ch 6 psychology

• What are reasons for forgetting? Know at which point forgetting can occur at different parts of the information processing model (i.e., encoding failure, storage decay, and interference). Can you think of some examples of each?

One reason we forget is because of encoding failure, or the failure to process information into memory. For example, if a friend tells you something as he leaves, and you hear it, if you weren't paying attention, you probably wont encode it and you wont remember it. Another reason why we forget is explained by the memory trace decay theory. A memory trace is a physical change in the brain when a memory is formed. Over time, if these traces aren't used, they may decay. this theory could explain why we forget things in sensory and STM, because things not brought to attention or rehearsed are forgotten. Finally, another reason why we forget is called the interference theory. This theory is a possible explanation for long term memory because other information may interfere with the long term memory that is trying to be retrieved.

• What is the difference between proactive and retroactive interference? Can you think of examples of each?

One type of interference is proactive interference. proactive interference is the tendency for older or previously learned material to interfere with the learning and retrieval of new material (switching from driving gearshift on the wheel to driving gearshift on the floor- you reach for wheel when u get into new car instead of the floor). Retroactive interference is when new information interferes with the retrieval of older information. ( when you switch back to the old car with the gearshift on the wheel, you will probably reach for the floor a few times).

• How does "chunking" help us to remember more information?

chunking helps us to remember more information because we are recoding or reorganizing information, such as random numbers, into meaningful chunks ( like putting random numbers into chunks similar to a telephone number)

• What is elaborative rehearsal and why is it important? Why would using elaborative rehearsal help you perform better on this exam?

elaborative rehearsal is a way of transferring information from STM into LTM by making that information meaningful in some way. spacing out your studying and using elaborative rehearsal will yield better results than cramming the night before a test.

• What are the processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval? What are the roles of selective attention and maintenance rehearsal?

encoding is the first process in the memory system and its role is to get sensory information into a form that the brain can use. Storage is when we hold onto information for a period of time. finally, retrieval is taking the information out of storage. selective attention is the ability to focus on one stimulus among all sensory input. it is through selective attention that information enters our STM system. maintenance rehearsal is when you repeat something to keep it in short term memory. once you stop rehearsing, the information disappears.

• What is encoding specificity? What is state-dependent learning? How does state-depending relate to mood disorders (e.g., depression)?

encoding specificity is the tendency for memory of any kind of information to be improved if retrieval conditions are similar to the conditions under which the information was encoded. these conditions, or cues, can be internal or external. State-dependent learning is when memories formed during a particular physiological state will be easier to remember while in a similar state. state-depending can relate to mood disorders because people with say depression form many bad memories that span from only a few bad memories. after awhile, anywhere they go, they get depressed because they are reminded of a bad memory. with memory disorders, people are always depressed or angry. so anytime that they are depressed or angry, they remember bad or horrible memories made during the time they were depressed or angry. this results in an endless cycle of depression and anger.

• What is a flashbulb memory and when do they typically occur?

flashbulb memory is a special kind of automatic encoding that takes place when an unexpected event or episode in a persons life has strong emotional associations. They are very vivid and exact.

• Who was Ebbinghaus and what did his research teach us about memory?

he was one of the first researchers to study forgetting. He created several lists of "nonsense syllables" pronounceable but meaningless. he memorized this list, waited an amount of time, then tried to retrieve this list. The results were put on a graph called the CURVE OF FORGETTING. this graph shows that forgetting happens quickly within the first hour after learning. Forgetting is greatest just after learning.

• What is short-term memory? What is its capacity and duration? How does it differ from working memory? Can you compare and contrast these two concepts?

if information is important enough to enter consciousness, it will go to short term memory, the second stage of memory that lasts up to 30 seconds or more. most of short-term memory is encoded in auditory form. The capacity of short term memory is 7 items of information, plus or minus two items. While short term memory is the place where we store the information, working memory is the active system that processes the information present in short term memory. the working memory system has a central executive, sketchpad, and recorder. when reading a book, the sketchpad will contain people and events from the particular passage, the recorder will play the dialogue in the persons mind as they are reading, and the central executive will put these two things together to be stored in short term memory. Both working and short term memory can be seen as "storage" of information.

o How are implicit (nondeclarative) and explicit (declarative) memories different? What are the different types of implicit memories? Explicit memories?

implicit (nondeclarative) memories are memories for things that people know how to do ( like tying shoes or riding a bike). They have to be demonstrated, not reported. explicit (declarative) memories are memories for facts. These two types of long-term memory are different because it is hard to bring implicit memories into consciousness. Explicit memories can be forgotten but always have the potential to be made conscious. implicit memories are demonstrated in procedural memory ( performance of a task), through priming ( the improvement in identifying or processing concepts, words, or concepts after having prior experience with them, and through memory associations learned through classical or operant conditioning. On the other hand, 2 types of explicit memories are semantic and episodic. semantic is the information learned in school or reading. Episodic is the personal knowledge that each person has of their lives.

