Chapter 10 Motivation and Emotion

Most common complaints that lead people to seek psychotherapy

Depression and Anxiety

Glucose

a simple sugar that is an important source of energy - food is converted into glucose - manipulating that increase glucose level can make people feel satiated

Opponent Process Theory

a theory of motivation that says that we start off at a motivational baseline, at which we are not motivated to act, then we encounter a stimulus that feels good, such as a drug or even a positive social interaction, the pleasurable feelings we experience causes us to have motivation to seek the stimulus again

Sexual Orientation

an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation).

Incentive

an external goal that has the capacity to motivate behavior - Incentive theories emphasize how EXTERNAL stimuli PULL people in certain directions

Galvanic Skin Response

an increase in the electrical conductivity of the skin that occurs when sweat glands increase their activity - sensitive index of autonomic arousal that has been used in the measure of emotion

high achievers

1. tend to work harder and more persistently on tasks than people low in need for achievement 2. handle negative feedback about task performance more effectively than others 3. more future oriented.. persistent and hardworking 4. dont tackle the hardest challenges

Environmental factors in the regulation in hunger

1. the availability of food 2. learned preferences and habits 3. stress

Drive

* A Drive is an internal state of tension that motivates an organism to engage in activities that should reduce this tension. - when a person experience a drive, they're motivated to pursue actions that will lead to drive reduction. - for instance, the hunger motive has been used to explain the drive system. if you go without food, for a while then you experience some discomfort.The internal tension (the drive) motivates you to obtain food. - however drive theories cannot explain all motivation. (eating when not hungry) - Many theories view motivational forces in terms of drives. - the drive concept appears in a diverse array of theories that otherwise have little in common. - derived from Cannon's theory of Homeostasis (a state of psychological equilibrium or stability)

Coolidge Effect

*the sexually arousing power of a new partner (greater than the appeal of a familiar partner) - a new partner can revive dwindling sexual interest in many animals.

Evolutionary theories of emotions

- Darwin believes that emotions developed because of their adaptive value - Darwin viewed human emotion as a product of evolution - Evolutionary theories consider emotions to be largely innate reactions to certain stimuli - Evolutionary theories generally assume that emotions originally in sub-cortical brain structures that evolved before the higher brain areas in the cortex associated with complex thought - evolution has equipped humans with a small number of innate emotions with proven adaptive value - 1. blends of primary emotions and 2. varations in intensity

Push versus Pull theories

- Drive theories emphasize how INTERNAL states of tension PUSH people in certain directions - Incentive theories emphasize how Eternal a stimuli PULL people in certain directions - according to drive theories, the source of motivation lies WITHIN the organism

the Cognitive component: subjective feelings

- Emotions is a highly personal, subjective experience - emotions are intense internal feelings that sometimes seem to have a life of their own - some degree of emotional control is possible but emotions tend to involve automatic reactions that are difficult to regulate

Environmental Theories on Sexual Orientation

- Freudian Theorist = male will be gay with a weak father. - Behavioral = homosexuality is a learned preference ^^ Both failed theories. Accounts of lgbt community suggests that homosexuality is more biological

Genetic Predisposition

- adoptive kids resemble their biological parents much more than their adoptive parents - identical twins reared apart have a more similar BMI than fraternal twins reared together ** some people inherit a genetic vulnerability to obesity**

criticisms (on sexual evolutionary)

- controversy demonstrates once again that psychological theories can have far reaching social and political ramifications but the sociopolitical fallout has no bearing on evolutionary theory's scientific validity or utility. - womens emphasis on males material resources could be a by product of culture and economic forces rather than the result of biological imperatives - women's own economic clout has been historically limited. - men like sex because women's sexuality have been oppressed.

Dietary restraint

- dietary restraint contribute to obesity - chronic dieters are restrained eaters (people who consciously work overtime to control their eating impulses and who feel guilty when they fail - they are hungry & constantly think of food) - when their cognitive control is disrupted, they become dis-inhibited and eat to excess - lead to frequent overeating and contribute to obesity

1. Excitement Phase

- during the initial phase of excitement, the physical arousal usually escalates rapidly. - Vasocongestion = engorgement of blood vessels... Produces penile erection and swollen testes in males. And other things for females.

