Ch. 9-14 Anthropology (ANTH1200)

Northern part

Ch. 9: Figure 9.1 - Sites in Middle Eastern-State Formation- Is the Halafian culture in the southern or northern part of the Middle Eastern state?

1. Controls specific territories - domesticated animals and plants >protection of surplus and trading 2. Productive farming economics 3. Used tribute and taxation 4. Stratified into social classes 5. Imposing public buildings and monumental architecture 6. Developed some form of record-keeping system

Ch. 9: What are the 6 attributes of states?

1. Environmental circumscription - physical or social >physical = include small islands and river plains, oases, and valleys w/ streams (arid areas) >social = exists when neighboring societies block expansion, emigration, or access to resources ->Coastal Peru and Highland Papua New Guinea an exception 2. Increasing population >advent of food production triggered population increase, leading to bigger villages in each valley 3. Warfare >b/c all of chiefdoms battle or take over peacefully

Ch. 9: What were Carneiro's 3 key factors that work together to produce state formation?

Mesopotamia

refers to the area between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in what is now southern Iraq and southwestern Iran

Chiefdoms

societies in which relations among villages as well as among individuals are unequal; hereditary status differences present in Middle East by 7,000 B.P. 2-tier settlement hierarchy w/ small villages clustering around a large village in northern Mesopotamia during Halafian period

Egalitarian

society that is most typically found among foragers, lacks status distinctions except for those based on age, gender, and individual qualities, talents, and achievement >thus, depending on the society, adult men, elder women, talented musicians, or ritual specialists might receive special respect for their activities or knowledge status distinctions usually are not inherited

Focal vocabulary

specialized sets of terms and distinctions that are particularly important to certain groups (those with particular foci of experience or activity)

Allophones

structure of language that is the same sound class; doesn't change meaning; ex: butter -> some say "budder," ask -> some say "ax," exactly -> some say "exackly" >shows if person is a natural speaker

Morphology

structure of language that is the study of how sounds (phonemes) come together to make units of meaning >ex: pre-

Phonology

structure of language that is the study of sounds of language

Non-verbal/kinesics

study of body communication ex: how hands, arms, eyes move prevalence and meaning of kinesics vary cross - culturally (how much do we smile) >ex: prevalence of bow in Japan >handshakes: firm and eye contact body movements communicate social differences >leg crossing, hunch over -> diminutive smell - trying to mask w/ deodorant and soap and hair products >if smell, may workout, not clean enough (place judgment) >different diets

Historical linguistics

study of long-term linguistic change >features of past languages are reconstructed by studying contemporary daughter languages (those that descend from the same parent language, or protolanguage) >languages are classified according to their degree of relationship >subgroups - languages w/in a taxonomy of related languages that are most closely related

W. Labov's study

study that focused on whether r was pronounced after vowels in such words as car, floor, card, and fourth to get data on how this linguistic variation correlated w/ social class, he used a series of rapid encounters w/ employees in 3 NYC department stores, each of whose prices and locations attracted a different socioeconomic group r pronunciation was clearly associated w/ prestige >certainly the job interviewers who had hired the salespeople never counted r's before offering employment

Cultural construction of gender/Margaret Mead

study that people of New Guinea were sex-free; very promiscuous; first to say gender is a culture construction - not a biological basis expectations are based on pressure from culture studied 3 groups (length of stay and not know language questioned) > 1) female was dominant > 2) both equal in aggression and non-nurturing > 3) woman was nurturing

Olmec

the earliest-known Mesoamerican civilization, which flourished around 1200 B.C. and influenced later societies throughout the region; most remembered for their large stone heads; built a series of ritual centers on Mexico's southern Gulf Coast between 3,200 and 2,500 years ago >3 of these centers, each from a different century, are known >earthen mounds were grouped into plaza complexes, presumably for religious use - such centers show that ______________ chiefs could marshal human labor to construct such mounds were also master sculptors - carved massive stone heads = perhaps as images of their chiefs or their ancestors

Linguistic productivity

the fact that we can produce novel sentences that we ourselves have never heard before; ability to understand and create unusual sentences; has the capacity to generate new expressions by combining other expressions; speakers routinely use the rules of their language to produce entirely new expressions that are comprehensible to other native speakers >ex: create "baboonlet" to refer to a baboon infant

