as a result of this growth?

Countries started to grow their militaries after realizing that the small bands of mercenaries of small reserves of fighters they had weren't enough. Wars started to be fought on a larger scale which required countries to have bigger armies. Countries grew their armies by creating drafts, sending men away to be put in the military and starting boys in military training from a young age. All of these techniques are forced immersion of men into the military. The draft worked very well and continues to work today because it is guaranteed to increase the size of the military because those drafted don't have a choice. They must join the military. The second way is sending men away to get educated and trained for the military. This was a more successful technique because the majority of soldiers for countries' armies were uneducated peasants. Because they were uneducated, at the promise of education and pay as a result of service, most peasant men agreed to fight. The final way of growing an army was beginning training of boys at a very young age. This worked well because fighting became all the boys knew and they didn't think of doing anything else so they would fight either until they were killed or until they were too old.

Elizabeth I

Elizabeth I was Queen of England and Ireland. One of her first actions as queen was the establishment of an English Protestant church, of which she became the Supreme Governor. Her time on the throne provided welcome stability for the kingdom and helped forge a sense of national identity. During her reign, she exercised very great personal power. Elizabeth was able to maintain control over her realm impart by refusing to marry and submit to a husband. She was immensely popular with her people, but left no immediate heir to continue her legacy, which ruled in James Sturt ascending to the throne.

How did countries centralize their power? What was a result of this centralization?

European countries centralized their power in a few different ways. The first is elimination of smaller, un-official ruling bodies. This may be mercenaries who take over a town and rule it or it may be land-owning nobles who think themselves fit to rule inside of a kingdom. These were eliminated by the army generally. With all of these smaller ruling bodies, sometimes it was unclear who the supreme ruler was or it the word of the king was not taken seriously, ending in confusion and sometimes rebellion. The other way power was centralized was moving all law making bodies close together. So, for example, if there were different branches of the king's rule, they would all be brought together so as to communicate more effectively and carry out the law more effectively. If bringing these bodies close together proved challenging, people called intendants would carry out the law in a respective part of the kingdom. Intendants were trusted and chosen by the king and would communicate with him on how to carry out the law in their region. The effect of government centralization was that it made governments more effective. Eliminating confusion and creating legislature together made for a clearer law to the subjects of a country as well as created a powerful figure for large, centralized governments.

Louis XIV

France's Louis XIV (1638-1718), known as the Sun King, was king for 72 years, longer than that of any other known European sovereign. In that time, he transformed the monarchy. Unlike past kings, he relied through councils and had no first ministers. because of Mazarin´s teachings, he strongly believed on his divine right to be king (absolutist trait). He also ushered in a golden age of art and literature, presided over a dazzling royal court at Versailles, annexed key territories and established his country as the dominant European power. Louis also insisted on religious unity (important absolutist trait) forcing Catholicism and prosecuting Protestants. During the final decades of Louis XIV's rule, France was weakened by several lengthy wars that drained its resources, bankrupting the State and forced him to raise taxes upon the people which brought them poverty and sickness. The mass exodus of its Protestant population followed the king's revocation of the Edict of Nantes.

Frederick William- "Great Elector"

Frederick William was Elector of Brandenburg and Duke of Prussia - and thus ruler of Brandenburg-Prussia - from 1640 until his death. A member of the House of Hohenzollern, he is popularly known as "the Great Elector" because of his military and political achievements. He restored the Hohenzollern dominions after the devastations of the Thirty Years' War—centralizing the political administration, reorganizing the state finances, rebuilding towns and cities, developing a strong army, and acquiring clear sovereignty over ducal Prussia. All these measures contributed to the foundation of the future Prussian monarchy. Frederick William was a staunch pillar of the Calvinist faith, associated with the rising commercial class. He saw the importance of trade and promoted it vigorously. His shrewd domestic reforms gave Prussia a strong position in the post-Westphalian political order of north-central Europe, setting Prussia up for elevation from duchy to kingdom, achieved under his son and successor.