Autonomic Arousal

- emotions are accompanied by visceral arousal - autonomic nervous system regulates gland, smooth muscles, blood vessels.. responsible for fight or flight. adrenal hormones radiate throughout body

Erotic Materials

- erotic reading materials, photos, and films can stimulate sexual desire in many people - men are more likely than woman to report that they find erotic materials enjoyable... maybe because women are in degrading roles and its scripted towards men. - elevates the likelihood of overt sexual activity for a few hours immediately after the exposure - no correlation between erotic material and elevated rates of sex crimes - alter attitudes towards sexual behavior (dissatisfied with own sex lives & more liberal in sex lives) - aggressive porn show women like being raped. very awful & worrisome! afraid that rape culture and date rape specifically is perpetuated

Evolutionary Theories

- evolutionary psychologists assert that human motives and those of other species are the products of evolution. - argue that natural selection favors behaviors that maximize reproductive success - explain motives like achievement, dominance, aggression, and sex drive in terms of their adaptive value.

gender differences in mate preferences

- females are into long term commitments. - men emphasize youthfulness - females want a man who is dependable and willing to invest his resources in his family... women emphasize intelligence, ambition, income, social status - subconscious preferences to maximize reproductive potential

overeating

- humans had to compete for food and then would over consumer in case food wasn't available. - but today we have easy access to food so we overeat and then continue to eat - moderate changes in diet and exercise work better than dieting

Brain Regulation for Hunger

- hunger is controlled in the brain in the HYPOTHALAMUS 1. Lateral Hypothalamus - causes us to eat -the animals showed little or not interest in eating, as if their hunger center had been destroyed 2. Ventromedial Hypothalamus - causes us to stop eating - the animals ate excessively and gained weight rapidly, as if their ability to recognize satiety (fullness) had been destroyed. - LH and VMH are the brain's on-off switches for the control of hunger. - elements in hunger but not the a simple as on and off. It is believed that Paraventricular Nucleus (PVN) play a larger role in controlling hunger. - hunger focuses on neural circuits

Food Availability

- hunger operates as a drive system in which homeostatic mechanisms are at work. - Humans are also motivated by the pleasure that comes with eating - availability and palatability of food are key factors regulating hunger - Exposure to pictures, written description, videos, smells all act as related cues.

Incentive Theory

- is an external goal that has the capacity to motivate behavior. -stimuli that we are drawn to due to learning - We learn to associate some stimuli with rewards and others with punishment. We are motivated to seek the rewards.

gender differences in patterns of sexual activity

- males show a greater interest in sex, initiate sex and think about sex more than women. - men are more likely to have sex with someone they had known for a brief period

Attraction to a Partner

- most species of animals are selective in their attraction to sexual partners - in many species females will choose who they will mate with based on appearance, courtship, material assets (bright/large ornaments)

2. Plateau Phase

- physiological arousal continues to build but at a slower pace.

set point v. settling point theory

- set point theory asserts that an obese person's body will initiate processes that actively defend an excessive weight. - settling point theory suggests that if an obese people makes long term changes in eating/exercise that person's settling point will drift downward without active resistance ** more encouraging to those trying to lose weight!

eating habits

- shaped by observational learning - food preferences are a matter of exposure - young children are more likely to taste an unfamiliar food if an adult tries it first. however, forcing a child to eat a food wont work. - learned habits and social considerations also influence when and how much people eat.

James- Lange Theory

- the conscious experience of emotion results from one's perception of autonomic arousal - different patterns of autonomic activation lead to the experience of different emotions. - encountering a snake in the woods, conscious experience of fear lead to visceral arousal (fight or flight) - while you assume that your pulse is racing because you're fearful, James/Lange argued that you're fearful because your pulse is racing

(Rodin) Insulin

- the mere sight and smell of enticing food can stimulate the secretion of insulin. Moreover, insulin levels appear to be sensitive to fluctuations in the body's fat stores. Insulin secretions play a role in the fluctuation of hunger.

