Ch.10 - Gender

meta-analysis

gathers together the data from many previous studies, combines them, and reanalyzes them to see if any systematic differences emerge. - has often been used to organize research and resolve disputes in the scientific literature. With the aid of computers, meta-analysis takes the results of many individual studies that may appear inconsistent and integrates them into a larger statistical analysis so that the evidence forms a more meaningful whole.

What is the difference between gender identity and sexual orientation?

Sexual orientation is about who you are attracted to, while gender identity is about which sex you identify with.

men and aggression

express more direct aggression - focus on verbal and physical aggression

when are genitals of male and female fetuses distinguishable?

around the 12th week of pregnancy

hormone treatments and transsexuals

- When male-to-female transsexuals receive the female hormones estrogen and progesterone, their bodies begin to change and become more feminine. Their breasts enlarge, fat is deposited on the hips, and the growth of facial hair decreases or stops altogether. - When female-to-male individuals receive the male hormone testosterone, their bodies masculinize: the voice deepens, body hair growth increases in the usual male pattern, overall musculature enlarges, and the clitoris usually grows larger. - In male-to-female individuals, hormone treatments do not produce a change in voice pitch, but most people will work to change voice patterns and inflections to sound more female.

difference between sex and gender

- the term gender is often used interchangeably with sex. However, in the world of sexuality research and education, the terms reflect separate aspects of human existence. - Whereas sex is biologically determined, your gender is something learned, developed, or constructed based on your self-concept and social and cultural experiences in childhood and throughout life: your gender identity. - Those experiences are typically shaped by our biological sex and perhaps other biological or genetic factors, but biology does not solely determine gender. - gender is more a personality characteristic than a biological attribute

three possible conditions of babies born with DSD (disorders of sexual development)

1. They are genetically male (XY chromosomes) but have external genitals that are completely female (vagina and clitoris) 2. they are genetically female (XX chromosomes) but have external genitals that are completely male (penis and testicles) 3. they are genetically female but have external genitals that are ambiguous, somewhere in between male and female.

two-dimensional model of gender

1970s an approach to defining gender suggesting that gender is not an either-or proposition but that people may manifest elements of both genders simultaneously - measures people on two separate scales, one for masculinity and one for femininity. Instead of being either masculine or feminine, a person can rate high on both masculinity and femininity.

Measuring Androgyny: Bem Sex Role inventory (BSRI)

Bem was not simply theorizing a new way of looking at gender, but was also suggesting that some advantages might exist for people who are less strongly sex-typed and more able to behave in either masculine or feminine ways depending on the situation - Bem developed a new instrument for measuring gender that incorporated her two-dimensional approach. The Bem Sex-Role Inventory contains a list of 60 characteristics that are masculine (e.g., acts as leader, ambitious, assertive, dominant, independent, self-reliant, willing to take risks), feminine (e.g., affectionate, childlike, sympathetic, understanding, yielding, shy), or gender-neutral (e.g., adaptable, conscientious, friendly, reliable, truthful) on which people can rate themselves on a 7-point scale (Bem, 1974). - By examining the differences among the feminine, masculine, and gender-neutral scores, a person can determine his or her degree of masculine, feminine, or androgynous gender identity.

peers and their influence on gender identity

Children typically spend a great deal of time with other children. These interactions may place equally strong or perhaps even stronger expectations on attitudes and behavior than those of parents. As noted earlier, children normally segregate themselves into same-sex groups in early childhood. Once this happens, very little social interaction occurs between the groups of boys and girls. - Boys and girls who do not follow these behavioral norms are often ostracized by their same-sex group and may find it difficult to gain acceptance from opposite-sex peers as well - Within each same-sex group, very different types of behavior are rewarded through praise, imitation, and various verbal and nonverbal indications of approval. - Another difference typically observed in male and female peer groups relates to the quality of their same-sex friendships. Boys tend to have larger groups of friends, but the quality of their relationships is typically more distant and less emotionally involved. Girls typically have fewer friends, but their friendships are warmer, and they place a higher value on trust and emotional closeness.

