Ch. 5 The Civilization of Ancient Rome

Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus

(519-c. 430 B.C.E.), The paragon of Roman heroism in this era and a stout-hearted citizen-farmer who reluctantly accepted political office when Rome was threatened by attack. According to legend, he was found plowing his fields when a delegation of senators arrived to bring him to Rome. When in the city, he found that he had been named dictator: a word that originally (like tyrant in Greece) had neutral connotations. This was a position of power to which the Romans elected one man during times of crisis. And as the term implies, the dictator's job was to tell everyone what they should do in a tough situation requiring decisive leadership. ---As legend has it, Cincinnatus dutifully performed this role, led Rome in its wars with hostile neighbors—and then went back to his farm. If Lucretia was the Roman epitome of matronly fortitude, Cincinnatus was the paradigm of manly virtue: willing to put his hand to politics or warfare, but preferring to put it to the plow

Claudius

(r. 41 AD - 54 AD) He was born on August 1, 10 BC, in Lugdunum, Gaul (modern-day Lyon, France). Son of Nero Claudius Drusus, a popular and successful Roman general, and Antonia Minor, the daughter of Mark Antony and Octavia Minor. He was the brother of Germanicus, who was also a successful general and the father of Caligula, who would later become emperor. ---Claudius suffered from a variety of physical ailments and was seen as weak and unintelligent by his family and contemporaries. However, he was an accomplished scholar and writer, with a particular interest in history and antiquities. He became emperor after the assassination of his nephew, Caligula. Despite his reputation as a weak and ineffective leader, Claudius proved to be a capable and effective ruler. He expanded the Roman Empire through conquests in Britain, Thrace, and Mauretania, and reformed the legal system and the bureaucracy. ---Patron of the arts and literature, and he wrote several works of history, including a history of the Etruscans and a biography of his own life. He also encouraged the development of Latin literature and sponsored the publication of many works. --Died on October 13, 54 AD, possibly as a result of poisoning by his fourth wife, Agrippina the Younger. Despite his accomplishments, Claudius was often portrayed as a foolish and weak emperor by later Roman historians, but modern scholars have reassessed his reign and view him as a competent and effective ruler who oversaw a period of stability and expansion for the Roman Empire.

Nero

(r. 54-68 AD), fifth Roman emperor. Born in Antium (modern-day Anzio), Italy, to a prominent Roman family. Nero's father, Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, died when Nero was young, and his mother, Agrippina the Younger, married the emperor Claudius and helped secure Nero's succession to the throne. ---Nero is perhaps best known for his controversial reign, which was marked by a series of scandals and political intrigues. He was accused of murdering his stepbrother Britannicus, his mother, and his wife Octavia, among others. He was also criticized for his extravagance and his brutal persecution of Christians, which included burning them alive and using them as human torches to light his gardens. ---Despite his many flaws, Nero is also remembered for his artistic and cultural achievements. He was a skilled musician and actor, and he reportedly sang and played the lyre in public performances. He also commissioned grand public works, including the Domus Aurea (Golden House), a sprawling palace complex that covered much of the city of Rome. ---Nero's reign came to an end in 68 AD, when a rebellion broke out and he was declared a public enemy by the Senate. Faced with the prospect of execution, Nero committed suicide on June 9, 68 AD, at the age of 30. His death marked the end of the Julio-Claudian dynasty and ushered in a period of civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors.

Which events or people were part of the legendary founding of Rome, rather than from the historical record of the Roman past?

-Romulus and Remus -Aeneas of Troy -Early Romans abducted Sabine wives

establishment of the Roman Republic in chronological order:

-The latins crossed the alps and settled along the tiber river -Estrucans had a confederation of city-states in north-central Italy -Early romans negotiated an important set of agreements with their neighbors, called the Latin Right - Romans expanded their territory and replaced their king with two elected officials -The law of twelve tables turned custom into law, which eventually improved life for the plebians

What developments laid the groundwork for Julius Caesar's eventual control of Rome in chronological order?

-The punic wars began -Roman conquest of the eastern Mediterranen changed the Roman culture and economy -In Sicily, 70,000 enslaved people rose in rebellion against a Roman army -The gracchi attempted to enact political and land reforms -Marius's reforms shifted soldier's loyalties from the state to their own commanders

The luxurious lifestyles of the wealthy meant that dozens of slaves in every household were trapped in a cycle of menial tasks such as:

-door-keepers -litter-bearers -couriers -valets -wet-nurses -child-minders {In some great households, designated slaves had no other duties than to rub down the master after his bath or to keep track of the mistress's social engagements. It was a life that debased both slave and owner, and undermined the values of the republic}

Identify the people who made up the plebeian classes

-farmers and artisans -urban poor -merchants

Rome required that its soldiers be _______. They were also required to serve for years at a time. As a result of their absence from home, many soldiers lost their land to local aristocrats, who amassed property into giant plantations called _______.

-landholders -latifundia

As it established more organized control over its vast territory, what sort of services did the Roman government provide to its urban residents?

-roads and bridges -public drinking water -police forces and fire brigades

expensive slaves did the specialized jobs, such as?

-secretaries -bookkeepers -personal assistants -playwrights -musicians -sculptors -artists {There was no reason to employ paid labor at all, or even to train oneself in these arts, as the Greeks had. By the first century B.C.E., as a result, a third of Rome's one million inhabitants were receiving free grain from the state, partly to keep them alive and partly to keep them quiet}

Romans lauded Cincinnatus as a hero, why?

-when he was appointed as dictator of Rome in 458 BC to deal with a crisis that threatened the city's survival. Cincinnatus was a farmer at the time and had no desire to be involved in politics or government, but he accepted the appointment and quickly mobilized the Roman army to confront the enemy. Within sixteen days, he had successfully defeated the enemy, after which he resigned his dictatorship and returned to his farm. -Cincinnatus' actions demonstrated his sense of duty and patriotism, and he became a symbol of selflessness and civic virtue in Roman culture. He was praised for his willingness to put aside his own interests in order to serve the greater good, and he became a model for future Roman leaders to follow. -In addition to his military and political accomplishments, Cincinnatus was also known for his personal integrity and humility. He lived a simple life and refused to accept bribes or engage in corruption, earning him the respect and admiration of his fellow Romans. Overall, Cincinnatus' legacy as a hero in Roman history is based on his embodiment of the values that were most highly prized in Roman society, including duty, virtue, and

Roman territorial expansion in chronological order

1. Settlements in the region around Rome developed a set of agreements called the Latin Right, establishing rules about trade, intermarriage, and free migration between cities 2. Rome extended citizenship rights to men in newly acquired territories, while also requiring military service. This grew the Roman army. 3. Between 201 B.C.E, and 44 B.C.E., Rome gained control of Carthaginian territory, modern-day-Spain and France, plus Hellenistic lands in the eastern Mediterranean 4. The Gracchi brothers attempted to address growing inequalities through land reforms and price controls.

The Roman Republic had an unusually strong army by comparison to other ancient peoples in the region. How large was the army of the Roman Republic?

300,000 soldiers

Amount of Roman Slaves by 146 BCE and by the end of the second century BCE

55,000 Carthaginians were enslaved after the destruction of their city; not long before, 150,000 Greek prisoners of war had met the same fate By the end of the second century B.C.E., there were a million slaves in Italy alone

How did the Gracchi reforms, despite their ultimate failure, contribute to a shift in the balance of power within the Roman Republic?

Although the reforms of the Gracchi were ultimately unsuccesful, they exposed the weakness of the Senate and increased the power of the plebs, whose favor was now courted by a succession of ambitious men. Most of these were professional soldiers who controlled one or more legions of the Roman army and who traded on military victories abroad to win the confidence of the people and access to power

What were the key events of the Jewish rebellions in Judea against the Romans in 70 C.E. and 135 C.E., and how did these revolts impact the city of Jerusalem, which was later refounded as Aelia Capitolina under Hadrian's rule?

Another rebellion was violently quashed in Judea, the most restive of all Roman provinces, leading to the destruction of the Temple at Jerusalem in 70 C.E. In 135 C.E. a second rebellion completed the destruction of the city. Although it was refounded by Hadrian as Aelia Capitolina, a colony for veterans of Rome's army, Jews were forbidden to settle there

What happened to Antony and Octavian after the skirmish between Brutus and Gaius Cassius?

Antony went to the East and made an alliance with Cleopatra, plotting to use the resources of Egypt against Octavian {For ten years, Antony played the king in Egypt, fathering three of Cleopatra's children and making big plans for annexing Rome's eastern provinces}. Octavian, meanwhile, reestablished himself in Rome, where he skillfully portrayed Antony as having been seduced and emasculated by his foreign lover, the Egyptian queen

The things Caesar did to get himself killed

Appointing himself as dictator for life: In 44 BC, Caesar was appointed as dictator for life by the Roman Senate, which gave him nearly unlimited power and made him a de facto king. Many members of the Senate believed that this went against the traditional Roman values of republican government, where power was supposed to be held by elected officials and limited by the rule of law.Granting citizenship to non-Romans: In an effort to increase his popularity and strengthen his support base, Caesar granted Roman citizenship to non-Romans, including people from the Italian and Gallic tribes. This move was seen as controversial by many traditionalists who believed that Roman citizenship should be reserved for those of Roman blood. Pardoning former enemies: Despite having enemies who had fought against him in the past, Caesar pardoned many of them and even offered them positions of power in his government. This decision was seen as a betrayal by some of his supporters who believed that these individuals were not to be trusted. Making unpopular changes to the calendar: Caesar introduced a new calendar, known as the Julian calendar, which was more accurate than the previous calendar but made significant changes to the traditional Roman calendar. This decision was seen as controversial by many traditionalists who believed that the old calendar was an important part of Roman culture and tradition. Increasing his personal power and authority: Caesar was known for his ambition and his desire for personal power and authority. He was seen by many as a threat to the stability of the Roman Republic and to the traditional values of Roman society.

How did the Roman legal system evolve over time, and what were some of the key influences that contributed to its development and effectiveness?

As impressive and ingenious as Roman architecture and engineering are, the most durable and useful of this civilization's legacies was its system of law. Over the course of several centuries, the primitive legal code of the Twelve Tables was largely replaced by a series of new precedents and principles. These reflect the changing political climate of Rome and the needs of its diverse and ever-growing population They also show the influence of new philosophies (especially Stoicism), the decisions of judges and the edicts of magistrates called praetor (who had the authority to define and interpret law in particular cases, and to issue instructions to judges).

equestrians

As overseas merchants, they profited handsomely from Rome's voracious appetite for foreign luxury goods. As representatives of the Roman government in the provinces, they operated mines, built roads, and collected taxes, always with an eye toward their own profits. They were also the principal moneylenders to the Roman state and to distressed individuals. Interest rates were high, and when the state could not pay its bills, it would often allow the moneylenders to repay themselves by exploiting the populations of the provinces.