Frederick William

Frederick William was known as the 'Soldier King,', and he was the King in Prussia and Elector of Brandenburg from 1713 until his death. During his reign, Frederick William I did much to centralize and improve Prussia. He replaced mandatory military service among the middle class with an annual tax, established schools and hospitals, and resettled East Prussia. The king encouraged farming, reclaimed marshes, stored grain in good times and sold it in bad times. He dictated the manual of Regulations for State Officials.

Fronde

Fronde Was a series of civil wars in France between 1648 and 1653, occurring in the midst of the Franco-Spanish War, which had begun in 1635. The Fronde was in part an attempt to check the growing power of royal government; its failure prepared the way for the absolutism of Louis XIV's personal reign. The Fronde was a reaction to the policies begun under the Cardinal de Richelieu, chief minister of Louis XIII from 1624 to 1642, who weakened the influence of the nobility and reduced the powers of the judicial bodies, called Parlements. Opposition to the government from these privileged groups gained momentum from 1643 under the "foreign" rule of the queen regent Anne of Austria (Louis XIV's mother) and her Italian-born chief minister, Jules Cardinal Mazarin. The Fronde came after the decrees of policy from Cardinals Mazarin and Richelieu. The Cardinals weakened the nobility's power and the regency of Anne of Austria. The Fronde was an attempt to stop the centralization of the French crown's authority. The nobles ruled over peasants and sometimes were kind to them, which the peasants liked.

Prussian Hohenzollerns

Hohenzollern is a dynasty of former princes, electors, kings, and emperors of Hohenzollern, Brandenburg, Prussia, the German Empire, and Romania. The family arose in the area around the town of Hechingen in Swabia during the 11th century and took their name from Hohenzollern Castle. The Prussian Hohnzollerns were a royal German family who ruled the German Empire, Romania, Prussia and Brandenberg. The dynasty was made up of princes electors, former princes, kings and emperors of Hohenzollern, the German Empire, Romania, Brandenburg and Prussia. They essentially had control over most of German politics and could therefore bend it to their will which was usually to expand. By the end of their dynasty, they had managed to unify most of Germany which was actually very momentous because at the time, it was split into about 300 separate princes and up until the Hohenzollern dynasty, no one had managed to unify that much of Germany

Peter the Great

In 1613, the Russians crowned a new tzar from the Romanov family. This family or "dynasty' would rule Russia until 1917. He successfully pursued two major policies: Westernization and expansionism. Westernization. As a young man, Peter became fascinated with the culture and technology of Western Europe. He believed that Russia could become a major military power if they westernized. He introduced many reforms. He reorganized his army according to western models and created a navy. He invited western businessmen to Russia to teach Russians modern techniques. He also forced serfs to work in mines and factories. Nobles were required to serve in the military or government. Peter also adopted western fashions. Peter also moved the capital of Russia from Moscow to St. Petersburg - a city he built on the Baltic Sea. Expansionism. In 1682, under Peter, Russia aggressively expanded. Russia fought several wars and won land along the Baltic Sea.

Mongols

In the 13th century much of Europe was conquered by the Mongols from East Asia. The Mongols dominated Russia for 240 years. They ruled by force but allowed the Russian princes to remain in power as long as taxes were collected for the Mongol ruler. The Mongol rule led to the rise of Moscow as the new center of power in Russia. Kiev lost importance. By the end of the Mongol Empire around 1480, princes had evolved into czars (tsars) or absolute rulers of Russia. Ivan III, started to get them out of Russian territory, that led to the beginning of Russian absolutism

Millet system

In the Ottoman Empire, a millet was a separate legal court pertaining to "personal law" under which a confessional community was allowed to rule itself under its own system. The Ottomans divided their subjects into religious communities called millets Each millet enjoyed autonomous self-government under its religious leaders. The Ottoman Empire recognized Orthodox Christianity, Jews, Armenian Christians, and Muslims as distinct millets, but despite its tolerance, the empire was an explicitly Islamic state. The millet system created a powerful bond between the Ottoman ruling class and religious leaders , who supported the sultan´s rule in return for extensive authority over their own communities. Each millet collected taxes for the state, regulated group behavior, and maintained law courts, schools, houses of worship, and hospitals for its people.