Moitivation Theories

1. Drive Reduction Theory - our behavior is motivated by biological needs - ex: needs (requirements for survival) - primary (food) & secondary drive (money)

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

1. Physiological needs - to satisfy drives for hunger, thirst, and sex 2. Safety needs - to feel safe, secure, and out of danger 3. Belonging and love needs - to be accepted and belong 4. Esteem needs - to achieve and to gain approval and recognition 5. Self-actualization needs - to achieve your unique potential

Situational Determinants of Achievement Behavior

1. The strength of one's MOTIVATION to achieve success. 2. One's estimate of the PROBABILITY of success for the task at hand. This varies from task to task. 3. The INCENTIVE value of success. This depends on the tangible and intangible rewards for success on the specific task. - you will pursue a good grade in math less vigorously if your professors gives impossible exams

Emotion

1. a subjective conscious experience (the cognitive component) accompanied by 2. bodily arousal (the physiological component) and by 3. characteristic overt expressions (the behavior component)

Dominance / Evolutionary Theory

1. females may prefer mating with dominate males 2. dominant males may poach females from subordinates males 3. dominant males may intimidate male rivals in competition for sexual access 4. dominant males may acquire more material resources which may increase mating opportunities

Thematic Apperception test

A projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes.

non verbal emotions

Emotions are expressed in "body language" or nonverbal language - facial expression contributes to one's conscious experience of emotions -

Hormonal Regulation for Sexual Desire

Hormonal fluctuations probably have a small impact on sexual desires in human - sex can increase testosterone levels

Hormonal Regulation

Hormones circulating in the bloodstream also appear to contribute to the regulation of hunger. - Insulin is a hormone secreted by the pancreas. It must be present for cells to extract glucose from the blood. - the secretion of insulin is associated with increased hunger. - Insulin secretions play a role in the fluctuation of hunger.

3. Orgasm Phase

Orgasm occurs when sexual arousal reaches its peak intensity and is discharged in a series of muscular contractions that pulsate through the pelvic area - heart rate, respiration rate, blood pressure increase - a woman is multiorgasmic.

Learned Food Preferences

People from different cultures display very different patterns of food consumption - sweet taste is presented at birth - an unlearned preference for salt emerges at around 4 months - our preference for fatty foods appear genetic in origin - learning wields a great deal of influence over what people prefer to eat. - taste preferences are partly a function of learned associations formed through classical conditioning

neural circuits

The hypothalmus, amygdala, and adjacent structures in the limbic system have long been viewed as the seat of emotions in the brain - amaygdala and also prefrontal corex plays a central role in the modulation of emotion - amaydgala processes info quickly and if it detects a threat it instantly triggers neural activity that leads to the autonomic arousal and endocrine responses associated with emotion. - more accurate to characterize the amygdala as the "vigilance" system.. evaluates threats

Facial Feedback Hypothesis

Theory of emotion that assumes that facial expressions provide feedback to the brain concerning the emotion being expressed, which in turn causes and intensifies the emotion

Arousal Theory

We seek an optimum level of excitement or arousal - we are motivated by activities that help us achieve our needed level. * Yerkes- Dodson Law 1. we might perform well at an easy task with a very high arousal level 2. the same high level would worsen our performance on a difficult task

Display rules

are norms that regulate the appropriate expression of emotions. They prescribe when, how, and to whom people can show various emotions. These norms vary from one culture to another as do attitude about specific emotions. - some people in other cultures restrict emotion so that they dont neglect duties - in japan they are encouraged to suppress some emotions

Cannon-Bard Theory

argues that emotion occurs when the thalamus sends signals simultaneously to the cortex (creating conscious experience of emotion) and to the autonomic nervous system (creating visceral arousal) - people do not discern their emotions from different patterns of autonomic activation Bodily response + simultaneous subjective experience. EX, Our heart races as we experience fear.