• Is it better to study all in one night or over several nights if you want to remember information on an exam? What do you call these two approaches?

it is better to study over several nights if you want to remember information on an exam. These two approaches are called distributed practice and massed practice. Distributed practice is spacing out one's study sessions, which will produce far better retrieval of information. On the other hand, massed practice is an attempt to study a body of material all at once. This method won't work as well with retrieval of information.

• What is long-term memory? Does it have a large or a small capacity? How long is the information available?

long term memory is the third stage of memory. it is the system into which all the information is placed to be kept more or less permanently. LTM has an unlimited capacity.long term memory can be available for a very long time, almost permanent.

• Define memory. What are the three main divisions of memory according to the information-processing model?

memory- active system that receives information from the senses, puts that information into a usable form, organizes it as it stores it away, and then retrieves the information from storage. The three main divisions of memory according to the information-processing model are encoding, storage, and retrieval. Encoding is the set of mental operations that people perform on sensory information to convert that information into a form that is usable in the brain' storage systems. Storage is holding onto information for a certain amount of time. Finally, retrieval is getting the information out of storage.

• What phenomena have shown us that information we learn after an experience can change our memories?

one phenomena is the hindsight bias, which is the tendency of people to falsely believe that they would have accurately predicted an outcome without having been told about it in advance. An example is when people , upon learning the details of a particular event, revise their memories to reflect their feeling that they "knew it all along." another phenomena is the misinformation effect, which is when misleading information can become part of the actual memory, affecting its accuracy. another phenomenon could be false-memory syndrome, which is the creation of inaccurate or false memories through the suggestion of others, often while under hypnosis.

• Who was patient H.M.? What did studying him teach us about memory?

patient H.M suffered from epileptic seizures. Eleven years later, his hippocampi and medial temporal lobe were removed in hopes of stopping those seizures. What was learned from this procedure was that the hippocampus was not the source of his seizures. It was the source of his ability to consolidate and store any new factual information he encountered, because without either hippocampus, he couldnt remember new events or facts. basically we learned that the hippocampus is the part of the brain responsible for formation of new long-term declarative memories.

• What is the difference between recognition and recall?

recall- memories are retrieved with few or no external cues (filling in blanks), while recognition involves looking at or hearing information and matching it to what is already in memory.

• How are retrograde and anterograde amnesia similar? How are they different?

retrograde memory- loss of memory from the point of injury backwards. The consolidation process, which was busy making the physical changes for new memory storage, gets disrupted and loses everything that wasn't already nearly "finished". on the other hand, anterograde amnesia is the loss of memories from the point of injury or illness forward. People with this amnesia cant remember anything new. These two amnesias are similar in that in both cases, the person loses the ability to remember, whether it be old or new memories. Additionally, in both cases, it is due to a head injury, most likely a concussion.

• What is sensory memory? What researcher should you associate with sensory memory given the demonstration we did in class? Does sensory memory have a large or a small capacity? How long is the information available?

sensory memory is the first stage of memory, the point at which information enters the nervous system through the sensory systems. George sperling is the researcher that studied iconic memory. sensory memory has a small capacity. the information is available for a quarter of a second, before new information masks the old information.

• What is the role of the cerebellum in memory?

the cerebellum is responsible for storage of memories of conditioned responses, skills, and habits. procedural memories.

• What is the "cocktail party effect" and how is it related to sensory memory and selective attention?

the cocktail party effect is when you hear your name out of all the background noise at a party. it relates to sensory memory and selective attention because you are selectively paying attention to your name being called instead of all the other ruckus going on at a party. additionally, your name being called is a type of sensory memory, and it only enters short term memory because it is deemed important enough.

• What is meant by false memory syndrome?

the creation of inaccurate or false memories through the suggestion of others, often while the person is under hypnosis. hypnosis increases the confidence people have in their memories, regardless of whether those memories are real or false.

• What does the serial position curve refer to? What do the terms primacy and recency refer to?

the serial position curve refers to when information at the beginning and end of a list tends to be remembered more easily and accurately. Its a prejudice of memory retrieval. primacy refers to the fact that words at the beginning of a list tend to be remembered better than those at the middle of the list. It is due to the fact that the first few words, when the listener has nothing already in short term memory to interfere with their rehearsal, will receive far more rehearsal time than the words in the middle, which are constantly being replaced by the next word on the list. Recency is when the last word or two was just heard and is still in short-term memory for easy retrieval, with no new words to interfere.

• What is the levels-of-processing model?

when people have to process the meaning of a word, which requires more mental effort than processing just its looks.