Çatal Hüyük

the largest settlement of the Neolithic age in Anatolia, Turkey; was located on a river, which deposited rich soil for crops, created a lush environment for animals, and was harnessed for irrigation by 7000 B.P.; shielded by a defensive wall, it flourished between 8000 and 7000 B.P. its individual mud-brick dwellings had separate areas reserved for ritual and secular uses; people entered the dwellings at this settlement through the roof, then had to crawl through holes from room to room residents of this settlement acted independently in family groups without any apparent control by a priestly or political elite >town never became a full-fledged city w/ centralized organization >just as it lacked priests, it never had leaders who controlled or managed trade and production has small apartments - no religious center and not a state government - w/ 10,000 people

Protolanguages

the original language from which daughter languages diverge ex: Latin = protolanguage and French and Spanish = daughter languages **pg. 235-239**

Sociolinguistics

the study of language in society >gender speech contrasts >>differences between men and women >>American women's use of certain types of words and expressions reflects lesser power in society

Kathoey

they are sometimes referred to as ladybugs or as the third sex in Thailand compared to Western countries, Kathoey are much more visible and more widely accepted in Thai culture; several popular Thai models, singers, and movie stars are Kathoey, and Thai newspapers often print photos of the winners of female and Kathoey beauty contests side by side higher acceptance is due to the nature of the surrounding Buddhist culture, which places a high value of tolerance Time article Albanian burrhesha

Bridewealth

when the groom gives the bride a gift >customary gift before, at, or after the marriage from the husband and his kin to the wife and her kin >compensates the bride's group for the loss of her companionship and labor >also known as progeny price - makes the children born to the woman full members of her husband's descent group >common in patrilineal groups >insurance against divorce: as the value of bridewealth increases, marriages become more stable

Transhumance

where part of the group moves with the herds but most people stay in the home village ex: in Europe's Alps it is just the shepherds and goatherds - not the whole hamlet, village, or town - who accompany the flocks to highland meadows in summer transhumants don't have to trade for crops >b/c only part of the population accompanies the herds, transhumants can maintain year-round villages and grow their own crops

Cuneiform

writing that uses wedge-shaped characters (symbols) on raw clay; writing on temple walls (records on clay tablets) >some landed by fire, so it preserved it; Rosetta Stone used to decipher _________ evolved to punching quickly instead of drawings

Swidden cultivation

a form of cultivation/horticulturalism; when land is left to recover; farming without fallowing; leaving fallow = not deplete nutrients in soil

Slash and burn

a form of cultivation/horticulturism in which you chop down vegetation, let dry out, and burn it >ashes are good nutrients for soil ex: Yanomami and Pueblo Indians

Polygyny

a form of marriage in which a man has more than 1 wife >even in cultures that encourage ___________, monogamy tends to be the norm due to roughly equal sex ratios >promoted by the custom of men marrying later than women (more widows than widowers)

Creole

a pidgin language that evolves to the point at which it becomes the primary language of the people who speak it; becomes root language; is taught to next generation (Sierra Leone; Krio part English and African languages) >came off of colonization ->ex: Yiddish, Pennsylvania Dutch >Cajun French

Halafian

an early and widespread pottery style; was first found at Tell Halaf in the mountains of northern Syria; refers to delicate ceramic style; also describes the period during which the elite level and the first chiefdoms emerged; the low number of ____________ ceramics suggests they were luxury goods associated with a social hierarchy

Primary states

are states that arose on their own, not through contact with other state societies; also called archaic states or first-generation states; emerged from competition among chiefdoms, as one chiefdom managed to conquer its neighbors and to make them part of a larger political unit; states that arose on their own and not through contact w/ other state societies >emerged from competition among chiefdoms >>1st-generation states developed in Egypt, Mesopotamia, the Indus River Valley, northern China, Mesoamerica, and the Andes

Gender roles

are the tasks and activities a culture assigns by gender

Pastoralism

based on domesticated animal herds >1) ~12,000 years ago = beginning of domesticated grams and animals >2) gender distinctions; men herd large animal, women process food, age differences >3) land is not owned (use rights), but animals are owned >4) extensive strategy; need lots of land for fresh pasture; very sustainable, unless land is limited >5) some are sedentary and some more nomadic; transhumance and horizontal migration, and tribal organization, always work w/ horticultural/farming group >6) ex: Nuer, Kenya and Yoruk, Turkey