Julius Caesar

Born in 100 BC into a prominent Roman family, he received education in law and oratory, kickstarting his political career when elected to the prestigious position of Pontifex Maximus in 63 BC. In 59 BC, Caesar assumed the governorship of Gaul, demonstrating his exceptional military leadership by conquering the region and employing innovative tactics. Upon his return to Rome in 49 BC, Caesar was ordered by the Senate to disband his army and retire. Instead, he crossed the Rubicon River, initiating a civil war that he ultimately won. He assumed the position of dictator in 44 BC, introducing a series of reforms, from reorganizing the Roman calendar to extending citizenship to non-Romans. Caesar's grand building projects in Rome added to his legacy. ---Despite his achievements, his growing power and ambition made him the target of political adversaries who conspired to assassinate him on March 15, 44 BC. This event plunged Rome into chaos and left a lasting impact on the Roman Empire, shaping language, law, and culture in Western civilization. Caesar's conquests and reforms turned Rome into a superpower, but his actions were divisive, with some viewing his assassination as a necessary act of political resistance against his perceived tyranny. Julius Caesar remains an enduringly influential and complex figure in Western history.

What were the key factors that contributed to Rome's transformation from a dominant power on the Italian peninsula in 300 B.C.E. to its eventual conquest of Greece, expansion across the Hellenistic world, and even influence in northwestern Europe by the first century of the Common Era?

By 300 B.C.E. Rome was the dominant power on the Italian peninsula. Two centuries later, it had conquered Greece itself. The next three centuries after that—an unprecedented period of sustained expansion—its power steadily increased. In the first century of our era, it ruled the Hellenistic world as well as a vast region that Greek culture had never touched: northwestern Europe.

How did Rome's army in the middle of the third century B.C.E compare in size and training to the Greek forces who had turned to paid soldiering due to economic reasons during the same time period?

By the middle of the third century B.C.E, Rome's army may have numbered as many as 300,00 a huge force even by modern standards, and all the more formidable due to the soldiers' rigorous training. As we have seen, the Greeks had eventually turned to paid soldiering out of economic necessity, but they fought in smaller numbers

Estrucans

By the sixth century B.C.E., the Etruscans had established a confederation of independent city-states in north-central Italy. Characterized by being skilled metalworkers, artists, and architects, from whom the Romans later took their knowledge of the arch and the vault, among much else, including the bloody sport of gladiatorial combat and the practice of foretelling the future by studying the entrails of animals and the flight of birds ---In marked contrast to Greek society, Etruscan women enjoyed a very high status and played important roles in public life {They participated in politics and sporting events, they attended dramatic performances and athletic competitions, and they danced in ways that shocked both Greeks and Romans} ---Etruscan wives also ate meals with their husbands, another departure from both Greek and Roman custom, and reclined with them on the same couch at banquets ---After death, these devoted couples were buried together in the same mortuary vaults, and their tombstones and sarcophagi often emphasize mutual affection. Etruscan families even traced their descent through the female line.

How did Julius Caesar's policies aim to reduce the distinction between Italians and provincials in the Roman Empire? What did Caesar's strategic focus on northwestern Europe, specifically Gaul, contribute to?

Caesar also took important steps toward eliminating the distinction between Italians and provincials within the empire by conferring citizenship on residents of Hispania (Spain) and the newly annexed provinces in Gaul by settling many of his army veterans and some of the urban poor in these lands. Moreover, he relieved economic inequities and furthered colonization. Even more important was Caesar's farsighted resolve to focus his efforts in northwestern Europe. Whereas Pompey, and before him Alexander, went East to gain fame and fortune, Caesar followed only the Phoenicians in recognizing the potential of the wild West. By incorporating Gaul into the Roman world he brought in a much-needed source of food and natural resources and created a new outlet for the spread of Roman settlement and culture.

How did Julius Caesar's successful campaigns in Gaul contribute to his political position and reputation in Rome, and how did the precedent set by Sulla's dictatorship for life influence the idea that the best general should lead Rome? Explain what role did Pompey play in the Roman political landscape during this time

Caesar devoted his energies to a series of campaigns in Gaul and it was under his authority that the territories of modern France, Belgium, and western Germany were added to the Roman Empire, extending its northern border along the length of the Rhine. Caesar himself advertised these conquests in a series of self-congratulatory dispatches published in book form—On the War in Gaul—which secured his reputation at home and cemented the loyalty of his army. These victories also put him in a strong political position. It had become accepted that the best general should be the leader of Rome, and the example of Sulla had made it possible for that leader to be a dictator for life, a king in all but name. But it was Pompey, not Caesar, who was actually in Rome and in a position to influence the Senate directly

How did Julius Caesar's achievements and actions, which included policies resembling kingship, lead to the formation of a conspiracy against him by a faction of the Senate? Describe the dramatic events of the Ides of March in 44 B.C.E.

Caesar's achievements were signs that he intended to make himself king: a hateful thought to those who still cherished the mos maiorum and glorified the early days of the republic. Indeed, it was around a descendant of Lucretia's avenger, Lucius Junius Brutus, that a faction of the Senate crystallized into conspiracy. On the Ides of March in 44 B.C.E.—the midpoint of the month, according to his own calendar—Caesar was attacked on the floor of the Senate's chamber and stabbed to death by a group of men. His body would later be autopsied, the first such examination in recorded history. It was found that he had sustained 23 wounds

Cicero

Cicero, full name Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 B.C.E.), was a prominent Roman statesman, orator, and philosopher whose influence on Roman politics and intellectual life remains significant to this day. He is often regarded as one of the greatest orators in Roman history and a master of Latin prose. Cicero's eloquence and rhetorical skills earned him a reputation as a formidable speaker, and his speeches, many of which have been preserved, provide valuable insights into the political and social issues of his time. ---As a statesman, Cicero served as consul, one of the highest offices in the Roman Republic, in 63 B.C.E. He was known for his unwavering support of republican ideals and his opposition to the power-grabbing ambitions of individuals like Julius Caesar. His political career was marked by a dedication to the Roman Republic's traditional values and institutions, earning him the epithet "Father of the Fatherland." Beyond politics, Cicero was a prolific writer on a wide range of subjects, including philosophy, law, and ethics. He played a crucial role in introducing Greek philosophy, particularly Stoicism, to Roman society and philosophy. Cicero's philosophical works, such as "On Duties" and "On the Nature of the Gods," continue to be studied for their insights into moral and ethical principles.

Domitian

Domitian, Roman emperor from 81 to 96 AD, was born in Rome, Italy, in 51 AD, and was the younger son of Vespasian. During his reign, he was known for his autocratic rule and military campaigns, including a successful campaign in Germany and the annexation of Dacia in modern-day Romania. Domitian also supported the arts and building projects, including the Domitian Stadium and the Domus Flavia palace in Rome. Despite his patronage of the arts, Domitian's rule was marked by controversies and conspiracies, leading to his assassination by the Praetorian Guard in 96 AD. His reign marked the end of the Flavian dynasty and the onset of political instability and civil war known as the Year of the Five Emperors.

Identify the statements that describe Roman visual arts during the Principate

Encouraged by the patronage of Augustus, Roman artists developed their own style and as Rome grew, Roman artists copied artworks from Greece, Egypt, and western Asia that were brought back by the army

What were the key components of the building material used by the Romans, and how did this material contribute to their ability to construct large and durable structures?

For the Romans had discovered how to make a hard and reliable building material from a mixture of quicklime, volcanic ash, and pumice. It was this—along with superior engineering skills—that allowed them to build massive structures like the Colosseum, which could accommodate 50,000 spectators at gladiatorial combats. Romans engineers also excelled in the building of roads and bridges, many of which were constructed by Rome's armies as they moved into new territories

Caligula

Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, was a Roman emperor who ruled from 37 AD to 41 AD. He was born on August 31, 12 AD, in Antium (modern-day Anzio), Italy. -the son of Germanicus, a popular and successful general, and Agrippina the Elder, the granddaughter of Augustus, the first Roman emperor. He grew up in the military camps where his father was stationed and was given the nickname "Caligula," which means "little boot," because he often wore miniature military boots. ---Became emperor after the death of his great-uncle, Tiberius, and was initially popular with the Roman people because of his youth and charisma. However, his reign was marked by extravagance, cruelty, and megalomania. He squandered the empire's wealth on lavish entertainments, such as building an enormous floating palace and staging elaborate games and festivals. ---Caligula also engaged in numerous acts of cruelty and violence, including executing people for minor offenses and declaring himself a god. He was also known for his sexual excesses and incestuous relationships with his sisters. Caligula's reign came to an end when he was assassinated by members of the Praetorian Guard, the elite soldiers who were responsible for protecting the emperor. His death was followed by a period of chaos and instability in Rome.

Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey)

Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, commonly known as Pompey, was a significant Roman general and politician who lived from 106 BCE to 48 BCE. Hailing from a wealthy family, he embarked on a distinguished military career from a young age, participating in campaigns like the Social War and the conflict against Spartacus. In 71 BCE, he was elected consul and earned recognition for his successful elimination of Mediterranean pirate fleets, earning him the title "the Great" or "Magnus." ---Pompey's military prowess extended far beyond this achievement. He secured victories against Mithridates VI of Pontus, expanded Roman dominion into Syria and Judea, and solidified control over the Mediterranean. However, his political career was marked by a power struggle with Julius Caesar, ultimately culminating in a civil war that marked the demise of the Roman Republic. Pompey's defeat by Caesar at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BCE forced him to flee to Egypt, where he met his untimely assassination. Pompey's enduring legacy lies in his role as one of Rome's most renowned military commanders, contributing to the expansion of the Roman Empire and laying the groundwork for the transition from the Republic to the Roman Empire.

Roman religion resembled that of the

Greeks; Jupiter corresponded to Zeus as god of the skies, Neptune to Poseidon as god of the seas, Venus to Aphrodite as goddess of beauty and sexuality, Mars to Ares as god of war {but in keeping with the Roman equation of religion with family, this entire pantheon functioned as the family gods of the Roman state} ---The republic was essentially a giant, timeless household run by "elders" (senators) and "father figures" (patricians), some of whom traced their ancestry back to gods; the mother of Aeneas was Venus

What did Augustus do to promote and protect the mos maiorum?

