Chapter 11: Thinking and Problem Solving Cognitive Psychology In and Out of the Laboratory

65. Patient P.F. was tasked with designing a new lab space. His inability to actually generate a new architectural lab design for over two hours after being presented with the problem suggests that his right-hemisphere lesion to the prefrontal cortex affected his ability to engage with ______. a. ill-defined problems b. well-defined problems c. expert systems d. critical thinking

a

70. The ______ problem is a classic problem-solving experiment in which participants must use working backward in order to find the most efficient problem-solving strategy. a. Towers of Hanoi b. General in the Jungle c. Physics Rotation d. Tumor Intervention

a

74. "Insight" might best be described as ______. a. a change in frame of reference when interpreting or organizing parts of a problem b. an ability to repeatedly apply the same problem-solving strategy over and over again c. coming up with a novel idea that does not address an existing problem d. a mundane solution to an existing problem

a

8. Psychologists focus on well-defined problems because they ______. a. are easy to present b. often take weeks or months to solve c. can be complicated to score d. accurately mirror real-world problems

a

11. The problem-solving technique of ______ involves comparing the goal with the starting point, thinking of possible ways to overcome the distance between them, and choosing the best one. a. generate-and-test b. means-end analysis c. reasoning by analogy d. mental set

b

18. When one recalls the solution to an old problem and uses it to solve a new, similarly structured problem, one has reasoned by______. a. introspection b. analysis c. analogy d. backtracking

c

24. Adoption of a rigid mental set toward an object is called ______. a. well-defined thinking b. ill-defined thinking c. functional fixedness d. object set

c

27. Study of chess masters indicate that masters ______. a. consider more possible moves than novices do b. choose the best move only after lengthy consideration c. extract more information from a brief exposure to a chess board d. are better at planning future moves than novices are

c

33. Expert systems typically contain all of the following EXCEPT ______. a. a knowledge base b. a set of inference rules c. an answer key d. a means of interacting with a human user

c

35. ______ involves appropriate novelty in generating solutions. a. Intelligence b. Genius c. Creativity d. Mental disorder

c

39. Learning how to find the area of a parallelogram will be most effective when it involves ______. a. rote memorization of a formula b. lots of practice with using the formula c. grasping the essential structure of the problem d. using a calculator

c

38. According to Perkins, good critical thinking requires ______. a. a large knowledge base b. raising objections to one's own ideas c. persistence at working with one mental scenario d. a large knowledge base and a willingness to raise objections to one's own ideas

d

4. The detailed, concurrent, and nonjudgmental observation of the contents of your consciousness is called ______. a. thinking b. daydreaming c. problem solving d. introspection

d

42. When you adopt a certain framework or strategy for solving a series of problems such as the water jar problems, you may fail to see other, more efficient ways of solving some of the problems. This is referred to as ______. a. functional fixedness b. procrastination c. a heuristic d. mental set

d

46. If you are using means-end analysis to try to solve a problem, you would be most likely to ______. a. systematically test all possible solutions until you arrive at the correct answer b. continue to randomly choose hypotheses to test until you finally arrived at the correct answer c. use intuitive or informed principles to guide your hypothesis choices d. try to take incremental steps to slowly work your way toward achieving the solution

d

49. Expert systems involve which of the following? a. models of expert judgments in a given field b. a series of relevant facts for a given field c. inference rules to search the field's knowledge base d. all of these

d

55. According to Perkins (1981), which of the following is most tied to our "Eureka!" moment during the creative process? a. directed remembering b. unintentional forgetting c. contrary recognition d. noticing

d

1. The cognitive processes used in solving well-defined and ill-defined problems have been proven to be very different.

f

2. Means-ends analysis can guarantee a solution to any problem.

f

7. Chess masters need longer periods of time to study the chess board than novice players do, because they consider more alternative moves before playing.

f

9. Research has conclusively shown that taking a break from solving a problem will lead you to find the solution more quickly.