Hijras

becoming a hijra is a process of socialization into a "hijra family" through a relationship characterize3d as a chela "student" to guru "teacher" the culmination of this process is a religious ritual that includes castration the ancient Kama Sutra mentions the performance of oral sex on male parishioners at Hindu temples by hijras

Incest taboo

cultural rules that forbid sexual relations with certain close relatives; marriage w/in descent >sexual relations w/ a close relative >is a cultural universal -> especially w/in nuclear family >what constitutes incest varies cross-culturally all cultures have some sort of forbidden sexual relations w/ specific family members

Flowery Death

death while taking prisoners for the sacrificial knife it was a fitting end to a noble life and ensured eternity in the highest heaven (a reward also promised to women who died in childbirth) Aztec sacrifice in which hundreds of thousands a year were sacrificed: war captives, "chosen" young men, donated kids, etc. >take out heart eye witness (20 thousand in 4 days) emic - death is an "honor" to feed the sun and get to paradise etic - Harner on cannibalism, Donnell on "waste," and others on "power" and "religion"

Olmec

early chiefdom that flourished between 3200 and 2500 B.P. being near water large earthen mounds served as plaza complexes massive carved stone heads long-distance exchange networks linked regions of early chiefdom development

Reciprocity

exchange between social equals - normally related by kinship, marriage, or another close personal tie; dominant in more egalitarian societies (foragers, cultivators, and pastoralists) -> smaller groups; 3 degrees of reciprocity: generalized, balanced, and negative

Family of orientation

family in which one is born and grows up

Industrialism

family isolation arises from geographic mobility, which is associated with ___________, so that a nuclear family focus is characteristic of many modern nations; with industrial societies, importance lies in group membership a. how recruited b. organization c. do boundaries exist d. corporateness e. function

Intensive Agriculture

farming small amount of land for high yield using fertilizer, machines, and irrigation 1) ~10,000 years ago 2) intensive labor - requires (for technology development) and allows for job specification; much more varied division of labor 3) property is owned w/ specific borders and an investment in land 4) can be very intensive; uses lots of nonrenewable resources and engulfs other economic systems, creates borders 5) usually a chiefdom or state political organization; household is main unit of production; many characteristics we have 6) Oaxaca valley farmers and Betsileo

Sociolinguistics

field that investigates relationships between social and linguistic variation; focus on features that vary systematically with social position and situation >to study variation, must observe, define, and measure variable use of language and speakers in real-world situations study contemporary variation in speech, which is language change in progress linguistic diversity w/in nation-states >ethnic diversity is mirrored by linguistic diversity >all people style shift - vary their speech in different social contexts -> talk differently w/ grandma and friends >diglossia - regular shifting between dialects (e.g., "high" and "low" variants of a language)

Teotihuacan

first major metropolis in Mesoamerica, collapsed around 800 CE; it is most remembered for the gigantic "pyramid of the sun" was town of 10,000 people settlement hierarchy - a ranked series of communities that differ in size, function, and building types - emerged large-scale irrigation, status differentiation, complex architecture after CE 700, rapid decline in size and power

Market exchange

goods and services are exchanged for money w/ price set by supply and demand; very impersonal - although sometimes we give a deal to someone close, but still if money is exchanged, it lessens significance of relationship >we don't know people we are making exchange w/ multipurpose money = buy stick of gum, land, house, etc., use for everything limited money = form of metal rods that are so long and can be portioned to certain degree and only used for big purposes -> used by TIV (bride price -> arranged marriage)

Exogamy

marriage outside descent >practice of seeking a spouse outside one's own group >forces people to create and maintain a wide social network - nurtures, helps, and protects one's group during times of need

Endogamy

marriage w/in descent -> incest or share cultural/socioeconomic status group >matings or marriage w/in a group to which one belongs >most cultures are endogamous units, and classes and ethnic groups w/in a society may also be quasi-endogamous units >>is significant other w/in religious belief system, socio-economic class, education level ->ex: in 50s, woman could have been in high school and business man is husband ->ex: now, more common for relationships pursued w/ similar interests