historical perspectives on gender

George (christine) jorgensen - Prior to his travels to Denmark seeking surgery that would effect the transformation from George to Christine, Jorgensen was taking the female hormone estradiol, which caused his breasts to enlarge, his skin to soften, his beard to stop growing, and his appearance to become softer and more feminine. - the only procedures Jorgensen received were a bilateral orchiectomy (removal of both testicles), removal of the scrotum, and penectomy (removal of the penis). No reconstructive surgery was done on Jorgensen at the time to create female genitals. Several years later, Christine returned for more surgery to construct a vagina, but that surgery was only moderately successful - Jorgensen's sex-change operation was the first to receive worldwide media attention - Most researchers credit her with pioneering the development of more effective treatments and procedures for thousands of transgender people uncomfortable with their biological sex

gender and gender identity as a personality attribute

Human personality probably develops through a combination of genetic, biological, and experiential influences. So it is with gender as well. Also, most personality characteristics are stable over time and across situations, as is our gender identity.

controversies of reconstructive surgery on DSD babies

In recent years, the practice of routine surgical alteration of DSD babies has become increasingly controversial. - Critics of the procedure, including many DSD adults, claim that altering DSD babies against their will and without their consent is ethically and morally wrong and is done simply because society is unable to accept the notion that a person might not be either male or female but somewhere in between. - In addition, new research has demonstrated that surgical reconstruction of ambiguous genitals cannot predictably determine a person's later gender identity

parents and their influence on gender identity

Parents' assumptions about the gender of their children are reflected in how the parents treat and interact with their sons and daughters and how their children behave in response - The number and strength of gender-based attributions made by parents appear to be decreasing as people have become more educated about gender issues and as fathers, especially stay-at-home dads, play a larger role in the birthing and parenting process - In part, children are directed into gender-appropriate activities and attitudes throughout childhood by the choices parents make for toys, room décor, and clothing the child wears. Perhaps even more important, children are rewarded by the subtle or not-so-subtle reactions of parents and others to the children's behaviors. Most parents are uncomfortable if their child engages in activities and behaviors that are gender-inappropriate. - Mothers tend to interact with greater emotional warmth and responsiveness with girls but encourage greater independence in boys. Fathers typically spend more time and engage in more physical activity with their sons than with their daughters - Mothers tend to be more tuned in emotionally to daughters compared to fathers, and mothers are more sensitive to daughters than to sons - Among school-age children, many parents maintain a distorted perception of their children's academic skills based on gender.

socialization and gender identity

Society influences and molds the behavior of its members through the process known as socialization. - This process affects your development in many areas of your life, but perhaps none more significantly than your gender identity and gender behavior. From the moment of birth, society perceives you and places different expectations on you based, to a large extent, on your sex. - These expectations create what are referred to as gender roles: the distinctive behaviors society expects and encourages each person to engage in depending on his or her sex. - Gender differences are so socially ingrained in most people that they have trouble violating those expectations even if they are made acutely aware of them

the harm of stereotypes

Stereotypes in and of themselves are not necessarily harmful. Rather, it is how they affect our attitudes and behavior that determines the consequences of stereotypes.

Research on Androgyny

Studies began to show that people who are more androgynous appear to be happier and better adjusted than those who are strongly sex-typed. For example, research has shown that androgynous children and adults tend to have higher levels of self-esteem and are more adaptable in diverse settings - Other research has suggested that androgynous individuals have greater success in heterosexual intimate relationships, probably because of their greater ability to understand and accept the other person's differences and needs - More recent research has revealed that people with the most positive traits of androgyny tend to be psychologically healthier and happier overall - androgynous individuals are more successful leaders in mixed-gender settings

positive and negative androgynous traits

The suggestion of positive and negative gender traits has led researchers to propose a further refinement of the androgyny concept to include four dimensions: desirable femininity, undesirable femininity, desirable masculinity, and undesirable masculinity - Depending on how someone's set of personality traits lines up, a person could be seen as positive masculine, negative masculine, positive feminine, negative feminine, positive androgynous, or negative androgynous. - When gender characteristics are more carefully defined to consider both positive and negative traits, the advantages for positive androgynous individuals become even more pronounced - People who combine the best of male and female gender qualities are more likely to be well-rounded, happier, more popular, better liked, more flexible and adaptable, and more content with themselves

nature vs. nurture and gender

Today, widespread agreement exists among behavioral and biological scientists that most human traits and characteristics are influenced by an interaction between nature, meaning biological factors, and nurture, referring to environmental, experiential forces. - This appears to be the case for gender development as well, although recent research is leaning toward the biological (nature) side of the discussion.