He instituted laws to promote marriage and increase childbearing and prohibited the worship of foreign deities

How did Julius Caesar consolidate Roman influence in Hispania and Gaul?

He settled Roman army veterans in Gaul and Hispania and gave them Roman citizenship

Landscape of the Punic Wars

In 265 B.C.E., Roman territory extended to the tip of Italy's "boot," but there it ended. Just off its coast, the large islands of Corsica and Sardinia and the western half of Sicily were part of another state, much older and far wealthier {this was the great maritime empire of Carthage, which stretched along the northern coast of Africa from modern-day Tunisia through the Straits of Gibraltar and into modern Spain}

How did the course of history change after Rome's victory over Antony and Cleopatra's forces in the Battle of Actium in 31 B.C.E., leading to the tragic suicides of both leaders? Moreover, what were the consequences of this pivotal moment for Egypt?

In 31 B.C.E. Rome's superior forces defeated those of Antony and Cleopatra in the naval battle of Actium, off the coast of Greece. Soon afterward, both Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide. Their children were taken back to Rome, and although their lives were spared they were paraded through the streets as captives {This marked the end of Egypt's independence: Cleopatra had been its last pharaoh. After more than three thousand years of self-rule, Egypt was now another province in Rome's empire}.

In the years following his victory over Pompey, how did Julius Caesar amass an array of powers and titles? Furthermore, what specific aspects of authority and control did he assume?

In 46 B.C.E, Caesar was named dictator for ten years; two years later, this was changed to a lifetime appointment. In addition, he assumed nearly every other title that could augment his power ---He obtained from the Senate full authority to make war and peace and to control the revenues of the state. He even governed the reckoning of time, something that was regarded as controversial. In imitation of the Egyptian calendar (slightly modified by a Greek astronomer) he revised the Roman calendar so as to make a 365-day year with an extra day added every fourth year. This Julian calendar (as adjusted by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582) is still observed, and the seventh month is still named after Julius

How did the conflict between Julius Caesar and Pompey escalate in 49 B.C.E. and what were the key events that unfolded during their ensuing confrontation at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 B.C.E.?

In 49 B.C.E. Caesar took up Pompey's challenge and crossed the Rubicon River, the northern boundary of Rome's Italian territories, thereby signalling his intention to take Rome by force. Pompey fled to the east in the hope of gathering an army large enough to confront Ceasar's legions. Caesar pursued him, and in 48 B.C.E. the two Roman armies met at Pharsalus in Greece. Pompey was defeated and then fled to Alexandria, where he was murdered by a Roman officer attached to the court of Ptolemy XIII (62/61-47B.C.E.)

Octavian

In Caesar's will, he adopted his grandnephew Gaius Octavius, then a young man of eighteen serving in Illyria, across the Adriatic Sea. On learning of Caesar's death, Octavian hastened home to claim his inheritance and to avenge his slain "father," whose name he took. He was now Gaius Julius Caesar the younger. He soon found that he had rivals among those supporters of Caesar who had not been implicated in the plot to kill him, most notably Marcus Antonius (or Mark Antony, 83-30 B.C.E.), who had served under Caesar's command in Gaul and was determined to make himself governor of that whole province

What did Pompey contribute Pompey to the outbreak of a widespread and deadly civil war, despite facing popular protests and some opposition from the aristocracy?"

Indeed, in the face of tremendous popular protest and even some opposition from the aristocracy, Pompey had himself elected sole consul. Essentially, this meant that he could act as dictator. Using this authority, he declared that Caesar, who was still stationed in Gaul, was an enemy of the republic, and that his ambition was to make himself king. The result was a pervasive and deadly civil war

In the beginning of Rome, it was ruled by

Kings

What Roman values did the story about the overthrow of Tarquinius Superbus communicate?

Kings are inherently corrupt and A woman's duty is to remain chaste

How did Augustus's successors influence the centralization of power and the dynamics with the Senate in the Roman Empire?

Many of Augustus's successors can be characterized as autocratic rulers who continued the trend of centralizing power in the hands of the emperor. They inherited Augustus's legacy of one-man rule that had difficult relationships with the Senate. Often characterized by their strong personalities, their willingness to use force to maintain their power, and their desire for personal glory and prestige. However, it is worth noting that the successors varied in their levels of competence and success as rulers. Some, like Trajan and Hadrian, were highly successful in expanding and consolidating the Roman Empire, while others, like Caligula and Nero, were infamous for their cruelty and mismanagement of the state. ---Because the historians of this era were invariably members of the senatorial elite, they had a vested interest in sullying the reputations of these emperors

The balance of power between men and women shifted somewhat in the second century B.C.E. What legal rights did Roman women gain?

Married women controlled their own property and could seek divorce

Augustus's reforms

Military Reforms: Augustus reorganized the Roman army and established a permanent standing army of professional soldiers. This new army was better trained, better equipped, and more loyal to the emperor than the previous system of relying on citizen-soldiers. Augustus also created a praetorian guard, an elite unit of soldiers tasked with protecting the emperor and his family. Administrative Reforms: Augustus reorganized the government, creating new administrative structures and redefining the roles and responsibilities of various officials. He also established a system of imperial provinces, which were governed by imperial legates appointed by the emperor himself. Public Works: Augustus initiated several public works projects, including the construction of new aqueducts and public buildings. He also began a program of road-building throughout the empire, which improved communication and commerce. Religious Reforms: Augustus promoted a revival of traditional Roman religion and created a new cult centered around himself as the "son of a god." He also established new priesthoods and made major contributions to the renovation of important temples and religious sites. Social Reforms: Augustus introduced several social reforms aimed at promoting traditional Roman values and improving public morality. He passed laws promoting marriage and family values and attempted to control the behavior of Roman citizens through a series of moral legislation. In an attempt to increase the birthrate of Rome's citizens, he penalized men who failed to marry, required widows to remarry within two years of their husbands' deaths, and rewarded women who gave birth to more than two children Economic Reforms: Augustus introduced measures aimed at stabilizing the Roman economy, including the establishment of a new currency and the regulation of trade and commerce.

How did Marius change the structure of Roman society and government?

Military reforms: Marius is best known for his reforms of the Roman military. He abolished the property requirement for military service, which allowed the poor to serve in the army. He also introduced a new system of recruitment in which soldiers were enlisted for longer periods of time and were paid a salary. These changes helped to create a professional army that was loyal to its commander rather than to the state. Political power: Marius was a "novus homo," or "new man," meaning that he was the first person in his family to hold high political office. He used his military successes to gain political power and was elected consul seven times. His success in politics helped to break down the barriers between the patrician and plebeian classes and paved the way for future "new men" to rise to power. Land reforms: Marius introduced land reforms that redistributed land from the wealthy to the poor. He also established colonies for veterans and other Roman citizens on land that had been conquered by the Roman army. These reforms helped to address the problem of landlessness and social inequality in Roman society. Constitutional changes: Marius made several changes to the Roman constitution, including increasing the power of the popular assemblies and reducing the power of the Senate. He also made changes to the military command structure that allowed him to control the army more effectively and to use it to support his political ambitions.

How did Octavian, despite his youth, secure the office of consul and use his authority to declare Caesar's assassins as outlaws? Subsequently, explain how he formed the Second Triumvirate while describing the trio's actions to suppress the political faction responsible for Caesar's assassination

Octavian engineered his own election to the office of consul (though he was far too young for this honor) and used his powers to have Caesar's assassins declared outlaws. He then pursued Antony to Gaul, at the head of an army. Antony's forces were overwhelmed, and in 43 B.C.E. he and Octavian reconciled and formed an alliance, bringing in a third man, a senator called Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, to make up the second triumvirate. They then set about crushing the political faction responsible for Caesar's murder. The methods they employed were brutal: prominent members of the opposition were hunted down and their property confiscated. The most notable of these victims was Cicero, who was murdered by Mark Antony's thugs.

What did Octavian do when he found out about what Antony had been up to?

Octavian had him declared a traitor, but the Senate declared war on Cleopatra-not on Antony, lest Octavian be accused of starting another civil war

Rome's population was divided among classes of people who often struggled with one another for power. Identify these classes and their points of contention from highest to lowest

Patricians: The patricians were the wealthy, aristocratic class of Rome. They held most of the political power and controlled the majority of the land and resources. Their main point of contention was with the plebeians, who sought to increase their political power and gain access to the resources controlled by the patricians. Equestrians: The equestrians were the middle class of Rome. They were wealthy landowners, businessmen, and members of the cavalry. They held significant economic power and often served as judges and administrators. Their main point of contention was with the patricians, who they felt were monopolizing political power and limiting their opportunities for advancement Plebeians: The plebeians were the lower-class citizens of Rome. They were primarily farmers, laborers, and artisans. They were excluded from political power and were often heavily in debt to the patricians. Their main point of contention was with the patricians, who they felt were unfairly controlling their lives and limiting their opportunities Slaves: Slavery was an important part of Roman society, and slaves were used for a variety of purposes, including labor, entertainment, and sexual services. Slaves had no political or legal rights, and were often treated brutally by their owners. Their main point of contention was with their owners, who they felt were exploiting them and denying them their basic human rights

The shared identity and values of the Roman people differed in many ways from those of other ancient civilizations. What were some of these major differences?

Republicanism: Unlike many other ancient civilizations, such as Egypt and Persia, which were ruled by absolute monarchs or dictators, the Romans developed a system of government that was based on the principle of republican rule. This meant that power was shared among different branches of government, and citizens had a say in the decisions that were made. Citizenship: The concept of citizenship was central to Roman identity and values. Citizenship was limited to free-born males who were of Roman descent, and it came with certain rights and privileges, such as the right to vote and the right to own property. This helped to create a sense of community and shared identity among Roman citizens. Military Culture: The Romans were known for their strong military culture and their emphasis on discipline, training, and bravery. Unlike many other ancient civilizations, which relied on conscripted soldiers or mercenaries, the Roman army was a professional force that was well-trained and well-equipped. Law and Justice: Roman identity was also shaped by the concept of law and justice. The Romans developed a legal system that was based on written laws and legal precedents, and they believed in the principle of innocent until proven guilty. This helped to create a sense of order and stability in Roman society. Civic Duty: The Romans believed that it was the duty of every citizen to contribute to the common good of the state. This sense of civic duty was reflected in their public works projects, such as aqueducts and roads, as well as in their military service and their participation in government. Religion: Roman religion was characterized by its polytheistic nature and its emphasis on ritual and sacrifice. Unlike many other ancient civilizations, the Romans did not have a single, organized religion, but instead worshipped a variety of gods and goddesses.