Bands

modern hunter-gatherers can illustrate links between a foraging economy and other aspects of society and culture however, modern foragers are not Stone Age relies - have been linked to food producers, influenced by state systems traditional foraging societies had 2 kinds of social groups: nuclear family and band hunter-gatherer foraging groups; impermanent - formed seasonally -> shift particular families that formed a band varied from year to year marriage, kinship, trade, and visiting created social ties between members of different bands egalitarianism - status differences were achieved (not ascribed) >equals >you show skills - not born w/ skills leaders were "first among equals" - could give advice or make decisions but could not enforce decisions lack of formal law (a legal code w/ trial and enforcement) methods of social control and dispute settlement (e.g., song battles among the Inuit) >consensus model (if big things - murder, goes to state level)

Grammar

one of the structures of language that is the entire formal structure of language - rules to follow when using a language

Syntax

one of the structures of language that is the set of principles guiding how words are arranged in phrases >ex: S V Obj (sentence structure)

Diglossia

one of the structures of language that is when people regularly switch dialects in certain parts of Europe >applies to "high" and "low" variants of the same language >>for example, in German and Flemish (in Belgium) ->employ the high variant at universities and in writing, professions, and the mass media ->they use the low variant for ordinary conversation w/ family members and friends

Morpheme

one of the structures of language that means one or more phoneme that convey meaning; sounds combine to form this >words and their meaningful parts ex: cats would be analyzed as containing 2 - cat (the name for a kind of animal, and -s, a _________ indicating plurality

Ubaidian

period in which the Fertile Crescent empties when the towns turn into cities of the Uruk; culture is in the southern part of the sites in Middle Eastern state formation; 7,000-6,000 B.P. = its pottery was first discovered in southern Iraq, associated w/ advanced chiefdoms and perhaps earliest states in southern Mesopotamia

Ur

place where golden objects were being placed in royal burials; its royal cemetery, 4600 B.P. monarchs were being buried with soldiers, charioteers, and ladies in waiting - these subordinates were killed at the time of royal burial to accompany the monarch into the afterworld

Halafian pottery

pottery associated with elites; first chiefdoms; widespread, delicate ceramic pottery style, first found in northern Syria; by 7,000 B.P., elite level and first chiefdoms emerged

Patrilocal

1 of the 2 unilocal rules of post-marital residence in which married couples and their children live in the husband's community >associated w/ patrilineal descent; only trace w/ dad's lineage bride moves in w/ groom's family; ~ 75% of societies

Matrilocal

1 of the 2 unilocal rules of post-marital residence in which married couples and their children live in the wife's community >associated w/ matrilineal descent, so less common; only trace w/ mom's lineage groom moves in w/ bride's family; ~13% of societies

Generalized reciprocity

1 of the 3 degrees of reciprocity ex: the Trobriand Islanders Kula King; a total social phenomena >go on trips and take different things >>prestige in history of trips >exchange of mwali - while shell armbands and bagi - red shell necklaces (get back eventually) >inherited trade partners >rula expedition involves others who will informally trade >women trade through funeral ceremonies (Sagali) >>grass skirts *made future marriage matches through this*

Negative reciprocity

1 of the 3 degrees of reciprocity in which 1 group takes advantage of another group >exchanges w/ people outside or on the fringes of a social system >such exchanges are full of ambiguity and distrust (at least initially) >each partner attempts to maximize profit and expects an immediate return >where individuals share an extreme social distance and maximize personal gain >theft, outright trickery >ex: Mbuti pygmies and Bantu farmers share this type of relationship - long-term -> both try to get best deal ever and when farmers do little work as possible ->low-ball and cheat each other ->ex: Walmart (post undercost)

Balanced reciprocity

1 of the 3 degrees of reciprocity in which exchange occurs between more distantly related people; reciprocation is expected at some point in future; complete failure to reciprocate strains the social relationship -> damages relationship ex: Christmas gift exchange, bday gift, borrowing clothes

Generalized reciprocity

1 of the 3 degrees of reciprocity in which those closest to you; not immediate but long-term expectation ex: education for kids so expect to take care down the road pure gift; not to end up in nursing home; wedding gift >prevalent among foragers >someone gives to another person and expects nothing concrete or immediate in return >>long-time exchange >expressions of personal relationships, rather than primarily economic transactions

Mesopotamia

1 of the 6 areas where first-generation states developed; an arid area in which a key role of state officials was to manage systems of irrigation, drainage, and flood control; growth in hydraulic systems is often but not always associated w/ state formation; long-distance trade has been important in the formation of many states; long-distance

Bound/free (morphemes)

2 of the structures of language that includes the 2 types of morphemes: >free = can stand alone; ex: cat >bound = plural, can't stand alone, has to work together w/ something else; ex: cats - "s" carries meaning

