Ch 5

goals & intentions

15 month olds can make inferences about what a person will do based on the knowledge of what the person knows expect reach for teddy bear when moved- stare longer

what is CC

A form of learning that consists of associating an initial stimulus with a stimulus that always evokes a particular reflexive response

differentiation

A key process in perceptual learning Children extract from the constantly changing stimulation and events in the environment the relation between the elements that are constant—invariable or stable.

Unconditional response (UCR):

A reflexive response that is elicited by the UCS

Unconditional stimulus (UCS):

A stimulus that evokes a reflexive response

statistical learning

A type of learning involving picking up information from the environment and detecting statistically predictable patterns When regularity and predictability of objects, events, and other stimuli is violated, infants take notice.

scale errors

Attempts by young children to perform an action on a miniature object that is impossible due to the large discrepancy in the relative sizes of the child and the object eg. toy car, chair

pre reaching movements

Clumsy swiping movements by young infants toward the general vicinity of objects they see

Habituation

Decline in response to an object get bored fast

perceptual narrowing of sound

Developmental changes in which experience fine-tunes the perceptual system respond to rhythm in music 9months perceiving whats in own culture

facial preferences - attractiveness

From birth onward, infants look longer at and interact more positively with faces that adults find more attractive

violation of expectancy

Infants are shown an event that should evoke surprise or interest. The event violates something the infants know or assume to be true. In experimental situations, infants as young as 3 1⁄2 months looked longer at impossible events than at possible events.

touch

Infants learn about their environments through touch. Oral exploration is dominant in infants. Around the age of 4 months, infants rub, finger, probe, and bang objects. Their actions become specific to the properties of the objects. They develop mental maps of their own bodies.

sound preferences

Infants prefer infant-directed singing over adult-directed singing. Infants prefer infant-directed singing over adult-directed speech. Infant music perception is adultlike. Infants prefer consonant (soft) music as opposed to dissonant music. happy over angry voices

social knowledge

Infants understand that the behaviour of others is purposive and goal-directed.

early pioneers:

Infants' motor development is governed by brain maturation.

infants and intermodal perception

Information from different sense modalities is initially perceived as separate. It unifies gradually. Infants can connect between sights and sounds. Infants can connect between what they have seen and felt (touched).

motor development -reflexes

Innate fixed patterns of action that occur in response to particular stimulation

what are cones

Light-sensitive neurons that are highly concentrated in the fovea (the central region of the retina) - 20/120 vision, distance is progressive

current theorists, Motor development results from confluence of

Neural mechanisms Increases in infants' strength Posture control Balance Perceptual skills Changes in body proportions Motivation

thelen and colleagues

Normal disappearance of the stepping reflex is not caused by cortical maturation Movement pattern (and its neural basis) remains but is masked by the changing ratio of leg weight to strength chubby babies (h20) vs slimmer babies (Weight)

what is auditory localization

Perception of the location in space of a sound source. This improves as the infant grows.

newborns pictorial

Recognize 2D versions of 3D objects

taste and smell

Sensitivity to taste develops prenatally. Newborns prefer sweet flavours. Newborns prefer the smell of breast milk. Infants can recognize the smell of their mothers from the smell of other women.

what is visual acuity

Sharpness of visual discrimination • Simple versus complex patterns age 6- same as adult

motor developments in newborns

Some reflexes have clear adaptive value Others have no known adaptive significance neonatal reflex, rooting, sucking, tonic neck, moro

zelazo and colleagues of stepping reflex

Stepping reflex continued to show after 2 months when infants given practice; cortical maturation cannot account for vanishing

early theory of stepping reflex

Stepping reflex typically disappears around 2 months of age as result of cortical maturation

what is contrast sensitivity

The ability to detect differences in light and dark areas in a visual pattern High-contrasting patterns versus low-contrasting patterns

self locomotion

The ability to move oneself around in the environment practice vital

what is intermodal perception

The combining of information from two or more sensory systems

What is binocular disparity

The differences between retinal image of an object in each eye that results in two slightly diff signals being sent to the brain more disparity when closer

what is object segregation

The identification of separate objects in a visual array

Conditioned response (CR):

The originally reflexive response that comes to be elicited by the CS

what is perceptual constancy

The perception of objects as being of constant size, shape, colour, and so on, in spite of physical differences in the retinal image of the object Children have size constancy. Experience is not necessary for it.