Tiberius Gracchus

Roman politician and reformer who lived in the 2nd century BC. He was born into a noble Roman family, the Gracchi, and was the son of Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus and Cornelia Africana, the daughter of Scipio Africanus. In 133 BC, Tiberius was elected to the office of tribune, which was a position of great power and influence in the Roman Republic. As tribune, Tiberius became an advocate for the rights of the common people, who were being exploited and impoverished by the wealthy landowners. ---Tiberius proposed a series of land reforms that would redistribute public land to the poor and limit the amount of land that any one person could own. His proposals were met with fierce opposition from the wealthy landowners, who saw them as a threat to their power and privilege. Despite the opposition, Tiberius was able to pass his reforms through the popular assembly. However, his actions were seen as a violation of Roman tradition and law, and he was eventually killed by a group of senators who opposed his reforms. ---Tiberius' legacy lived on, however, and he became a symbol of popular resistance against the ruling elite in Rome. His younger brother, Gaius Gracchus, continued his reform program and also met a violent end. The Gracchi brothers are remembered as champions of the common people and as early advocates for social and economic justice in Rome.

Essence of Roman Identity

Romans were conservatives who accepted new things reluctantly but then preserved them fiercely. The prevailing force was the mos maiorum, "the code of the elders" or "the custom of the ancestors" or even—to use the word derived from the Latin mos—"morality."

when Carthage attempted to expand its presence in Spain

Rome interpreted this as a threat to Roman interests and declared a new war that lasted for sixteen years

Why did the early Roman Republic expand so quickly?

Rome required that new territories supply soldiers for the Roman army and Rome used the Latin Right to integrate new territory into the republic

What best describes the relationship between the Roman government and its foreign territories?

Rome used political rights, urban planning, and resettlement to integrate conquered peoples into the Roman Empire

What were the key developments in Rome's interactions with eastern Mediterranean powers during the Second Punic War and its aftermath, and how did these interactions eventually lead to Rome's increased influence and control in the region by 146 BCE?

Rome's expansion brought it into conflict with eastern Mediterranean powers, paving the way for further conquests. During the Second Punic War, Philip V of Macedonia had entered an alliance with Carthage; soon afterward, he moved aggressively into Greece and was rumored to have designs on Egypt. Rome sent an army to stop him, and later foiled the plans of the Achaean League (this was when Polybius was sent to Rome as a hostage, and became a guest-friend in the family of Scipio Africanus, later witnessing the destruction of Carthage). Rome also thwarted similar efforts by the Seleucid monarch Antiochus III. In neither of these cases did Rome set out to conquer the eastern Mediterranean. By 146 B.C.E., however, both Greece and Macedonia had become Roman provinces, Seleucid Asia had lost most of its territories, and Ptolemaic Egypt had largely become a pawn of Roman commercial and political interests.

How did Rome's unintentional conquest of Greece and Asia Minor during this period lead to significant economic, social, and cultural transformations within the Roman Republic, and what were some of the key societal and attitudinal changes it brought about among the Roman population?

Rome's inadvertent conquest of Greece and Asia Minor transformed the economic, social, and intellectual life of the republic. New wealth poured in, increasing the inequalities within Roman society and challenging traditional values of frugality and self-sacrifice. Small farmers left the land and swelled the impoverished urban population, unable to compete with the huge plantations owned by aristocrats and worked by gangs of slaves. Slaves also played an increasing role in Roman cities as artisans, merchants, and household servants. Roman rule over the Hellenistic world had a particularly pervasive impact on cultural life—so much so that many Romans considered themselves to have been "conquered" by Greece. They now felt their own language, history, and customs to be uncouth and barbaric compared to those of their cultivated colonial subjects

What were the political and social motivations behind Tiberius Gracchus's proposed land reform, and how did this reform lead to a confrontation with the Roman Senate, ultimately resulting in his tragic assassination?

Since a man had to meet certain property qualifications to serve in the Roman army, the available pool of citizen soldiers was contracting. So Tiberius Gracchus aimed to refresh the reserves by creating new citizens. With the support of his brother Gaius, Tiberius Gracchus proposed a law that would restrict estates to a maximum of 300 acres per citizen, plus 150 acres for each child in his family, with the excess land to be divided among poor settlers. Not surprisingly, most senators stood to lose from this legislation, and so engineered its veto by Gracchus's fellow tribunes. But Tiberius retaliated, arguing that tribunes who opposed the people's interests were betraying their offices, and he announced plans to stand for reelection when his term expired. A conservative faction in the Senate then alleged that Gracchus had his sights set on a dictatorship, and with this excuse they attacked and murdered him and his supporters on the day of the elections

Which Hellenistic cultural imports flourished in Rome?

Stoicism and the cult of Isis

Concilium Plebis

The Concilium Plebis, commonly known as the Plebeian Council, was a significant democratic body within the Roman Republic, exclusively open to the plebeians, the common people of Rome. Its inception in 494 BC stemmed from a struggle between plebeians and patricians, with the former advocating for enhanced political representation and power. ---This council wielded the authority to enact laws that specifically pertained to plebeians and elect officials known as Tribunes of the Plebs to champion their interests in the government. A presiding officer, the Plebeian Tribune, was chosen by the council members to oversee its proceedings. The laws passed by the Concilium Plebis, termed plebiscites, gained legal standing once sanctioned by the Senate, although in its early years, patricians frequently disregarded or resisted these plebiscites, precipitating recurrent political strife and unrest. Over time, the council's influence expanded, becoming a pivotal institution in the Roman Republic. It played a central role in advancing the interests of the plebeians, augmenting their political clout, and contributing to the establishment of the principle of legal equality. Although the Concilium Plebis persisted into the Roman Empire, its authority dwindled. Ultimately, it was succeeded by the Comitia Tributa, a larger assembly that included both patricians and plebeians while preserving many of the democratic tenets of the Plebeian Council

First Series of the Punic Wars

The First Punic War, spanning from 264 BCE to 241 BCE, was a protracted conflict between Rome and Carthage, primarily driven by their rivalry for control over Sicily, a prosperous and strategically vital Mediterranean island. This war was ignited by a dispute over the city of Messina in northeastern Sicily, where the Mamertines, a group of mercenaries, sought protection from both Rome and Carthage. Rome sent troops to support the Mamertines, while Carthage dispatched forces to remove them. With naval warfare becoming a focal point of the conflict, the initially inexperienced Romans quickly adapted, winning crucial naval engagements such as the Battle of Mylae in 260 BCE, granting them mastery over the seas around Sicily. --Ultimately concluding in 241 BCE, with the Carthaginians seeking peace, the terms of the peace treaty required Carthage to make a substantial indemnity payment to Rome and relinquish control of Sicily. This war marked a pivotal moment in Roman history, as it heralded Rome's ascent as a dominant naval power in the Mediterranean. Moreover, it laid the foundation for Rome's subsequent expansion into North Africa and the eastern Mediterranean, significantly shaping the trajectory of Roman imperial ambitions.

The First Triumvirate

The First Triumvirate, established in 60 BCE, marked a pivotal political alliance among three prominent Roman figures - Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus - seeking to consolidate their power and ensure the safeguarding of their individual interests in a Rome rife with deep divisions and political instability. Recognizing the need to unite to maintain control over the Roman state, these influential statesmen collaborated effectively, enabling them to dominate Roman politics for a considerable period. The Triumvirate achieved several significant objectives, with Caesar securing the consulship and embarking on his campaign to conquer Gaul, Pompey solidifying control over the eastern provinces, and Crassus expanding his wealth and influence. ---However, the alliance faced its share of challenges, notably with Crassus's demise in battle in 53 BCE, leaving Caesar and Pompey as the remaining members. Their relationship deteriorated over time, culminating in 49 BCE when Caesar's daring crossing of the Rubicon River sparked a civil war against Pompey. This conflict led to the official dissolution of the Triumvirate, as Caesar triumphed over Pompey at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BCE, establishing himself as Rome's undisputed leader and eventually ushering in the Roman Empire. Despite its eventual disintegration, the First Triumvirate stands as a vital historical example of the power struggles and alliances characteristic of Roman politics during the late Republic period.

Law of the Twelve Tables

The Law of the Twelve Tables, or the Twelve Tables, stands as a foundational legal document in ancient Rome, originating in 451-449 BC amidst a contentious struggle between the plebeians and patricians for equitable rights. Inscribed on bronze tablets and prominently displayed in the Forum Romanum, it aimed to provide a systematic and uniform set of laws rooted in existing Roman customs. Covering a broad spectrum of legal concerns, from property rights to criminal law, the Twelve Tables were composed in accessible language to serve the common citizen. A pivotal principle within these tables was the notion of legal equality, granting every citizen, irrespective of social status, the right to seek justice and protection under the law, along with established procedures for equitable legal proceedings. Furthermore, they laid the groundwork for "ius civile" or civil law, which evolved into the bedrock of Roman legal tradition and underwent further refinement by jurists and legal scholars. ---The legacy of the Twelve Tables persisted long after the decline of the Roman Republic, profoundly influencing the development of legal systems throughout Europe and beyond. Even in modern legal frameworks, the concepts of equal treatment before the law and the right to a fair trial remain fundamental principles, demonstrating the enduring impact of this ancient Roman legal code on contemporary legal thought and practice.

Principate

The Principate, spanning from 27 BC to 284 AD, was a pivotal era in Roman history, marking the transition from the tumultuous Roman Republic to the Roman Empire. It was established by Augustus, originally named Octavian, who rose to power amid the chaos of civil wars and political unrest. Under his leadership, the Principate introduced a robust central government and an efficient bureaucracy that aimed to ensure the empire's stability and prosperity. Augustus created a network of officials responsible for tax collection, law enforcement, and maintaining order in the provinces. He also initiated military reforms, establishing a professional and well-equipped army composed of salaried soldiers, enabling the empire's territorial expansion and the influx of wealth. ---This period emphasized the importance of unity and stability within the diverse Roman Empire. Augustus promoted a common Roman identity and the use of Latin as the official language. Furthermore, the Principate fostered cultural and intellectual achievements, witnessing advancements in art, architecture, literature, and philosophy. Augustus himself supported the arts and commissioned remarkable works that endure as cultural treasures today. However, the Principate was not without its flaws, as it grappled with political intrigue, corruption, and periodic crises, with emperors like Caligula and Nero notorious for their abuses of power. Despite its imperfections, the Principate laid the foundation for the Roman Empire and left a lasting imprint on the development of Western civilization, serving as a model for future empires and influencing various political and social structures that endure in the modern world.