Matrilineal/patrilineal descent

>Matrilineal descent - person is a member of his or her mother's group (~60% of matrilineal societies are horticultural) >Patrilineal descent - person is a member of his or her father's group (~75% of pastoral societies are patrilineal) >>red = father, white = mother, triangle = male, circle = female

Levirate/sororate marriage practice

>Sororate marriage - a widower marries one of his deceased wife's sisters (or another woman from her group if a sister >Levirate marriage - a widow marries one of her deceased husband's brothers *sororate and levirate highlight the importance of marriage as an alliance between groups* >Levirate and sororate show how the relationship and closeness has been built

Unilineal decent

???

Teotihuacan (city)

A powerful city-state in central Mexico - population of @150,000 at its peak in 600 CE - has the Temple of the Sun and Temple of the Moon famous barrios (for workshops, but also of foreigners from Oaxaca, Veracruz, etc.; Diplomats, merchants," ethic ghettos") looking closely to learn more - Linda Manzanilla at the floors, Rebecca Story at the bodies origins (voluntary? "only place to live"?) and ending (self-sacrificed? in 750 AD - now 500 AD)

Bugis

Indonesian group - 5 accepted genders > 1) middle-androgenous > 2) woman - girly girl > 3) man - manly man > 4) manly woman > 5) womanly man

Horticulturalism

Map where it takes place: >Amazon Basin (Yanomamo), Congo Basin (Birom), Sumatra, Borneo, Philippines (Manunoo), Melanesia

1. Bands >small groups - fewer than a hundred people >members related by kinship or marriage >may split up during part of the year 2. Social mobility - foragers may join any band to which they have kin or marital link 3. Egalitarianism - only minor contrasts in prestige, based on age and gender >based on how much you know of environment >age: knowledge of elders = more prestige

What are the 3 correlates of foraging?

1. Inheritance of a widow from a brother 2. May increase prestige or household productive >more kids = more productivity w/ work getting done - pastoral groups for herding 3. An infertile wife remains married to her husband after her descent group provides a substitute wife

What are the 3 reasons for polygyny?

1. All societies have war. 2. War is an almost exclusively male undertaking >b/c of childcare 3. War involves homicide -> killing 4. Wars have rules >not always followed - changes ->guerrilla warfare

What are the 4 common characteristics of war?

1. Natural aversion >"ew" factor -> don't want to think about it; >>Jewish kibbutz - communal living (people that went to school together would not marry - see as siblings >>China = small girls live w/ future spouses -> gross 2. Inbreeding >genetically harmful, but this taboo existed before genetics >>some is far enough down line that won't affect genetics; before this, Egyptians and royalty thought incest was keeping bloodline strong 3. Family disruption >huge negative social consequences; jealousy and role ambiguity >>ex: daughter having sex w/ father = chaos; we have roles 4. No expansion of social alliances >most alliances and extended relationships are made through marriage

What are the 4 reasons all cultures have some sort of forbidden sexual relations w/ specific family members?

1. Does not necessarily produce higher single-year yields than horticulture does (cost) 2. Very labor intensive - lower yield relative to labor invested (in comparison to horticulture) 3. Main advantage: greater, more dependable long-term yield

What are the costs and benefits of agriculture?

Polyandry

a form of marriage in which a woman has more than 1 husband >very rare - almost exclusively in South Asia (Tibet, Nepal, India, Sri Lanka) >cultural adaptation to mobility associated w/ customary male travel for trade, commerce, and military operations >ensures there will be at least one man at home to accomplish male activities >more kids = more productivity w/ work getting done - past groups w/ herding

Etoro

a group of 400 people who subsisted by hunting and horticulture in the Trans-Fly region of Papua New Guinea illustrate the power of culture in molding human sexuality cultural norms prevented the male anthropologist who studied them from gathering comparable information about female attitudes and behavior opinions about sexuality were linked to their beliefs about the cycle of birth, physical growth, maturity, old age, and death men believed that semen was necessary to give life to a fetus, which was, they believed, implanted in a woman by an ancestral spirit believed that men had a limited lifetime supply of semen culture allowed male-female sexual intercourse, required only for reproduction, was discouraged **pg. 338-339**