United Provinces of the Netherlands

In the late sixteenth century the seven northern provinces of the Netherlands fought for an down their independence from Spain. The independence of the United Provinces of the Netherlands was recognized in 1628 in the treaty that ended the Thirty Yeas War. In this period, also called the golden age of the Netherlands, Dutch ideas and attitudes played a profound role in shaping a new and modern worldview. At the same time, the Unitd Provinces developed its own distinctive model of a constitutional state. Rejecting the rule of the monarch, the Dutch established a republic, a state in which power rested in the hands of the people and was exercised through elected representatives. Among the Dutch, an oligarchy of wealthy businessmen called regents handled domestic affairs in each province´s Estates, and these held virtually all power.

Constitutionalism

It is the limitation of government by law. Constitutionalism also implies a balance between the authority and power of the government, on the one hand, and the rights and liberties of the subjects on the other. All constitutionalist governments have a constitution, be it written or unwritten. A nation´s constitution may be embodied in one basic document and occasionally revised bu amendment, like the Constitution of the United States. Or it may be only partly formalized and include parliamentary statutes, judicial decisions, and a body of traditional procedures and practices, like the English and Dutch constitutions. England and the Netherlands evolved t this type of government.

Why is it said that Locke was the spokesman for the liberal English revolution of 1689 and for representative government?

It said that Locke was the spokesman for the liberal English revolution of 1689 and for representative government because he was very adamant in his belief that people established civil governments to protect life, property and liberty. A government that stops protecting the natural rights of life, property and liberty becomes a tyranny and not a government. Under this type of government, Locke maintained that people have the right to rebel against their government. He said that economic liberty and private/political freedom were connected. Locke was very vocal of his support for representative government and was the foremost Enlightenment thinker regarding the system of government.

Ivan III

Ivan III or Ivan the Great, was a Grand Prince of the Rus and Grand Prince of Moscow. During his reign, Ivan more than tripled his state's territory. He did this by ending Mongol dominance. The Mongols were the controlling superpower and after defeating them and forcing them out of Moscow, Ivan was free to expand Moscow as much as he wanted. He also renovated the Kremlin in Moscow, a meaningful move because at the time the Kremlin represented political power and its renovation inspired a heavily nationalist sentiment among the citizens of Moscow. Through his expansion, renovation and later military strengthening, Ivan laid the foundation for what would later become an incredibly strong and powerful Russian state. He was one of Russia's longest reigning rulers.

What were the attitudes and policies of James I that made him so unpopular?

James I was very unpopular because he didn't care about carrying on the tradition of showing the majesty and mystique of the monarchy, he lacked the touch that was common in most monarchs of the time. He wasn't very social and didn't like waving at the crowds that waited to greet him wherever he went. He was a very bad judge of character and had a Scottish accent in a society where Scots were despised and hated. His policies that made him very hated were his devotion and subscription to the Divine Right of Kings. He wholeheartedly believed in it and one time he even lectured the House of Commons on how it worked. He believed nothing could stand between a king and his kingdom and he bought into the Stuart concept of absolutism which was that total royal jurisdiction over the properties, persons and liberties of English women and men were controlled completely by the king.

James I

James VI and I was King of Scotland as James VI and King of England and Ireland as James I. The kingdoms of Scotland and England were individual sovereign states, with their own parliaments, judiciary, and laws, though both were ruled by James in personal union. James himself was a talented scholar, the author of works such as Daemonologie (1597), The True Law of Free Monarchies (1598), and Basilikon Doron (1599). He sponsored the translation of the Bible. James´s greatest problem, however stemmed from his absolutist belief that a monarch has a divine right to his authority an d is responsible only to God. Bitter squabbles erupted between him and the House of Commons.

Johann Sebastian Bach

Johann Sebastian Bach was a German composer and musician of the Baroque period. He enriched established German styles through his skill in counterpoint, harmonic and motivic organisation, and the adaptation of rhythms, forms, and textures from abroad, particularly from Italy and France. His music is revered for its technical command, artistic beauty, and intellectual depth. Organist and choirmaster of several Lutheran churches across Germany, Bach was equally at home writing secular concertos and sublime religious cantatas. Bach´s organ music combined the baroque spirit of invention, tension, and emotion in an unforgettable striving toward the infinite.