f

58. Although at times inconclusive, research on contrary recognition and incubation suggest that creativity can be defined as ______. a. the creator's value for original results b. the creator's ability to withstand lots of failure c. the creator's ability to plan and carry out that plan d. all of these

d

60. According to Perkins (1981), creativity or creative thinking is ______. a. limited to a small set of "creative people" b. limited to a small set of completely "noncreative people" c. a phenomenon that very few people ever experience d. similar among both "creative" and "noncreative" people

d

64. According to Huber and Kuncel (2016), during college years, students show a(n) ______ in critical thinking skills and a(n) ______ in critical thinking dispositions. a. decrease; decrease b. decrease; increase c. increase; decrease d. increase; increase

d

67. Experts tend to approach problems in their field at a ______ level, while novices tend to approach problems at a ______ level. a. shallow; shallow b. shallow; deep c. deep; shallow d. deep; deep

d

69. If I were to solve an anagram such as SPLOYOCHGY by mapping out the problem space of all the different permutations of letters in different orders until I reached a conclusion, I'd most likely be using which kind of problem solving method? a. generate-and-test b. heuristic c. open-ended d. algorithmic

d

73. The ______ is to mental set as the ______ is to functional fixedness. a. water jar problem; tumor problem b. tumor problem; string problem c. string problem; general problem d. water jar problem; string problem

d

9. Think of 10 animal names that begin with the letter R. This problem would probably be solved using a ______ technique. a. means-end analysis b. reasoning-by-analogy c. productive-thinking d. generate-and-test

d

10. The prefrontal cortex is involved in the ability to plan and solve problems.

t

3. Working backward is a useful approach to solving the Towers of Hanoi problem.

t

4. People do not usually reason from a single analogy without being explicitly told to do so.

t

5. Mental set in problem solving is similar to perceptual set in pattern recognition.

t

6. Mental set can cause people to make unwarranted assumptions about the "rules" for solving a particular problem.

t

8. Experts spend less time analyzing a problem and more time trying possible solutions than novices do.

t

3. Give an example of how functional fixedness might hinder your attempts to find a solution to a real-world problem

A good answer will involve a problem that required an unusual use for a common item, such as using chewing gum as an adhesive, or using soda cans from the recycling bin to bake muffins in

4. How do expert problem solvers differ from non-experts?

At least three specific differences, such as these: Experts are able to see patterns quickly instead of just looking at the individual parts of a problem. Experts use a large knowledge base to help solve problems. Experts spend more time analyzing the structure of a problem before they start trying possible solutions. Experts organize problems in terms of their underlying structure rather than in terms of superficial characteristics.

2. Describe any three strategies for problem solving discussed in the textbook.

Choose three of the following: generate-and-test (generating possible solutions and testing them), means-end analysis (evaluating the distance between the goal and the current state, and taking steps to decrease that distance), working backward (analyze the goal and figure out how to get from the goal to the starting point), backtracking (keeping track of provisional assumptions and revising them if necessary), and reasoning by analogy (using a solution to a similar problem to help you solve a new problem).

Taking a break from problem solving helps you achieve a solution because your brain works on the problem unconsciously while you are away from it." Discuss the evidence for or against this statement.

Note that the evidence for such an incubation effect is inconsistent, and many studies do not find an incubation effect at all. Participants in one study who did show incubation effects admitted that they were surreptitiously thinking about the problem while they were supposed to be taking a break from it.

1. Give an example from your own life of a well-defined problem and an ill-defined problem.

The well-defined problem should have a clear correct answer and a clear set of steps or rules to reach that solution—jigsaw puzzles, Sudoku puzzles, crosswords, and so forth might be included. The ill-defined problem should have a number of possible solutions, an unclear starting points, and/or unclear rules: structuring a schedule of classes, planning the menu for a party, etc.

10. You encounter the following problem during next term's registration. One of the classes you planned to take is full, with no chance of your getting in. You need another class, and the only constraint it has to meet is that it must meet at either 10:00 or 11:00. So, you read systematically through the catalog, writing down the titles of any courses that sound interesting. When your list is complete, you look up meeting times, and cross out any courses that do not meet at 10:00 or 11:00. Next, you go to the registrar's office and find that one of the remaining courses has open spaces, so you sign up for it. You can correctly be described as having used ______. a. generate-and-test b. means-end analysis c. reasoning by analogy d. productive thinking

a

13. The General Problem Solver is a computer program that solves problems in crypt arithmetic and logic using ______. a. means-end analysis b. generate-and-test c. reasoning by analogy d. introspection

a

2. ______ thinking begins with a clear starting point and has a specific goal. a. Focused b. Unfocused c. Intelligent d. Puzzled