Metamessaging

advertising impacts people at a subconscious level, the messages of advertising are subliminal; is meaning that is not said — at least not in so many words — but that we glean from every aspect of context: the way something is said, who is saying it, or the fact that it is said at all; is the heart meaning — the meaning that we react to most strongly, that triggers emotion

Foraging

all humans were __________ until 10,000 B.P. >food collecting: whether plants or hunting most _________ became food producers remaining _________ are at least partially dependent on food production or food producers all modern foragers live in nation-states, depend to some extent on gov't. assistance, and are influenced by the world system >food supplementation and health care ___________ survived mainly in environments unfavorable to food production >arable land has been taken over by food producers

Ambilocal

bride and groom (couple) has choice to move w/ groom's or bride's family; ~9% of societies; have choice of where to go

Uxorilaocal/Avuncalocal

bride and groom live w/ an uncle; ~4% of societies; common w/ matrilineal

Neolocal

bride and groom set up independent residence; ~5% of societies

States

clearer class divisions (at least nobles and commoners) kinship tries do not extend from nobles to commoners stratum endogamy - marriage w/in one's own group >results in stratification - a key characteristic of states population control - census >administrative divisions (e.g., provinces, districts, countries, sub-countries, parishes) managed by lower-level officials >reduced importance of kinship in sociopolitical organization >geographic mobility and resettlement are fostered - sever ties between people, land, and kin >different rights and obligations are assigned to different social groups - e.g., citizens vs. non-citizens; members of different social classes (elites, commoners, and slaves); soldiers vs. ordinary civilians

Foraging

collecting food that's readily available 1) ~300,000 years ago - from the beginning of homo sapiens > ~30,000 years ago modern homo sapiens) is longest lasting 2) labor hours (~19 hours/week) depend on climate, warmer - work less, colder - work more; division of labor based on gender = women give birth and stay in area w/ baby >have to survive cold and provide/maintain materials; different cultures 3) land is not owned, does employ use rights (ancestrial water spring) >uses vast amount of territory 4) extensive strategy: temporarily uses large areas of land >use very few non-renewable resources ->trees cut down but grow back b/c move around 5) seasonal mobility (nomadic), band organization (~50 people or less), depend on reciprocity -> have extra, so share (limited food storage) >not sedentary >reciprocity = larger groups come together in time of want >not sedentary >small groups ->warmer climates have few last names (related to everyone) 6) ex: Dobe !Kung (Ju/'hoansi) and Netsilik >norm: men do whale hunting (cold) and women do food processing and furs and make clothing ->greater division of labor

Call systems

communication systems of nonhuman primates >limited number of sounds produced in response to specific stimuli >>something tangible >cannot be combined to produce new calls >vocal tract of apes not suitable for speech

Primate call systems

communication systems that: >are stimuli dependent; the food call will be made only in the presence of food; it cannot be faked >consist of a limited number of calls that cannot be combined to produce new calls >tend to be species specific, w/ little variation among communities of the same species for each call

Teotihuacan location

first major metropolis in Mesoamerica, collapsed around 800 CE; location - large springs for irrigation agriculture, nearby obsidian, cactus, on trade routes to east, eventually 25% craftspeople sacred war and human sacrifice, cave under Pyramid of the Sun (creation myths) tunnel system built out of religious belief system >Pyramid of the Moon (god) and Pyramid of the Sun (god)

Family of procreation

formed when one marries and has children

Horticulturalism

growing domesticated crops in small gardens - using only hand tools and human labor; every age group participates 1) ~12,000 years ago 2) more labor intensive than foraging; year-round manual labor; all ages contribute; age and gender division of labor >can't just farm plot and leave it -> have to care for it 3) usually land is not owned - use rights are common; boundaries are clearly marked >"that is my garden plot" - understood 4) rather, extensive strategy, although supports a more dense population; usually land is left to recover 5) >many are polyculture farmers; some groups are very superstitious; continued horticulture allows for household self-sufficiency ->rain and mode of production - flooding rather than irrigation >sedentary households; usually tribal or chiefdom (clear leader) organization w/ formal leadership 6) Yanomami and Pueblo Indians >up and move from Shabano to another (chop down vegetation, let dry out, and burn it ->ashes = good nutrients for soil) ->leaving fallow = not deplete nutrients in soil

Expanded family households

households that include nonnuclear relatives; are more common among lower-class North Americans >extended family household - 3 or more generations ->grandparents, parents, kids >collateral household - siblings and their spouses and children are an adaptation to poverty - enable relatives to pool resources