John Locke

John Locke was an English philosopher who was important to the Enlightenment and known as the Father of Liberalism. His published works are important to political liberalism as well as philosophical empiricism. His whole idea of political thought was base on he social contract between citizens and the government. He also felt that toleration ,especially religious toleration, were essential to a successful government. His ideas were central to the Glorious Revolution as well as the American Revolution. Locke was the first of the Enlightenment thinkers. He was very important because he essentially began the wave of the Enlightenment and led Britain and America to new, better periods of political, economic and social ideas. Locke is also known for starting the Whig party.

Janissary corps

Less fortunate slaves formed the core of the sultan´s army, which as called the janissary corps. These highly organized and efficient troops gave the Ottomans a formidable advantage in war with western Europeans. By 1683 service in the janissary corps had become so prestigious that the sultan ceased recruitment by force, and it became a volunteer army open to Christians and Muslims.

Louis XIII

Louis XIII of France was born in 1601 and died in 1643. Louis was the son of Henry IV and Marie de Medici. He was king from 1610 on, the year of his father's assassination. His monarchy was dominated by the careers of the Duke de Luynes and Cardinal Richelieu. His monarchy saw an expansion of absolute monarchical power started by Louis XI and advanced by the likes of Francis I and Henry II. The power of the monarchy was weakened during the French Wars of Religion and Louis wanted to build on the increase in monarchical power that his father, Henry, had introduced once the war had ended. Shortly before his ninth birthday, Louis became king of France and Navarre after his father Henry IV was assassinated. His mother, Marie de' Medici, acted as regent during his minority. Mismanagement of the kingdom and ceaseless political intrigues by Marie and her Italian favourites led the young king to take power in 1617 by exiling his mother and executing her followers, including Concino Concini, the most influential Italian at the French court. He worked very closely with Cardinal Richelieu to make France a leading European power and to centralize the power of the French crown. During the reign of Louis XIII the French crown kept nobility in check, successfully intervened in the Thirty Years War against the Habsburgs and reduced the political authority of the Huguenots in France..

Discuss the foreign policy goals of Louis XIV. Was he successful?

Louis XIV's foreign policy focused mainly on expansion. In fact they focused entirely on expansion, whether peaceful or forceful. Louis may have drawn his inspiration from Cardinal Richelieu in that department as Richelieu was also an aggressive expansionist. He mainly wanted to expand against the Habsburgs and into other French speaking territories outside of French rule. Because of this, his foreign policies included many wars in which he took over some of the United Provinces of Holland, the Spanish-Netherlands and Franche-Comte. Due to this expansion, the countries around France such as Spain, the Habsburgs, England and the HRE formed alliances against him which resulted in his eventual demise after the French army could not handle the combined force of the alliance. After his defeat and death many of the territories he conquered including some French colonies were taken away from France.

Mercantilism

Mercantilism is an economic policy in which a country must sell more than it buys, or export more than it imports. It promoted governmental regulation of a nation's economy for the purpose of augmenting state power at the expense of rival national powers. It was the economic counterpart of the previous medieval version of political power: divine right of kings and absolute monarchy. Mercantilism includes a national economic policy aimed at accumulating monetary reserves through a positive balance of trade, especially of finished goods. One of the best examples of mercantilism is France during the reign of King Louis XIV under the guidance of Colbert. The goal of mercantilist economic policies was to build up the state, especially in an age of incessant warfare.

Republicanism

Republicanism is an ideology of being a citizen in a state as a republic under which the people hold popular sovereignty. Many countries are "republics" in the sense that they are not monarchies. However, this article covers only the ideology of republicanism. Republicanism is a form of government in which there is no monarch and the power rests in the hands of the people as exercised through elected representatives. Republicanism is an ideology of being a citizen in a state as a republic under which the people hold popular sovereignty.The word, republic, derives from the Latin, res publica, which referred to the system of government that emerged in the 6th century BCE following the expulsion of the kings from Rome by Lucius Junius Brutus and Collatinus.

In what ways does Richelieu symbolize absolutism? What were his achievements?