The Overlapping Curve Model of Gender Differences

a description of differences between males and females where the averages vary, but the distribution of the characteristics includes both males and females - The degree of difference between males and females determines the extent of the overlap. - It is safe to say that most, if not all, gender differences have at least some overlap.

turner syndrome

a female genetic condition characterized by short stature, slow or no sexual development at puberty, heart abnormalities, and lack of ovarian function - also puffy hands and feet, kidney malformations, hearing problems, extra folds of skin at the sides of the neck and soft upturned fingernails - caused by a lack of or damage to one of the pair of X chromosomes. - nearly all cases (99%) result in miscarriage of fetus in first or second trimester - all people with this are virtually infertile - XO chromosome pairing (O means missing or damaged X chromosome) - As they age, women with the syndrome are at a significantly increased risk of bone thinning (osteoporosis). - patients have twice the incidence of diabetes of the general population. - may have learning difficulties, especially associated with math and spatial relationships

Klinefelter syndrome

a male genetic condition characterized by a rounded body type, lack of facial hair, breast enlargement in puberty, and smaller than normal testicles - also osteoporosis and tendency to be taller and heavier - XXY chromosome pairing - roughly 1 in 500 males have this - not all XXY males will develop the characteristics or may develop them at later times - most fail to produce enough sperm in adulthood to be fertile. They also appear to have a somewhat higher risk of autoimmune diseases such as diabetes and lupus. XXY males who develop breast tissue have a risk of breast cancer equal to that of women - virtually all symptoms can be treated and most men can live normal lives

social alienation

a passive form of aggression that includes behaviors such as malicious gossip, spreading negative rumors, and shunning - form of relational aggression more commonly used by women

androgynous

a person who embodies both masculine and feminine traits and behaviors

transgender

a person whose biological sex and gender identity do not match - individuals who do not self-identify as the gender that conforms to their biological sex - NOT considered a paraphilia - many transgender individuals do not experience distress with their gender identity and would not present any reason to be "diagnosed" with gender dysphoria.

gender roles (sex roles)

a set of behaviors, attitudes, and emotions that ar generally socially expected for men and women in a given culture - varying amounts of "maleness" and "femaleness," or masculinity and femininity.

transsexual

a transgender person who has transitioned or is transitioning from his or her biological sex to his or her self-identified gender through actions, dress, hormone therapy, or surgery - sometimes used to describe a specific subgroup of transgender individuals who, in varying degrees, feel trapped in the wrong-sex body and desire to transition from their inborn biological sex to the sex that conforms to their gender identity.

gender stereotypes

an assumption, usually negative, made about a person's appearance, behavior, or personality, based solely on his or her gender without regard for the person's individuality as a person

nature "side" of gender differences and stereotypes

argument contends that gender differences are rooted in our biology and are passed down to us through evolution and our genetic heritage. Embedded in this position is the idea that these differences exist in humans as part of nature's grand design that has enabled humans to survive and evolve as a species. From this perspective, the reason that men are more aggressive, women are more intuitive, and men are more interested in sex is that these characteristics are survival strategies or adaptive mechanisms. Greater aggression in men stems from the evolutionary role of males to be protectors of females and infants, to fight for food and status, and to defend territory. Women are more intuitive because females, over the course of evolution, were placed in the role of caring for infants whose needs must be recognized without the benefit of language in order to survive and thrive. And the male's greater sexual drive relates to "reproductive strategies" and the biological need for the male to impregnate multiple partners to ensure continuation of his genes and the species in general. On the other hand, the female's best strategy for reproducing is to select the best, strongest, healthiest male and keep him around for protection and support.