Teotihuacan

huge city and state in the northern part of the Valley of Mexico; is colder and drier than the south >frosts limited farming until quick-growing varieties of maize were developed and small-scale irrigation was a town of 10,000 people governed a territory of a few thousand sq km and 50,000 people its growth reflected its agricultural potential >perpetual springs permitted irrigation of a large alluvial plain >rural farmers supplied food for the growing urban population >>clear settlement hierarchy had emerged diverse specialized groups = farmers, artisans, merchants, and political, religious, and military personnel *pg. 211-212*

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

hypothesis that language creates ways of thinking and perceiving linguistic determinism = way of thinking is determined by language you speak the idea that different languages create different ways of thinking; language structures thought and that ways of looking at the world are embedded in language; grammatical categories of particular languages lead their speakers to think in different ways language shapes - but does not restrict - thought NPR counting and language

(Linguistic) displacement

the ability to talk about things that are not present >absent in call systems - we don't have to see the objects before we say the words >we can discuss the past and future, share our experiences w/ others, and benefit from theirs the capability of language to communicate about things that are not immediately present; Koko's capacity for it: >gorilla once expressed sorrow about having bitten Penny 3 days earlier >has used the sign "later" to postpone doing things she doesn't want to do **pg. 222**

Sex

the biological distinction between females and males

Cross cousins

the children of a person's parents' opposite-gender siblings (a father's sister's children or a mother's brother's children); outside of family; kids can have sex w/ father's sister's kids and mom's brothers kids - person

Gender

the cultural construction of the biologically based "sex" of an individual; roles expected to put on based on sex

Chiefdoms

transitional form of sociopolitical organization between tribes and states is an ideal type - in reality, there is a continuum from tribe to ___________ to state some societies had many attributes of ____________ but retained tribal features, while others ("complex ____________") had attributes of archaic states social relations based primarily on kinship, marriage, descent, age, generation, and gender (like bands and tribes) permanent political regulation of territory (unlike bands and tribes) chief and assistants occupy political offices >structure endures across generations b/c offices are refilled systematically chiefly redistribution- >products moved p the hierarchy to central office, then were redistributed during feasts sponsored by the chief >redistribution fulfilled chief's obligation to share w/ kin >made goods from different regions available to the entire society >helped manage risk - stimulated production of a surplus and provided a central storehouse for goods that might become scarce during times of famine social status was based on seniority of descent all members of society were believed to have *descended* from a group of common ancestors continuum of social statuses, rather than distinct classes status systems in ____________ >based on differential access to resources - certain individuals have privileged access to power, prestige, and wealth >differential access based on kinship >in general, chiefs, and their nearest relatives and assistants enjoyed privileged access to resources

Harappa and Mohenjo-daro

two cities in the Indus River Valley; one of the earliest advanced civilizations in history, located in present day Pakistan (Indus River Valley) Harappa - city in the Indus civilization; first to have a main street, first to have showers & sewage system Mohenjo-daro - "mound of the dead" Harappa & Mohenjo-daro were twin cities

Berdache

two-spirit; we'wha (1849-96), a Zury berdache, lived in New Mexico; he is shown holding a ritual vessel, dressed in women's clothing >spirit tells you that you are "berdache"

Clan

type of descent group that is a larger unilineal descent group in which people believe they are related to some founding ancestor - it is an assumed link (usually multiple lineages) >all related >>ex: Scotland and Ireland (family crest) >bigger than lineage

Lineage

type of descent group that is the smallest unilineal descent group in which everyone knows the other members - and how they related (multiple extended families) >can name common ancestors

Fraternal polyandry

type of polyandry when resources are scarce >expanded polyandrous households allow brothers to pool resources >restricts the number of wives and heirs, so land can be transmitted w/ minimal fragmentation >rough terrain and not good arable land >>one can be working field, one can be herding animals, one can be going to school in city - helps support household >inheritance does not have to be broken up = substantial accumulated wealth >emic = idea of wealth - great arrangement >etic = decreases population; limiting on how many children she has = cannot have huge dense population in Himalayas - emic

Tribes

typically have economies based on horticulture and pastoralism living in villages and organized into kin groups based on common descent, _________ have no formal government and no reliable means of enforcing political decisions

Paralanguage

vocalizations other than words ex: grunts, gasps, sighs, cries, ahem, laughs, yawns