Richeliu had a policy of total subordination of all groups and institutions to the French monarchy. The nobility was long considered the biggest threat to the centralizing goals of the crown and a strong national state, so Richelieu sought to restrain their power. In 1624, he re-shuffled the royal council and eliminated any threats to power. He dominated the council, leveling castles, long the symbol of feudal independence, and crushed aristocratic conspiracies quickly. His greatest accomplishment is the administrative system he established, which consisted of royal commissioners, called intendants, that ran the 32 géraliti or districts, France was made up of. They ran special tasks, like financial, judicial, and policing. As intendants' power increased under Richelieu, so did the power of the centralized French state.

Robe Nobles

Robe Nobles Under the Old Regime of France, the Nobles of the Robe or Nobles of the Gown were French aristocrats whose rank came from holding certain judicial or administrative posts. As a rule, the positions did not of themselves give the holder a title of nobility, such as baron, count, or duke (but the holder might also hold such a title), but they were almost always attached to a specific function. The offices were often hereditary, and by 1789, most had inherited their positions. The most influential of them were the 1,100 members of the 13 parlements, or courts of appeal. They were distinct from the "Nobles of the Sword", whose nobility was based on their families' traditional function as the knightly class and whose titles were usually attached to a particular feudal fiefdom, a landed estate held in return for military service. Together with the older nobility, the Nobles of the Robe made up the Second Estate in pre-revolutionary France.

Baroque

The Baroque is often thought of as a period of artistic style that used exaggerated motion and clear, easily interpreted detail to produce drama, tension, exuberance, and grandeur in sculpture, painting, architecture, literature, dance, theater, and music. The style began around 1600 in Rome and Italy, and spread to most of Europe. The popularity and success of the Baroque style was encouraged by the Catholic Church, which had decided at the time of the Council of Trent, in response to the Protestant Reformation, that the arts should communicate religious themes in direct and emotional involvement. The aristocracy also saw the dramatic style of Baroque architecture and art as a means of impressing visitors and expressing triumph, power and control.

English Bill of Rights

The Bill of Rights is an Act of the Parliament of England that deals with constitutional matters and sets out certain basic civil rights. The Bill of Rights lays down limits on the powers of the monarch and sets out the rights of Parliament, including the requirement for regular parliaments, free elections, and freedom of speech in Parliament. It sets out certain rights of individuals including the prohibition of cruel and unusual punishment and reestablished the liberty of Protestants to have arms for their defense within the rule of law. Furthermore, the Bill of Rights described and condemned several misdeeds of James II of England. These ideas reflected those of the political thinker John Locke.

Divine Right of Kings

The Divine Right of Kings, divine right, or God's mandate is a political and religious doctrine of royal and political legitimacy. It asserts that a monarch is subject to no earthly authority, deriving the right to rule directly from the will of God. The king is thus not subject to the will of his people, the aristocracy, or any other estate of the realm, including (in the view of some, especially in Protestant countries and from the reign of Henry VIII of England) the Catholic Church. It implies that only God can judge an unjust king and that any attempt to depose, dethrone or restrict his powers runs contrary to the will of God and may constitute a sacrilegious act. It is often expressed in the phrase "by the Grace of God", attached to the titles of a reigning monarch.

Describe the Dutch system of government. What was unusual about the Dutch attitudes toward religious beliefs?

The Dutch system of government was a confederation of seven provinces with each having an oligarchy of wealthy merchants called regents. The regents handled the local domestic affairs and the provincial estate held most of the power. There was also a states general which took care of wars and foreign issues but it didn't have much power in local matters. The Dutch were different from that of Western European States because of its tolerance of all religion. The Dutch attitudes towards religious belief was unusual because at the time, patriotism was closely related with religious uniformity, but Dutch sacrificed this idea for the sake of business which paid off and attracted a great deal of foreign capitals and investments.

What were the immediate and long-range causes of the English Civil War? What were the results?

The English Civil War could have been predicted from the start of the rule of James. Both James I and Charles I believed in their divine right and refused to share any power or decision making with the Parliament or the House of Commons. Also religion became a conflict between the monarchy and the people. The people wanted further reform in the Church of England but the kings refused. Immediate causes of the war included the Scottish invasion and the Irish rebellion. Parliament's refusal to provide Charles I with an army caused Charles to gather his own army against the Parliament. In result, Charles I was executed and England entered a period of military dictatorship.