what are affordances

The possibilities for action offered, or afforded, by objects and situations

Conditioned stimulus (CS):

The stimulus that is repeatedly paired with the UCS

obj segregation- culture

Uk more emphasis on looking at mouths Japan - eyes fish tank - americans big fish, collectivist - context

cross-culture research of pictorial

Understanding relationship between 2D images and 3D objects requires experience with pictorial media exposure- not as developed in peru , rural india

imitating intentions

When 18-month-olds see a person apparently try, but fail, to pull the ends off a dumbbell, they imitate pulling the ends off - the action the person intended to do, not what the person actually did. They do not imitate a mechanical device at all

what is optical expansion

When the visual image of an object increases in size as the object comes toward us, occluding more and more in the background

facial preferences

With experience, infants develop preference for the type of face they see most often and begin to understand the significance of different facial expressions

pictorial representations

Young children and adults perceive pictures in similar ways but understanding of meaning develops later

positive reinforcement

a reward that reliably follows a behavior and increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated

Rational learning Xu

ability to use prior experiences to predict what will occur in the future ping pong balls with babies used violation of expectancy procedure 70 white:5 red - ifi 4 red & 1 white = v.o.e

auditory perception

age 5/6 , same as adult hearing is most advanced in newborns

what is colour perception

appears 2 months of age. Infants prefer unique hues over hue combinations. There is evidence of colour categories in infants' brains. Colour categorization is present before language acquisition.

19 months

appreciation of the symbolic nature of 2D objects

other race effect (ORE)

by 3 months there is a pref for same race by 6 months - can make distinction bt faces by 9 months- better at discriminating own race driven by experience & surroundings (perceptual narrowing)

why do infants have low acuity

cones are not fully developed only 2% of light getting into fovea

7 month old - scanning

detect subjective contour (circles make shape)

degree to which motor skills are encouraged varieties culture to culture

early locomotion actively discouraged ( modern urban china; anche of rain forest of paraguay ) early locomotion actively encouraged (kipsigis of rural kenya; groups in west africa and west india ) regardless of exposure- similar sequence

reaching results in

in visual development and motor development. Reaching behaviour enhances several aspects of infants' understanding of the world around them.

around 8 months self locomotion

infants become capable of self locomotion for the first time as they crawl

around 11 to 12 months locomotion

infants begin walking independently , using toddling gait

physical knowledge

infants knowledge about the physical world is not limited to what they know and are learning about objects. knowledge of gravity begins in the first year infants gradually understand under what conditions one object can support another Even in the first year, infants can understand that objects do not float in midair (Baillargeon, 1998)

visual acuity in young infants

involves sharpness of visual discrimination can be estimated by comparing how long infant looks at research patterns infants prefer to look at patterns of high visual contrast infants have poor contrast sensitivity

active learning

learning by acting on the world, rather than passively observing objects and events

instrumental (operant) conditioning

learning the relation between one's own behavior and the consequences that result from it

observational learning/imitation

learning through observation or other people's behavior mirror neuron

what is preferential technique

method for studying visual attention in infants

Experience with specific objects helps infants understand their physical properties. - obj segregation

movement is powerful perception cue eg. w/out movement infants cant see solid rod - see two

visual scanning & pattern perception

newborns scan environments 2 month old infants can track & analyze & integrate separate elements of a visual display into coherent pattern

what is stereopsis

process by which the visual cortex combines the differing neural signals caused by binocular disparity

7 months reaching

reaching becomes stable when infants sit independently.

five month old pictorial

recognize people & object in pictures & drawings

age and colour perception

respond in change in category (blue - red) - age 5 months

what is the visual cliff

role experience and social referencing understanding & learning = more experience they know more / wont or will be harmed

what does preferential technique involve

showing infants two patterns or two objects at a time Preference of one object over another measured expectation that babies look longer @ objects they find interesting

rational learning

the ability to use prior experiences to predict what will occur in the future

monocular depth (pictorial cues)

the perceptual cues of depth (eg. relative size & interposition) that can be perceived by one eye alone eg. forground vs background 7 months

What is perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, about objects and events, world around us under age 7 - trouble seeing both duck and rabbit - convinced theyre correct

what is sensation

the processing of basic information from the world through the sense organs (eyes, skin, ears, etc)

how can newborns hearing be checked

with advanced equipment, but screening is needed for hearing loss that may occur later. As a check, does a child react to loud sounds, imitate sounds—as in peekaboo—or begin to respond to his or her name?