Estrogen

gonadal hormones in females - influence sexual motivation

Androgens

gonadal hormones in males - influence sexual motivation - also lead to sexual motivation in both sexes

Motivation

involves goal directed behavior

Glucostats

neurons sensitive to glucose in the surrounding fluid

Social Motives

originate in social experiences such as the need for achievement

why? obesity.

overeat and dont exercise. - modern conveniences of fast food, cars/elevators, desk jobs = sedentary American lifestyle

Expectancy-value models

people cant always obtain the goals they desire. expectancy -value models of motivation are incentive theories that take this reality into account. 1. Expectancy about one's chances of attaining the incentive 2. the Value of the desired incentive so your motivation to pursue a promotion at work will depend on your estimate of likelihood that you can snare the promotion (expectancy) and how appealing the promotion is to you (value)

cross culture... Elkman and Friesen

people from most cultures are able to identify facial expressions ... emotions/expresses are universally the same and have a strong biologically basis

Leptin

produced by fat cells throughout the body and released into the bloodstream. Leptin circulates through the bloodstream and ultimately provides the hypothalamus with information about the body's fat stores - activates receptors in the brain that inhibits eating

Glucostatic theory

proposed that fluctuation in blood glucose level are monitored in the brain by glucostats. - glucose levels in the blood really don't fluctuate all that much or all that fast. nonetheless, some researchers continue to believe that glucostatic mechanism contribute to the modulation of eating

Set Point Theory

proposes that the body monitors fat-cell levels to keep them (and weight) fairly stable. - the hypothalamus wants to maintain a certain optimum body weight. 1. if we drop below the weight, it lowers our metabolic rate (how quickly our body uses energy) 2. When the set point is reached: hypothalamus tells us to stop eating and raises metabolism to burn excess food

Settling Point Theory

proposes that weight tends to drift around the level at which the constellation of factors that determine food consumption and energy expenditure achieve an equilibrium - weight tends to stay stable as long as there are no durable changes in any of the factors that influence it. - attributes weight stability to very specific psychological processes

Polygrap or lie director

records autonomic fluctuations while a subject is questioned. - cant really detect lies... indicator of autonomic arousal like heart rate, BP, respiration rate, and GSR

sex

sex is essential for the survival of a species, but its not essential to an individuals survival. - sex is influenced by a complicated network of biological and social factors

4. Resolution Phase

sexual arousal subside. - Refractory Period = a time following orgasm during which males are largely unresponsive to further stimulation - physical effects of sexual arousal are caused by psychological factors.

Parental Investment Theory (Trivers)

species mating patterns depend on what each sex has to invest (time, energy, survival risk) to produce and nurture offspring ** Sex with smaller investment will be more vigorous in mating opportunities. Sex with larger investment will be more conservative in mating opportunities. - males are required to invest little in the production of offspring beyond the act of copulation, so their reproductive potential is maximized by mating with as many females as possible - females invest 9 months plus nursing, etc. so they will be selective in choosing their partner. Females have no benefit in mating with multiple men.

Kinsey's 7 Point Scale

straight and gay can be viewed as own a continuum

stress eating

stress leads to increased eating in a substantial portion of people - stress eating may be especially common among chronic dieters.. some theorists believe that it is stress induced physiological arousal rather than stress itself that stimulates eating. - negative emotions often evoked by stress that promote additional eating - isnt effective and isnt a long lasting mood changer

Biological Theories on Sexual Orientation

suggest that there is a genetic predisposition to homosexuality, shown from twin and adoption studies

Obesity

the condition of being overweight - weight exceeds ideal body weight by 20%

Schachter's Two-Factor Theory

the experience of emotion depends on two factors 1. autonomic arousal 2. cognitive interpretation of that arousal When you experience visceral arousal, you search your environment for an explanation brain interprets ANS arousal and, depending on context, labels emotion

Affiliation Motive

the need for belongingness. - the adaptive benefits of affiliation for our ancestors probably included help with offspring, collaboration in hunting or defense, opportunistic for sexual interaction and so forth points out that it is not by accident that achievement, power (dominance), and intimacy are among the most heavily studied social motives,, as the satisfaction of each of these motives is likely to affect one's reproductive success.

Affiliation Motive

the need to associate with others and maintain social bonds. - devote more time to interpersonal activities - worry more about acceptance than those with a low affiliation - experience anxiety when not accepted by peers

Achievement Motive

the need to master difficult challenges to outperform others, and to meet high standards of excellence - McClelland has estimated average achievement for entire societies by using TAT like scoring procedures to assess the themes in representative examples of literature from societies.

biological factors for hunger preview

the stomach doesn't cause hunger. 1. the role of the brain 2. blood sugar level 3. hormones

Body Mass Index

weight divided by height squared 25-29.9 = overweight > 30 = obese