How long did the Punic Wars last and when did each one occur?

The Punic Wars collectively spanned a period of over 100 years First Punic War lasted 23 years from 264-241 BCE Second extended 16 years, 218-202 BCE Thirdwas concluded in 3 years 149-146 BCE

In the early Roman Republic, Rome was technically a democracy, but:

The Roman Republic, while theoretically a democracy, was fundamentally an oligarchy in practice. The constitution, which was intended to distribute power among various branches and prevent a single group from dominating, was heavily weighted in favor of the aristocracy. The Senate, a crucial institution, was exclusively composed of patricians, and the popular assemblies, which could vote on laws and elect officials, were often dominated by the aristocracy. Additionally, only citizens meeting specific property and social requirements could participate in these assemblies. Consequently, throughout much of its history, Rome was governed by a select group of elite families, highlighting the oligarchic nature of its political system.

Second Punic War

The Second Punic War, spanning from 218 BCE to 201 BCE, stands as one of the most significant conflicts in ancient history, profoundly shaping the destinies of both Rome and Carthage. This momentous war was instigated by the audacious Carthaginian general Hannibal, who led his army, bolstered with cavalry, war elephants, and siege engines, on a remarkable journey across the Alps into Italy in 218 BCE. Hannibal's surprise invasion resulted in early victories, including the renowned Battle of Cannae in 216 BCE, where he encircled and annihilated a much larger Roman army. For nearly sixteen years, Hannibal tirelessly harassed Roman forces within their own territories, although he ultimately failed to capture Rome itself. ---Despite Hannibal's initial successes, Rome's resilience and adept leadership, particularly through figures like Scipio Africanus, eventually tilted the scales in their favor. In 202 BCE, the Romans triumphed over Hannibal at the Battle of Zama, effectively concluding the war. Hannibal's challenges included the harsh conditions of campaign and the difficulties of supplying his army in unforgiving terrain, particularly during his treacherous Alpine crossing. Furthermore, his hopes of winning the support of Rome's Italian territories were thwarted by Rome's benevolent treatment of its Latin allies, ensuring their loyalty. The war's aftermath saw Carthage facing severe terms in the peace treaty, which included relinquishing overseas territories, paying a substantial indemnity to Rome, and limiting its military forces. Consequently, Carthage was left weakened and exposed, setting the stage for the Third Punic War, initiated by another Roman invasion. ---The Second Punic War marked a pivotal juncture in Rome's history, propelling the city into direct confrontation with the dominant western Mediterranean power. It compelled Rome to evolve its military strategies and tactics. Furthermore, the war served as the catalyst for Rome's expansion beyond the Italian peninsula, as Roman conquests extended into Spain and Africa, solidifying its status as a burgeoning imperial force.

The establishment of the Principate ushered in a new era in the history of Rome. What events led to this?

The Social War: The Social War (91-88 BCE) was a conflict between Rome and its Italian allies who were seeking citizenship and greater political representation. The war ended with the Roman government granting citizenship to most of the Italian allies, but it also highlighted the need for a more stable and effective government. The First Triumvirate: In 60 BCE, three powerful Roman politicians, Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, formed a political alliance known as the First Triumvirate. This allowed them to control the Roman government and pursue their own political agendas, but it also destabilized the Republic. The Gallic Wars: From 58-50 BCE, Julius Caesar led the Roman conquest of Gaul (modern-day France). This brought significant wealth and power to Caesar and helped to increase his political influence in Rome. Caesar's Civil War: In 49 BCE, Caesar defied the Roman Senate by crossing the Rubicon River with his army, sparking a civil war with Pompey and other Senators. Caesar emerged victorious in the war and became the dictator of Rome, effectively ending the Roman Republic. The Second Triumvirate: After Caesar's assassination in 44 BCE, a Second Triumvirate was formed between Octavian (Caesar's heir), Mark Antony, and Lepidus. This allowed them to control the Roman government, but it also led to another civil war. The Battle of Actium: In 31 BCE, Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in the Battle of Actium, effectively ending the civil war and establishing Octavian as the sole ruler of Rome.

What was the Struggle of the Orders?

The Struggle of the Orders was a significant political conflict in the Roman Republic between the patrician and plebeian classes during the 5th and 4th centuries BCE. The patricians, who held exclusive political power, exploited their dominance to serve their interests at the expense of the plebeians. This struggle began in 494 BCE when the plebeians, frustrated by their lack of political representation and economic opportunities, seceded from the city to form their own political organization, the plebeian assembly. They demanded greater rights, including the ability to hold public office and appeal legal decisions made by patrician magistrates. ---Over the following decades, the plebeians employed various tactics, such as strikes, boycotts, and threats of secession, to pressure the patricians into making concessions. They also elected tribunes, their representatives, responsible for safeguarding their rights and interests in the political system. As a result of the Struggle of the Orders, the plebeians achieved essential reforms, including the right to hold public office, the right to appeal legal decisions, and the establishment of the office of the plebeian tribune. These reforms diminished the influence of the patricians, fostering a more inclusive and representative political system in the Roman Republic.

The Third Punic War

The Third Punic War, occurring from 149 BCE to 146 BCE, marked the conclusive chapter in the enduring rivalry between Rome and Carthage, culminating in the total annihilation of Carthage. The immediate trigger for this war stemmed from a conflict between Carthage and its neighboring Numidia, where Rome, seeking a pretext to confront Carthage, allied with Numidia and demanded territorial concessions. Carthage's refusal led to Rome's declaration of war. Carthage was compelled to relinquish all its territories except its city and immediate surroundings, alongside paying a substantial indemnity. ---Rome swiftly gained the upper hand, leveraging superior military technology and tactics to lay siege to Carthage and ultimately breach its walls. The Carthaginians, while valiant, were overwhelmed and outnumbered, resulting in the city's destruction by fire in 146 BCE. This brutal event had profound implications for the ancient world, symbolizing the end of an era where Carthage had stood as a major Mediterranean power. Romans perceived Carthage's destruction as a triumph of their civilization over the perceived barbarism of their adversaries, reinforcing their cultural superiority. ---Additionally, the Third Punic War had enduring consequences for Rome. While it solidified Rome's dominance in the western Mediterranean, the void left by Carthage's demise eventually allowed other states, such as the Greeks and Egyptians, to step into the regional power vacuum. This shift marked the beginning of Rome's decline, as Roman expansionism and aggressiveness led to conflicts with other powers, eventually contributing to the collapse of the Roman Empire.

Year of the Four Emperors

The Year of the Four Emperors, which occurred in 69 AD, was a period of intense political turmoil in ancient Rome. It began with the death of Emperor Nero in 68 AD, triggering a power struggle that involved various factions vying for control, including the Senate, the Praetorian Guard, and provincial armies. Galba, initially proclaimed emperor by the Senate, was quickly overthrown by Otho, who gained the support of the Praetorian Guard. However, Otho's reign was short-lived as he was defeated by Vitellius, the governor of Germania Inferior. Vitellius, in turn, was challenged by Vespasian, a successful general proclaimed emperor by his troops in Egypt. ---The series of conflicts and changes in leadership during this year highlighted the instability and vulnerability of the Roman Empire. Vespasian's ultimate victory led to the founding of the Flavian dynasty, which ruled Rome until 96 AD, signifying the consolidation of power and the increasing influence of the military in Roman politics and society.

How did the Roman constitution of the time broaden and stabilize oligarchy and what impact did this have on the influence of both individuals and democracy in shaping Roman policy?

The constitution that emerged in these key centuries therefore broadened and stabilized oligarchy by the balance it struck between competing governmental institutions: the assembly, the Senate, and executive office-holders. Thanks to this distribution of powers, no single individual or clique could become overwhelmingly strong; but neither could direct expressions of the popular will (that is, democracy) affect Roman policy.

What are the two main periods of Roman literature during the Principate, and how do they differ in terms of their purpose and content?

The cultural and intellectual developments that began in Rome during the late republic came to fruition during the Principate and are richly reflected in its literature. Roman literature of this era is conventionally divided into two periods, the Golden Age of writings produced under the more or less direct influence of Augustus, and the Silver Age of the first and early second centuries C.E. Most Golden Age literature is, not surprisingly, propagandistic: its purpose was to advertise and justify Augustus's achievements.

The founding of the Roman Republic was both a cherished myth and a series of events. What factors contributed to this unique system of government?

The founding of the Roman Republic, a blend of myth and historical events, had a profound impact on the development of Western civilization. According to legend, Rome was founded by Romulus and Remus, twin brothers raised by a she-wolf. While this myth played a crucial role in Roman identity, the Republic's establishment was driven by historical factors. The early Roman monarchy gave way to the Republic in 509 BC, as the absolute rule of kings became increasingly unpopular. ---The Roman Republic boasted distinctive features that contributed to its success. It championed the concept of citizenship, granted solely to free-born male citizens of Roman descent, fostering a sense of unity and loyalty. Furthermore, a sophisticated system of checks and balances divided power among various branches of government, such as the Roman Senate, Consuls, and Assembly, ensuring stability and preventing any single group from monopolizing power. The Republic also emphasized the rule of law, founded on written laws and legal precedents, promoting fairness and impartiality. Lastly, a robust military culture defined the Republic, as the professional Roman army expanded the Republic's dominance across the Mediterranean, bringing prosperity and resources to Rome.

How did the Romans ensure a reliable water supply for their cities, and what were some of the key uses of this water supply?

The inhabitants of Roman cities also enjoyed the benefits of a public water supply. By the early decades of the second century C.E., eleven aqueducts brought water into Rome from the nearby hills and provided the city with 300 million gallons per day, for drinking and bathing and for flushing a well-designed sewage system. These amenities were common in cities throughout the empire, and the homes of the wealthy even had indoor plumbing and central heating. Water was also funneled into the homes of the rich for private gardens, fountains, and pools

Tarquinus Superbus (Tarquin the Arrogant)

The last king of the Roman Kingdom, reputed to have been an Etruscan who paved the way for Rome's imperial expansion by dominating Latium and the agriculturally wealthy district of Campania to the south. His power came at the price of Roman freedom and dignity, as was made clear when Tarquin's son raped a virtuous Roman wife, Lucretia, around 510 BCE. When she commited suicide to avoid dishonor, the Romans—led by Lucretia's kinsman, Lucius Junius Brutus—rose up in rebellion, overthrowing not only the Etruscan dynasty but rejecting the very idea of monarchy as a legitimate form of government {The Brutus who would be instrumental in the assassination of Julius Caesar nearly five centuries later was a descendant of that same Brutus who had driven out the Tarquin kings, something he and his contemporaries never forgot}

What role did Hellenistic philosophy, particularly Epicureanism and Stoicism, play in shaping the late Roman Republic's intellectual and cultural landscape, and how did influential figures like Lucretius and Cicero contribute to the spread and acceptance of these philosophies among Roman society?