when biological sex is determined

at the moment of conception based on the combination of chromosomes that result from fertilization. Normally the egg, or ovum, from the woman's ovary contains a single X sex chromosome, and the sperm cell that fertilizes the ovum carries either an X or a Y sex chromosome. Two X chromosomes combine to produce a female, but an XY combination produces a male. - In the presence of the Y sex chromosome, male hormones called androgens are secreted, causing the fetus to develop testicles, a penis, and male internal sexual anatomy. With two X chromosomes, androgens are not produced, and the fetus develops a vulva, ovaries, a uterus, and other internal female sexual anatomy.

cultural gender stereotypes

beliefs about gender roles held by a majority of people in a given cultural setting - communicated through parenting, schooling, mass media, literature, and advertising

personal gender stereotypes

beliefs about gender that are unique to each individual and may or may not agree with cultural stereotypes - shaped by individual life experiences

disorders of sex development (DSD)

born with sexual anatomy that is neither completely male nor completely female but rather a combination with features of both that cannot be categorized as male or female but is rather ambiguous - replaced by the term intersex

congential adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)

causes the adrenal glands of affected individuals to produce large amounts of male hormones beginning before birth and continuing throughout their lives - Boys may have some health issues due to CAH but typically develop relatively normally. In girls, however, CAH usually produces ambiguous external genitalia, and the imbalance of male hormones must be controlled with hormone treatments - boys with the condition appear to develop the usual patterns of sex-typed behaviors, same as their peers. - girls, however, have been found to engage in many sex-atypical behaviors. These girls tend to prefer toys that are typically associated with boys (trucks, fire trucks, toy guns, etc.), seek out boys as playmates rather than girls, engage in more rough-and-tumble play activities and reject traditional female childhood pretend roles of wife and mother.

gender stability (age 4 or 5)

children believe that when they grow up, they will be either a man or a woman, a daddy or a mommy, and most dream of traditional gender-based occupations (such as fireman for boys and ballerina for girls). By this age, they have also developed very strong preferences for gender-appropriate, sex-typed behaviors

gender constancy (age 6 or 7)

children understand that a person's gender stays the same even if that person violates expected, traditional sex-role behaviors (such as a man dressing up in women's clothes for a skit or a woman who is a plumber).

teachers and their influence on gender identity

children's teachers often reinforce and strengthen the gender-based attitudes that exist in the culture at large. Classroom participation from elementary school to college classes appears to be influenced by student gender - Because gender is such a powerful influence on society's fundamental view of who people are, teachers often reflect those views in their teaching styles and classroom management strategies without being aware that they are doing so. In general, teachers tend to give boys more time and attention in the classroom. - Often, this is because boys display a higher level of activity, which, if not controlled, is disruptive to the classroom environment. Teachers may attempt to deal with boys' difficult behavior by involving them more in class activities and discussions and allowing them to break the rules more often and more blatantly than girls before administering discipline

the nurture "side" of gender differences and stereotypes

downplays biological and genetic influences and focuses on sociocultural and other environmental factors as responsible for producing gender differences. This argument maintains that strong social and cultural factors begin to mold male and female behavior nearly from the moment of birth and continue to exert pressure on the behavior of men and women throughout their lives. From this point of view, males are more aggressive than females because society expects and allows boys and men to display greater aggression but expects girls to behave in less (overtly) aggressive ways and does not allow them to display as much aggression. The female's greater intuitive skills may be explained by society's expectation that girls and women should be focused on the emotional side of social interactions and therefore learn to be skilled at reading nonverbal expressions of various emotional states. might explain differences in sexual interest as stemming from the different messages boys and girls receive from the culture about sex.

evolutionary benefit of chromosomal development of sex

evolution's way of creating an approximate balance between the sexes to help ensure survival of the human species

women and aggression

express more on indirect relational aggression - focus on social alienation, manipulation, verbal persuasion - aggressive acts designed to hurt but without direct confrontation