The Great Chain of Being

The Great Chain of Being was the social order that linked God to his creation in a series of ranked social groups. At the top, the monarch was celebrated as a semi divine being, chosen by God to embody the state. In Catholic countries, the clergy occupied the second leve, due to their sacred role interceding with God and the saints on behalf of their flocks. Next came nobles, whose privileged status derived from their ancient bloodlines and centuries of sacrifice on the battlefield. Many merchants shared spot with the nobles through service to the rising monarchs of the 15th and 16th centuries, they constituted a second tier of nobles. Those lower on the social scale, the peasants and artisans who constituted the vast majority of the population, were expected to defer to their betters with humble obedience. This new social hierarchy differed from pas times in one important detail: after the religious wars the clergy was not above the monarch, in this time period the monarch is in a superior level.

Austrian Habsburgs

The Habsburgs emerged from the Thirty Years War impoverished and exhausted. They efforts to restore the power of the Holy Roman Empire had failed. They lost their power to separate political jurisdictions. Instead of turning t exploration, they decided to get themselves together, to unify their lands. They did this by establishing a common vernacular, which was German, imposing Catholicism as the national religion, making a norm that three days a week peasants were not to be paid and centralized government.. These new ideas were imposed to the people, which made it an absolutist monarchy.

little ice age

The Little Ice Age chilled the planet between the 14th and late 19th centuries. Europe bore the brunt of its ill effects, experiencing harsh and fickle weather for several centuries and especially from 1560 to 1660. It meant a shorter farming season with lower yields, which created food shortages that lead to famine. This had a great impact on population. Due to malnutrition, people started to get sick and die, making the population decrease. There were even outbreaks of the bubonic plague. Since the peasants had a difficult life, this affected the industry as well. Food prices were high, there was unemployment, and there was a huge economic crisis. Due to food shortages, peasants (especially women), began to invade bakeries and stole bread to sell it a a fair price, this was called moral economy.

Peace of Westphalia

The Peace of Westphalia ended the Thirty Years War and it marked a point in European history. For the most part, religious conflicts receded. The treaties recognized the independent authority of more that three hundred German princes, reconfirming the emperor`s limited authority. The Augsburg agreement became permanent, adding Calvinism to Catholicism and Lutheranism as legally permissible creeds. The north German stated remained Protestant, the south German states Catholic.

Romanovs

The Russian Imperial Romanov family and all those who chose to accompany them into exile - notably Eugene Botkin, Anna Demidova, Alexei Trupp and Ivan Kharitonov. After the failed rebellion of the Cossacks, Michael Romanov ascended to the throne. He achieved to reconsolidate central authority, but he and his successors did not improve the lot of the common people. he extended serfdom to all peasant in the realm, gave nobles unrestricted rights over the serfs and established penalties for harboring runaways. This resulted in social and religious uprising among the poor and oppressed to continue throughout the seventeenth century. On of the largest rebellions was led by the Cossack Stenka Razin, he and his followers killed landlords and government officials and proclaimed freedom, but their rebellion was defeated.

What began the thirty years' war? Explain how the Thirty Years' war went from a religious confrontation to a political one.

The Thirty Years War began when Ferdinand II, the Holy Roman Empire of Bohemia, attempted to decrease and monitor the religious activities of his subjects which made Protestants mad and started rebellions. Protestants who Ferdinand II oppressed asked other Protestants for help. Protestants from Britain, the Dutch Republic and Denmark became their allies. In response to this, Ferdinand II enlisted the help of German, Spanish and papal Catholics. Soon after, Ferdinand II issued the Edict of Restitution. The Edict reclaimed land that Protestants inhabited, claiming it had been acquired for the Catholic church. The Swedes were the first to step in, reviving the Protestant sentiment.The Spanish Habsburgs saw this and stepped in, pushing back the Protestants. This move inspired France to declare war on Spain, afraid of being encircled. These state inputs turned the Thirty Years War, initially a religious conflict, into a political dispute among most of Europe's major superpowers.