The late republic was also deeply influenced by Hellenistic philosophy, and both Epicureanism and Stoicism found strong adherents in Rome. The former was popularized by Lucretius (98-55 B.C.E.), author of a book-length philosophical poem, On the Nature of Things. But more congenial to Roman values was Stoicism, which soon numbered among its converts many powerful public figures. The most influential of these was Cicero (106-43 B.C.E.), famous in his day as an orator, statesman, and staunch defender of republican virtues

What were the key factors that drove significant legal changes during the Principate, and how did the appointment of eminent jurists contribute to the development of Roman legal thinking during this era?

The most sweeping legal changes occurred during the Principate. This was partly because the reach of Roman law had to match the reach of the empire, which now extended over a much wider field of jurisdiction. But the major reason for the rapid development of Roman legal thinking during these years was the fact that Augustus and his successors appointed a small number of eminent jurists to deliver opinions on the issues raised by cases under trial in the court

Poetry of the Golden and Silver Age

The poetry of Publius Virgilius Maro (Virgil, 70-19 B.C.E.) is typical, and we have already noted his strategic use of "prophecy" in the story of Aeneas. Quintus Horatius Flaccus (Horace, 65-8 B.C.E.) and Publius Ovidius Naso (Ovid, 43 B.C.E.-17 C.E.): the former a master of the lovely, short lyric and the latter our major source for Greek mythology, which he retold in a long poem called the Metamorphoses ("Transformations")

How did Sulla's dictatorship in Rome impact the balance of power between the aristocracy and the plebs, and what were the subsequent developments?

The purpose and effect of Sulla's dictatorship was to empower the aristocracy and terminally weaken the power of the plebs. Soon, however, new leaders emerged to espouse the people's cause, once again using the army as their tool of influence. The most prominent of these were Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (106-48 B.C.E.) and Gaius Julius Caesar (100-44 B.C.E.). Initially, they cooperated in a plot to gain control of the government and to "restore the republic" by forming an alliance with a third general, Marcus Junius Crassus, the man credited with finally defeating Spartacus. This alliance was known as a triumvirate, meaning "rule of three men," but it soon dissolved into open rivalry

How did the availability of slaves in ancient Rome impact the nature of Roman slavery in comparison to other ancient civilizations, and what were the exceptions to the generally impersonal and brutal treatment of slaves within the Roman society?

The ready availability of slaves made Roman slavery a far more impersonal and brutal institution than it had been in other ancient civilizations. Of course, there were exceptions. Some domestic slaves were treated as trusted family members, and slave secretaries vital to the business of Roman governance and literature could even win fame or earn enough to buy their freedoms. Some slave artisans were permitted to run their own businesses, keeping some of the profits.

The Founding of Rome

The real founders of Rome were a tribe called the Latins, descendents of a cluster of Indo-European-speaking peoples who crossed the Alps into Italy during the second millennium B.C.E. Recent archaeological research has pushed the origins of the city back to at least the tenth century, several centuries earlier than 753 B.C.E., which the Romans themselves calculated as the year of their city's foundation

How did the introduction and adoption of Eastern mystery cults and the worship of the Great Mother from Asia, impact the religious practices of Rome during this era, and how did these new cults coexist with traditional Roman religious beliefs and practices?

The religious practices of Rome also changed markedly in this era. The most pronounced innovation was the spread of Eastern mystery cults, which satisfied a need for more emotionally intense spiritual experiences than did traditional forms of Roman worship. From Egypt came the cults of Isis and Osiris, while from Asia came the worship of the Great Mother, all emphasizing the power of female sexuality and reproduction. Despite the attractions of these new cults, Romans continued to honor their traditional gods alongside these new, exotic deities. Roman polytheism could absorb them all, so long as the ancestor gods of the household and of the city were paid due reverence

What role did the early history of the Roman Republic play in shaping the dual commitment to both a military character and an emphasis on agriculture as the primary peacetime occupation for Roman citizens?

The republic's early history reinforced not only the military character of the Roman nation but its commitment to agriculture as the only proper peacetime employment for a Roman. The acquisition of new lands made it possible for needy citizens to maintain themselves as farmers in the new colonies around Rome.

During the Punic Wars, the Hellenistic kingdoms aided Carthage in its contest with Rome. What does this suggest about the conflict?

The wars were a regional Mediterranean power struggle

What political rights did plebeians have by the time the Punic Wars began in 264 B.C.E.?

They could hold elected office and The assembly could make laws without Senate approval

Ptolemy XIII

This young pharaoh, a descendent of Alexander's general Ptolemy, was then about fourteen years old and engaged in a civil war of his own—against his elder sister and co-ruler, Cleopatra VII (69-30 B.C.E.). He must have thought that he could curry favor with Caesar by encouraging the murder of Pompey, but instead Caesar threw his support on the side of the twenty-one-year old queen {The two must have become lovers soon after their first meeting, since their son Caesarion ("Little Ceasar") was born nine months later. After a brief struggle, Ptolemy was defeated and was drowned in the Nile. Cleopatra then took as consort her even younger brother, known as Ptolemy XIV, but she ruled as pharaoh of Egypt in her own right, as Hatshepsut had done nearly a millennium and a half before}

Rome's position on the Tiber was advantageous because

Trading ships (but not large war fleets) could navigate the river as far as the city, but no farther; Rome could thus serve as a commercial port but was not threatened by attack from the sea. Rome also sat astride the first good ford across the Tiber, making it a major crossroads {This was particularly important in its early years, when all roads did not lead to Rome and the city was just a trading post on the frontier between Latium (the territory of the Latins) and Etruria (the Etruscan homeland}

True or false: Following the Punic Wars and the expansion of Roman territory and wealth, Romans starkly disagreed with one another about changes in Roman culture.

True Conservative Romans struggled against what they saw as licentious behavior and the loss of core Roman values

How did growing slave populations affect free Romans?

Urban plebeian laborers competed for work against unpaid slave labor and women whose families owned slaves had time for intellectual and social activities

Vespasian

Vespasian, who reigned as Roman emperor from 69 to 79 AD, was a seasoned military leader and politician. Born in 9 AD in Falacrina, Italy, he became emperor during the Year of the Four Emperors, heralding the Flavian dynasty's establishment. His rule brought stability and economic prosperity to the Roman Empire. Notable achievements include the construction of the iconic Colosseum and the suppression of the Jewish revolt in Judea, where his son Titus led the forces capturing Jerusalem and destroying the Second Temple in 70 AD. Vespasian is also remembered for introducing innovative fiscal policies, including taxing urine used in textile production. He passed away from natural causes on June 23, 79 AD, and his son Titus succeeded him, continuing his legacy of stability and success.

The expansion of Rome's empire had a profound impact on Roman society. Why?

Wealth: As Rome conquered new territories, it gained access to vast amounts of wealth and resources. This allowed the Romans to improve their standard of living, develop new industries, and engage in trade with other cultures. Power: The expansion of Rome's empire also allowed the Romans to establish themselves as the dominant power in the Mediterranean world. This gave them a significant advantage in international politics and allowed them to exert influence over other cultures and societies. Military Culture: Rome's expansion was largely driven by its military culture. The Romans developed a highly disciplined and well-organized military that was capable of conquering and occupying new territories. This military culture became a defining characteristic of Roman society and helped to shape its values and beliefs. Slavery: The expansion of Rome's empire also led to an increase in the number of slaves. Slaves were used for a variety of purposes, including labor, entertainment, and sexual services. This helped to drive the Roman economy and contributed to the development of Roman society. Cultural Exchange: As Rome conquered new territories, it also came into contact with new cultures and societies. This led to a significant amount of cultural exchange, as Romans adopted new customs and practices from the cultures they conquered, and as they introduced their own culture and values to these societies.

Which two broad regions were unified by the Roman Empire?

Western Europe and the Hellenistic world

What are the key reasons behind the persistent mystery surrounding the Etruscans despite the wealth of archaeological evidence they left behind?

When the Romans arrived in Italy, the dominant inhabitants of the peninsula were a people whom the Greeks called Tyrrhenians. To the Romans, they were Etruscans; and to us they remain mysterious, despite the rich archeological record they left behind. This is because their language (not a branch of Indo-European) has never been fully deciphered, even though the Etruscans used an alphabet borrowed from the Greeks, with whom they were in frequent contact

The Plebs

Within a generation after the establishment of the republic, patrician dominance of the government began to be challenged by the plebs ("people"). The plebeian classes made up nearly 98 percent of the Roman population, and they were a diverse group. Some had grown wealthy through trade or agriculture, but most were small- holding farmers, artisans, or the urban poor ---Their causes for grievance were numerous. Although they were forced to serve in the army, they were nevertheless excluded from holding office. They were also the victims of discriminatory decisions in judicial trials, which were judged by patricians. They did not even know what legal rights they were supposed to enjoy, because Rome had as yet no established laws: there were only unwritten customs and practices whose meaning was interpreted by the patricians to their own advantage ---The plebians were also, like the poorer citizens of Greek poleis, threatened with debt slavery. These wrongs prompted a rebellion in the early fifth century B.C.E., when plebeians refused to join in the military defense of Rome and instead seceded from the city, camping out on the Aventine hill. This general strike of military labor forced the patricians to allow the people to elect their own officers, who were known as tribunes (tribal leaders)

mos maiorum

a Latin term that referred to the "customs of the ancestors" or the "way of the elders." It was the unwritten code of behavior and moral values that guided the conduct of the ancient Romans and shaped their culture and society. The mos maiorum was a complex set of customs and traditions that governed all aspects of Roman life, including religion, politics, social interactions, and family life. It emphasized virtues such as honor, duty, courage, loyalty, and respect for authority, and was deeply rooted in the Roman sense of identity and community. ---The mos maiorum was passed down from generation to generation through oral tradition and was seen as a source of wisdom and guidance. It helped to define what it meant to be Roman and served as a source of national pride and identity. The importance of the mos maiorum declined during the later years of the Roman Republic and the early years of the Roman Empire, as Roman society became more diverse and cosmopolitan. However, its influence can still be seen in modern Western culture, particularly in areas such as law, government, and ethics, which have been shaped by Roman ideas and practices.