Which concept is stable not only across situations but also over time, just like most personality characteristics?

gender identity

the media and its influence on gender identity

gender messages are sent out to all viewers of TV programs. Although the television networks and cable outlets have become more aware of gender bias in recent decades, bias persists. If you watch TV with this in mind, you will see this bias often on virtually all channels. - Men are usually more dominant than women in male-female interactions. - Men are often portrayed as rational, ambitious, smart, competitive, powerful, stable, violent, and tolerant; women are portrayed as sensitive, romantic, attractive, happy, warm, sociable, peaceful, fair, submissive, and timid. - Television programming emphasizes male characters' strength, performance, and skill; for women, it focuses on attractiveness and desirability. - Do these gender messages on TV actually affect the gender-role development in children? Evidence suggests that the answer is yes - studies have indicated that children who grow up without television tend to be less stereotyped in their attitudes about gender.

what may cause genital variations or ambiguous genitalia in people?

hormonal imbalances in the uterus during fetal development.

hormones and gender-type behavior

idea that hormones play a significant role in the development of gender-typed behavior. - do sex hormones also influence the characteristics in humans that are usually associated with gender? The answer appears to be that they do, but hormonal effects are difficult to study systematically in humans.

one major reason why gender differences are so socially ingrained

is that, rightly or wrongly, gender is one of the most prominent human differences we use to try to understand others. - Knowing a person's gender allows you to predict, or think you can predict, a great deal about that person's behavior, which in turn helps to make you feel more comfortable in social settings. - Thus differences in gender are constantly reinforced through powerful social influences. Probably the most important of these influences include parents, peers, teachers, and the media.

Unlike transgender adults, trans children can receive medication in order to stop the development of secondary sex characteristics. For example, ________________ can increase height and prevent ovulation, menstruation, and breast development in trans boys.

puberty blockers

gender dysphoria

refers to stress or discomfort stemming from the self-knowledge that one's biological sex does not conform to, or is the opposite of, his or her personal gender identity

intuition and gender

research has shown that women possess more intuitive abilities than men when it comes to reading emotions from people'a tone, appearance, body language, situational cues, and nonverbal cues. - One important aspect of the overall skill of intuition is the ability to read facial expressions, referred to as facial expression processing - When meta-analytic techniques were applied to gender effects on intuition, researchers found a clear female advantage in the ability to read nonverbal communication and facial expressions

sex reassignment surgery

surgical procedures to transform physically an individual from one sex to the other; commonly known as a sex-change operation - Transgender individuals and medical professionals alike must be sure that surgery is the best course of action before it takes place. Psychological counseling, hormone therapy, and a presurgical gender transition period are typically required prior to undertaking sexual reassignment surgery

sexual orientation

term specifying the sex of those to whom a person is primarily romantically, emotionally, and sexually attracted

gender

the masculinity-femininity dimension of our basic nature as humans - It is one of the most powerful forces of human personality - it is a fundamental part of who you are as a person.

socialization

the process by which members of society influence each other's behaviors, can affect gender identity and gender behavior.

same-sex playmates as children and possible biological factors

the propensity for same-sex playmates is seen in nearly every culture around the world. Because we know that culture exerts extremely powerful influences on human behavior, whenever we encounter a behavior that appears to be universal, existing in all or nearly all cultures, we can assume that it may be of biological origin rather than learned through interactions with the social environment. - Clearly, we cannot simply ignore the influences of the environment in gender behaviors. From the moment you are born, and sometimes even before, your society and culture influence how you develop your male or female behaviors through expectations, modeling, and societal norms for gender roles.

gender identity

the sex (male or female) that a person identifies (perceives) himself or herself to be

early development concern for XXY males

they often display delayed development of language and may have learning difficulties, especially in reading and writing. These children are not mentally retarded and eventually learn to speak and converse normally. Furthermore, their learning difficulties are treatable with proper guidance and attention.

gender identity and age

what most psychologists and child development researchers already know: gender identity is fixed by age five and does not necessarily align with a child's biological sex.