War of Spanish Succession- causes and results

The War of Spanish Succession was a major European conflict during the early 18th century. It was caused by the death of Charles II, the last Habsburg King of Spain. Charles II on his deathbed gave the entire Spanish inheritance to Philip, Duke of Anjou, who as Louis XIV's grandson. In addition, the threat of Spain and France becoming united under a single monarch caused England, the Dutch Republic, and Austria to form an alliance to support Archduke Charles' claim to the Spanish inheritance. The War of Spanish Succession ended with the Peace of Utrecht, which resulted in the partitioning of the Spanish empire and restored the European balance of power. The Austrians received most of Spain's former European realms, but the Philip, the Duke of Anjou retained peninsular Spain and Spanish America, where, after renouncing his claim to the French succession, he reigned as King Philip V.

Peace of Utrecht

The peace of Utrecht is a series of treaties that concluded the War of the Spanish Succession. It put an end to French expansion and signaled the rise of the British Empire. -By the treaty between England and France Louis XIV recognized the English succession as established in the house of Hanover and confirmed the renunciation of the claims to the French throne of Louis's grandson, Philip V of Spain. Some French were ceded to England by a treaty with the Netherlands France agreed to surrender to Austria the Spanish Netherlands. A commercial treaty between France and the Netherlands was also signed. France furthermore restored Savoy and Nice to Victor Amadeus II, recognizing him as king of Savoy. France also signed a treaty with Portugal and one with Prussia confirming the kingship of the Prussian rulers. The Anglo-Spanish treaty (July 13, 1713) confirmed the clauses of the Anglo-French treaties relating to the English and French successions. Spain ceded Gibraltar and Minorca to Great Britain and ceded Sicily to Savoy. Britain and Spain signed the Asiento, an agreement giving Britain the sole right to the slave trade with Spanish America.

What were the social conditions of Eastern Europe? How did rulers of Austria and Prussia transform their nations into powerful absolutist monarchies?

The social conditions of Eastern Europe revolved around a hierarchy. The hierarchy consisted of social classes with monarchs at the top and descending starting with clergy, nobles, merchants, then finally artisans and peasants. This system gave lots of power to the higher rungs of the ladder and left the peasants and artisans with nothing. There was also a patriarchal hierarchy in families where the father was the undisputed head of the household with everyone else underneath him. This system gave the father permission to punish or put any other member of the family in their place if necessary. The rulers of Prussia and Austria transformed their nations into powerful absolutist monarchies by centralizing power and controlling religious practice. They controlled all power and made it so it originated from one part of their empire, making them very powerful. They also forced religious practice which asserted to their subjects that they were above them and much more powerful than them.

Sultan

The sultan was the ruler of the Ottoman Empire, he owned all the agricultural land of the empire and was served by an army and bureaucracy commodes of highly trained slaves.Agricultural lands were their personal heritage and peasants had to pay taxes to use the and. There was therefore an almost complete absence of private landed property and no hereditary nobility.

Was the revocation of the Edict on Nantes an error on the part of Louis XIV? Why or why not?

Though it is highly debatable that King Louis XIV made the correct decision in revoking the Edict of Nantes, he had many reasons for doing so. The French monarchy did not intend for religious toleration to be permanent, as religious pluralism was not regarded as a 17th century virtue. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes was also very popular, as aristocrats had wanted Louis XIV to crack down on the Protestants for a long time. Tens of thousands of Huguenot craftsmen, soldiers, and businessmen were emigrated, taking away their skills, revenues, and bitterness to Holland, England, Prussia, and Cape Town.

Versailles- what purpose did it serve?

Versailles The Palace of Versailles is the central part of a complex that housed the French government, most notably its royalty, during the reigns of Louis XIV, Louis XV and Louis XVI. After the French Revolution in 1789, it ceased to be a permanent royal residence. he Palace's glory and spectacle served as a symbol of the French crown's wealth and power. During the reign of Louis XIV, he made all of the members of the French nobility live in the Palace. Servants also lived in the Palace and many counts of what life was like suggest that it was actually crowded and very noisy inside. The Palace served two main purposes: by forcing everyone of importance to live there, Louis XIV consolidated and centralized the power of the French crown. The second purpose served by the Palace was it sheer size and look where a very powerful image for people of the French crown's wealth and power.