Tiberius (emperor)

a Roman emperor who ruled from 14 AD to 37 AD. He was born on November 16, 42 BC, in Rome, and was the son of Livia Drusilla and Tiberius Claudius Nero. Tiberius was adopted by Augustus, the first Roman emperor, in 4 AD and was appointed his successor. He was a competent administrator and military leader, but his reign was marked by a reputation for cruelty and suspicion. ---During his reign, Tiberius expanded the Roman Empire's borders and established the frontier provinces of Raetia and Noricum. He also undertook a major building program in Rome, including the construction of the Temple of Concord and the Aqua Claudia aqueduct. However, Tiberius was also known for his paranoia and harsh treatment of political opponents. He was responsible for a number of political purges, including the execution of the prominent senator and historian Tacitus. ---Tiberius retired to the island of Capri in 26 AD and ruled the empire from there until his death in 37 AD. His reign was followed by that of his grand-nephew, Caligula. Tiberius is remembered as a competent but unpopular emperor, whose reign was marked by political intrigue and brutality. His legacy has been shaped by the negative portrayals of him in sources such as Tacitus' Annals and the novel "I, Claudius" by Robert Graves.

Maniple

a flexible and specialized group of 120 fighters {At times when it needed fast, decisive military leadership, the Roman Republic replaced its two elected consuls with a single dictator}

Gaius Marius

a man from an obscure provincial family who fought a successful campaign against Jugurtha of Numidia, a small kingdom that threatened Rome's hard-won supremacy in North Africa. In 107 B.C.E. Marius's popularity catapulted him to the consulship, despite the protests of the Senate's aristocracy, and he would be elected to that office six more times in the course of his life ---Marius was no statesman, but he set a powerful precedent by demonstrating how easily a general with an army behind him could override opposition, and that an army command could be an alternative path to political power. He also changed the course of Rome's history by reorganizing and expanding the army. Desperate for more men to fight in Africa and in Gaul, which Rome was slowly infiltrating, Marius abolished the property qualification that had hitherto limited military service; the potential pool of soldiers now included the urban poor and landless peasants

Octavian maintained the fiction that he was governing as

a mere citizen. For four years he ruled as sole consul, until he accepted the titles of imperator (emperor) and augustus

According to their own legends, the Romans' early government was

a monarchy that mirrored the structure of Roman households, with a patriarchal king who exercised power that was checked only by a council of elders, the Senate (a word derived from the Latin senex, "old man"); Seven kings, including Romulus, are said to have ruled in succession.

The victory at Actium ushered in

a new period of Roman history, the most prosperous and the most peaceful that Rome—or the West—ever experienced. The new Gaius Julius Caesar was now the only man left standing, and with no rivals for power he had no further need for political purges

Carthage

a port city at the northeastern tip of Africa, founded around 800 B.C.E. as a Phoenician colony, but now independent and powerful. It had the largest and most effective navy of its day, and it commanded the vast resources of commercial networks that reached as far north as Britain and deep into Egypt and the Near East ---In almost every respect but one it was far superior to Rome. Yet that one factor was decisive: while the Carthaginian fleet was unrivalled, Carthage had no standing army. It relied on mercenaries bankrolled by the enormous profits of its merchants.

The Pax Romana refers to a period of relative peace because

a single empire ruled the vast territory from Britain to Persia

Augustus represented himself as

a stern defender of the mos maiorum and traditional Roman virtues

The majority of Roman slaves worked as

agricultural laborers on the vast (and growing) estates of the Roman aristocracy. Some of these estates were the result of earlier Roman conquests within Italy itself, but others were constructed by aristocrats buying up the holdings of peasant farmers

What portion of the population were plebeians in the early Roman Republic?

almost 98 percent

SPQR

an acronym for "Senatus Populusque Romanus," which translates to "The Senate and People of Rome." It was the official emblem of the Roman Republic and later the Roman Empire, and was used to represent the government and people of Rome. The acronym "SPQR" was often used on official documents, coins, and monuments, and served as a symbol of Roman unity and identity. It emphasized the close relationship between the Senate, which was the governing body of Rome, and the people of Rome, who were represented in the Comitia, the various assemblies of citizens. ---The emblem of SPQR was often depicted alongside other symbols of Rome, such as the eagle, the fasces, and the laurel wreath. It was a powerful symbol of Roman patriotism and a reminder of the shared history and achievements of the Roman people. Today, SPQR is still a recognizable symbol of ancient Rome and is often used in popular culture to evoke the power, prestige, and glory of the Roman Empire.

As it was developed by the jurists, Roman law comprised three great branches or divisions:

civil law: the law of Rome and its citizens, both written and unwritten. It included the statutes of the Senate, the decrees of the emperor, the edicts of magistrates, and ancient customs that had the force of law ex. the mos maiorum the law of nations: not specific to Rome but extended to all people of the world regardless of their origins and ethnicity: it is the precursor of international law. This law authorized slavery; protected the private ownership of property; and defined the mechanisms of purchase and sale, partnership, and contract. It was not superior to civil law but supplemented it, and it applied especially to those inhabitants of the empire who were not citizens, as well as to foreigners natural law: a product not of judicial practice but of legal philosophy. Roman Stoics, following in the footsteps of Cicero, posited that nature itself is rationally ordered, and that careful study will reveal the laws by which the natural world operates, including the nature of justice. They affirmed that all men are by nature equal, and that they are entitled to certain basic rights that governments have no authority to transgress

the Romans did not impose heavy burdens of taxation and tribute on the settlements they conquered. More often, they demanded that their allies

contribute only soldiers to the Roman army {Rome also extended the Latin Right to many of these conquered territories, giving them a further stake in its continued political and military expansion}

Who were the tribunes?

elected officials whose job was to protect the interests of the plebeians

the transition of power between emperors was

generally peaceful and the growing imperial bureaucracy could manage affairs competently even when individual emperors proved vicious and ineffectual, as did Caligula (37-41 C.E.).

How did the period from the end of the Third Punic War in 146 B.C.E. to approximately 30 B.C.E. in Rome become a time of political turmoil?

in Rome itself, the period from the end of the Third Punic War in 146 to about 30 B.C.E. was one of turbulence due to, Politically motivated murders, bloody competition among rival dictators. wars, and insurrections. Slave uprisings also added to the general disorder. In 134 B.C.E, some 70,000 slaves defeated a Roman army in Sicily before being put down by emergency reinforcements. Slaves ravaged Sicily again in 104 B.C.E. But the most threatening revolt of all was led by Spartacus, a Thracian captive who was being trained as a gladiator. Along with a band of 200 fellow slaves from a gladiatorial training camp— they had all been bought by a wealthy entrepreneur—they escaped from Capua (near Naples), heavily armed, to the slopes of Mount Vesuvius, where their cause attracted a huge host of other fugitives. From 73 to 71 B.C.E. this desperate army defeated trained Roman forces of as many as 10,000 men, and they overran much of southern Italy before Spartacus himself was killed. The Senate, terrified of the precedent set by the near-victory of the rebels, ordered 6,000 of the captured slaves to be crucified along the length of the road from Capua to Rome (about 150 miles) as a warning to future insurgents

The relief sculpture of this period is particularly notable for

its delicacy and naturalism, and sculptors also became adept at portraiture. Even on their coins, emperors were portrayed very much as they looked in real life

the principal victims of Rome's transformation were

its slaves, even though some were cultivated foreigners—mainly Greek-speaking—taken as prisoners of war, the standard policy of their owners was to get as much work out of them as possible until they died of exhaustion or were "freed" in old age to fend for themselves

Marcus Junius Crassus

lived from 115 BCE to 53 BCE, held a distinguished place in Roman history as a member of the First Triumvirate alongside Julius Caesar and Pompey. Notably, he stood among the wealthiest individuals in Roman society. Crassus embarked on his political journey as a military commander, earning recognition for his service under Sulla in the civil war against Marius. His military prowess extended to several campaigns, including his role in quelling Spartacus's rebellion during the Third Servile War. ---In addition to his military exploits, Crassus was renowned as a shrewd and astute businessman who amassed his fortune through the strategic buying and selling of properties. His wealth and political connections played pivotal roles in his involvement in Roman politics as part of the First Triumvirate. Crassus leveraged these advantages to secure influential positions and to facilitate significant political agreements between Caesar and Pompey. However, his promising political career was tragically cut short in 53 BCE during a battle against the Parthian Empire, leaving the Roman Republic bereft of one of its most powerful figures. While his legacy may be somewhat overshadowed by his more illustrious contemporaries, Caesar and Pompey, Crassus's role in the First Triumvirate was instrumental in shaping the course of Roman history, and his financial acumen left an enduring mark on the economic landscape of the Roman Republic.

The triumph of the early republic

marked by almost constant warfare, initially defensive but soon aimed at stitching together a patchwork of valuable territories that could support Rome's growing population. By 300 B.C.E. Rome had absorbed or allied itself with all of central Italy and began to look even further south, to the wealthy Greek colonies of Sicily

Patria potestas

means "fatherly power" and includes a man's power of life or death over his own family members

What kind of government controlled the Roman Republic?

mixed government of aristocracy, democracy, and oligarchy

How did Augustus oversee the expansion of Roman territory, and what were the notable gains and setbacks during his reign?

more land was gained for Rome in the lifetime of Augustus than in that of any other ruler. His generals advanced into central Europe, conquering the modern-day territories of Switzerland, Austria, and Bulgaria. Only in Germania did Roman troops meet defeat, when three legions were slaughtered in the Teutoburg Forest in 9 C.E., a devastating setback that convinced Augustus to hold the Roman borders at the Rhine and Danube rivers

What was the core of roman identity?

mos maiorum, or "the custom of the ancestors." {this overt Roman devotion to imitating the behavior of their ancestors made them culturally conservative and reluctant to adopt social changes}

Tribunes of the Plebeians

officials in the Roman Republic who were elected to protect the interests of the plebeians, who were the common people of Rome. The office of Tribune was created in 494 BC, in response to the plebeians' demands for greater representation and protection from the patricians, who were the wealthy and influential members of Roman society. ---The Tribunes had the power to veto the decisions of other magistrates, including the consuls, and could propose laws to the People's Assembly. They also had the power to convene the People's Assembly, and to speak on behalf of the plebeians in the Senate. The Tribunes were sacrosanct, meaning that they were protected from physical harm while in office, and anyone who harmed a Tribune could be put to death. This was intended to ensure that the Tribunes could perform their duties without fear of reprisal from the patricians. ---Over time, the powers of the Tribunes increased, and they became one of the most important offices in the Roman Republic. The office continued to exist in the Roman Empire, but its powers were greatly reduced.

Roman slaves had diverse life experiences. Which descriptions fit the lives of most Roman slaves?

performed agricultural labor and subjected to violent treatment

Mark Atony

politician and general who played a prominent role during the twilight years of the Roman Republic. Born in 83 BC into a prominent family, he grew up in Rome and began his career as a young officer in the Roman army, participating in campaigns in the eastern Mediterranean. In 54 BC, Antony's trajectory shifted significantly when he joined Julius Caesar's army during the conquest of Gaul. His exceptional leadership and bravery propelled him up the ranks, establishing him as one of Caesar's most trusted generals. ---Following Caesar's assassination in 44 BC, Antony emerged as a key leader in the Caesarian party, collaborating with Octavian and Lepidus to establish the Second Triumvirate, a political alliance that wielded power in Rome for the next decade. While the Triumvirate initially succeeded in defeating their political adversaries, internal conflicts soon arose, with Antony emerging as the preeminent figure in Rome's political landscape. However, Antony's personal life often overshadowed his accomplishments. Notorious for heavy drinking and womanizing, his romantic involvement with Cleopatra, the queen of Egypt, fueled scandalous gossip and intrigue. ---In 33 BC, Antony's divorce from his wife, Octavia, and his subsequent marriage to Cleopatra were perceived as betrayals by Octavian and many of his supporters, escalating the animosity between Antony and Octavian. The climactic clash occurred in 31 BC when Antony's forces faced Octavian's at the Battle of Actium off the coast of Greece. Their fleet's defeat forced Antony and Cleopatra to flee to Egypt. A year later, Octavian's forces invaded Egypt, compelling Antony and Cleopatra to take their own lives to avoid capture. While Antony is recognized for his military prowess and charismatic political leadership, his personal life, especially his relationship with Cleopatra, has intrigued historians and scholars for centuries. The Battle of Actium's outcome marked the end of the Roman Republic and the inauguration of the Roman Empire under Octavian's leadership.

Lucius Cornelius Sulla

prominent Roman general and statesman in the late Republic, living from 138 BCE to 78 BCE. Rising from a patrician background, he began his career as a military commander and achieved renown through campaigns in the Social War and the Jugurthine War, ultimately being elected consul in 88 BCE. Sulla's path to power faced a major obstacle when his political rivals, led by Gaius Marius, orchestrated his removal from command during a campaign against Mithridates VI of Pontus. This led to a prolonged civil war from 88 BCE to 82 BCE, with Sulla emerging victorious. In 82 BCE, he assumed the position of dictator in Rome, initiating a series of reforms aimed at restoring order to the Republic. These reforms included purges of political adversaries, a new constitution bolstering the Senate's power, and limitations on the authority of the tribunes of the plebs. Sulla's impact was enduring, setting the stage for Julius Caesar's ascent and the subsequent transformation of the Roman Republic into an empire. ---Sulla's voluntary resignation from dictatorship in 79 BCE marked the end of his active political career. He passed away in 78 BCE, but his far-reaching reforms significantly shaped the Roman Republic's trajectory. His actions laid the groundwork for the rise of influential figures like Julius Caesar, contributing to the eventual transition from the Republic to the Roman Empire.

What does res publica mean?

public thing(s)

Gaius Gracchus

renewed his older brother's struggle after being elected to the same office, although a version of Tiberius's land reforms had finally been enacted by the Senate, Gaius believed that the campaign had to go further. In 123 B.C.E. he enacted several laws for the benefit of the poor, stabilizing the price of grain in Rome by building public granaries along the Tiber and checking the administrative abuses of the senatorial class by giving the equestrians greater powers ---He also imposed controls on provincial governors suspected of exploiting their subjects for personal gain. Most controversially, Gaius proposed to extend full Roman citizenship to all the allied states of Italy, a move that would have kept the army well supplied with new soldiers, but which would also alter the political landscape of Rome to the detriment of the existing elite ---Accordingly, the Senate proclaimed Gaius Gracchus an outlaw and authorized its consuls to deal ruthlessly with his supporters. In the ensuing conflict, Gaius and about 3,000 of his followers became the victims of a purge

Although the Romans originally used the phalanx formation borrowed from the Greeks, they quickly replaced it with

smaller, more flexible divisions that could adjust to the hilly conditions of central Italy {While the major unit of the Roman army was always the legion (5,000 men), the combat unit was the maniple ("handful"), a group of 120 infantrymen who trained together and who often performed specialized tasks or used special weaponry}

The Romans also borrowed ideas from the Greek settlers who had begun to colonize

southern Italy and Sicily in large numbers during the eighth century B.C.E {From them, Romans derived their alphabet, many of their religious beliefs, and much of their art}

During the second century B.C.E., new laws started giving women more rights like ones

that allowed married women to control their own property, instead of handing that wealth over to their husbands; if a married woman died, her possessions would then revert to her father or her father's heirs if she had no children of her own ---that allowed women to initiate divorce proceedings {Women from well-to-do families now spent more time away from the home and began to engage in a range of social, intellectual, and artistic activities. Indeed, women were among the chief consumers of the new Hellenistic fashions, commodities, and ideas available in Rome}

The height of the Augustan system is generally considered to be the era between 96 and 180 C.E., often known as the reign of

the "Five Good Emperors" -Nerva (96-98 C.E.) -Trajan (98-117 C.E.) -Hadrian (117-138 C.E.) -Antoninus Pius (138-161 C.E.) -Marcus Aurelius (161-180 C.E.) {All were capable politicians, and since none but the last had a son that survived him, each adopted a worthy successor— a policy that allowed this generation of rulers to avoid the messy family dysfunctions that absorbed Augustus and his immediate heirs. They also benefited from the fact that Rome had few external enemies left}

At an early date, Romans negotiated a series of agreements with their neighbors which were collectively known as

the Latin Right, which included: a trading pact called the commercium, provisions for intermarriage called the connubium, and the migration that allowed a Latin resident of one settlement to emigrate to another and, after a year's residence, to have the full rights of a citizen there

Eventually, its central marketplace—the forum or "open space"—would become

the beating heart of the world's most populous and powerful city, with approximately a million people crowded into an area of five square miles

Explain the Gladiatorial contests

the most repellant (and most fascinating) aspect of Roman culture during the Principate was its spectacular cruelty, exhibited in the public arenas erected in every Roman town, Gladiatorial contests. Gladiators were not new, but they were now presented in ampitheaters built to hold thousands Everyone, even emperors, attended these events, and they became increasingly bloody and brutal as people demanded more and more innovative violence. Individual gladiators fought to the death with swords or the exotic weapons of their homelands. Teams of gladiators fought pitched battles, often simulating historic Roman victories. Occasionally, a wealthy entrepreneur would fill an arena with water and stage a naval battle. Hundreds of men would die in these organized slaughters. On other occasions, hundreds of half-starved animals imported from Africa, India, or the forests Germania would tear one another—or their human victims—apart. When a fighter went down with a disabling wound, the crowd would be asked to decide whether to spare his life or to kill him. If the arena floor became too slippery with blood, a fresh layer of sand would be spread over the gore so that the performance could continue.

During the period of expansion, Rome's political system evolved accordingly starting with

the overthrow of the monarchy in which resulted in only moderate changes {instead of a king, the government was headed by two elected officers called consuls}

What happened when the triumvirate started hunting for the conspirators Brutus and Gaius Cassius?

they fled Rome and raised an army of legions from Greece and Asia Minor to which they were then defeated by the united forces of Antony and Octavian on a battlefield near the Macedonian town of Philippi (founded by Alexander's father, Philip II) in 42 B.C.E. There, both Brutus and Cassius committed suicide.

A free-born Roman, by contrast, had at least ___ names. How was the baby named?

two; The name by which he was known—the name that mattered—was the name of his earliest ancestor, the man from whom his family descended. Gaius Julius Caesar, to take a famous example, would have entered public life as Julius, a member of the family of the Julii, who claimed ancestry from Iulus, the son of Aenea. His forename, Gaius, was the most common name in Rome, the equivalent of "Joe" or "John," and he would never be addressed by this name in public, except perhaps by very intimate friends or family members. His third name, Caesar, was a nickname he acquired in the course of his career: "hairy head." And because it was the most distinctive of his names—the name he didn't share with an ancestor or with average Romans

What problems were the Gracchi brothers' reforms meant to address?

unemployment and anger among plebeians and a shortage of soldiers

The Praetorian Guard

was a special military unit of the Roman Empire that was established by the Emperor Augustus in 27 BC. The primary function of the Praetorian Guard was to serve as a personal bodyguard to the Roman Emperor and to maintain order in Rome. Originally, the Praetorian Guard consisted of 9 cohorts, each with approximately 500 men. The Praetorian Guard was made up of Roman citizens, who were chosen for their physical strength, loyalty, and military training. ---Over time, the Praetorian Guard became increasingly influential and powerful, often playing a role in the selection and removal of Roman emperors. This was due in part to their close proximity to the emperor and their loyalty to him, as well as their position as a highly trained and well-armed military force. ---The Praetorian Guard was disbanded by the Emperor Constantine in 312 AD, after they supported his rival, Maxentius, in a battle for control of the empire. The Praetorian Guard's influence had become so great that Constantine believed they posed a threat to his rule, and he replaced them with a new imperial guard. However, the legacy of the Praetorian Guard continued to be felt in Roman history, as their role in the politics of the empire had a lasting impact on the political and social structures of ancient Rome.

The epic struggle between Rome and Carthage for dominance of the Mediterranean lasted

well over a century; It was crystallized in three periods of concentrated warfare known as the Punic Wars, because the Romans called their enemies Poeni, "Phoenicians."

Consuls

were inevitably members of aristocratic families, known in Rome as patricians because they traced descent from a famous ancestor or "father" (pater). During his term of office, which lasted for one year, each consul exercised essentially the same power as a king: dealing justice, making law, and commanding the army ---The only limit on consular power was the right of each consul to veto the actions of the other, which often led to stalemate or violent conflict. In such cases, the Senate might have to arbitrate. In times of grave emergency (like that resulting in Cincinnatus' election), a dictator might be appointed for a term not longer than six months

Romans didn't rely on portable wealth because

when they weren't fighting, they wanted to be home on the farm, not gadding about the world. If they had money, they put it into real estate: land or slaves.

The Estrucians were?

{occupied north-central Italy and interacted with the Latins, who settled the Tiber river region by the tenth century B.C.E.}