a

21. A tendency to adopt a certain framework, strategy, or procedure, which can become an obstacle to successful problem solving, is called ______. a. mental set b. functional fixedness c. well-defined thinking d. ill-defined thinking

a

25. The string problem often generates ______ when participants do not think to use the screwdriver as a pendulum. a. functional fixedness b. mental set c. incomplete representations d. reasoning by analogy

a

3. Introspection is the ______ observation of your consciousness. a. detailed b. remembered c. judgmental d. analyzed

a

32. The problem space hypothesis helps us to understand how problem solving can be blocked by ______. a. incomplete representations b. means-end analysis c. working backward d. mental set

a

36. When you walk away from a difficult problem and do something else for a while, then come back and solve the problem successfully, you have experienced the ______ effect. a. incubation b. mental-set c. unconscious-processing d. problem-space

a

45. If you are using algorithms to try to solve a problem, you would be most likely to ______. a. systematically test all possible solutions until you arrive at the correct answer b. continue to randomly choose hypotheses to test until you finally arrived at the correct answer c. use intuitive or informed principles to guide your hypothesis choices d. try to take incremental steps to slowly work your way toward achieving the solution

a

47. When attempting to solve a problem, all possible outcomes (and the means to complete them) comprise a mental graph called the ______ space. a. problem b. mental c. configuration d. solution

a

48. ______ are programs designed to model the judgments of experts in a particular field. a. Expert systems b. Expert algorithms c. Expert operations d. Expert heuristics

a

51. An efficient path through the problem space would most likely include ______ between the initial and end states. a. paths that are short and direct b. paths that test all possible nodes c. quickly detected paths d. paths that have no starting goal

a

56. Contrary recognition is a form of ______ thinking. a. analogical b. metaphorical c. featural d. persuasive

a

61. According to Dewey (1933), ______ is defined as "active, persistent, and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it and the further conclusions to which it tends." a. critical thinking b. deliberative thinking c. active thinking d. universal thinking

a

12. Earning a degree in psychology can be described as an exercise in problem solving. To finish your degree, you need to complete a number of upper-level courses. To enroll in those courses, you must have successfully completed a course in Research Methods. But before you can take Research Methods, you need to have passed Statistics. Your progress through this series of sub-goals can be accomplished through ______. a. generate-and-test b. means-end analysis c. reasoning by analogy d. mental set

b

17. In working a logic problem, you often need to make certain provisional assumptions, but sometimes they turn out to be wrong and need to be "unmade." The process of keeping track of assumptions so that you can back up to point of choice is called ______. a. working backward b. backtracking c. introspection d. reasoning by analogy

b

19. The tumor problem and the story of the general were used in research on ______. a. working backward b. reasoning by analogy c. means-end analysis d. backtracking

b

23. Mental set ______. a. can only be induced by large amounts of practice b. can lead us to make unwarranted assumptions about a problem c. involves the use of analogy to solve a problem d. aids problem solving because it supplies an efficient problem representation

b

28. Gobet and Simon's study of the chess-playing abilities of champion Gary Kasparov indicated that ______. a. Kasparov's superiority was limited to single games; he could not play three or four games simultaneously b. Kasparov plays almost as well playing eight games simultaneously as he does playing a single game c. Kasparov's superiority declined when forced to play very quickly d. Kasparov's mastery stems from his ability to think ahead and plan future moves

b

29. Experts in solving physics problems tend to ______. a. represent information more superficially than novices do b. organize problems in terms of physics principles c. organize problems in terms of objects mentioned in the problem d. spend less time analyzing a problem than novices do

b

31. In research on mental search of a "problem space," a "path" is ______. a. any connection between two nodes b. a sequence of moves beginning at the initial state and ending at the final goal state c. the single solution to a problem d. the most efficient solution to a problem

b

40. Critical thinking involves all of the following EXCEPT ______. a. actively evaluating one's solutions to a problem b. criticizing the ideas of other people c. examining the implications of an idea d. reflecting on the quality of one's ideas

b

41. Chi, Feltovich, and Glaser (1981) showed that experts in solving physics problems would be most likely to tend to ______. a. represent information more superficially than novices do b. organize problems in terms of physics principles c. organize problems in terms of objects mentioned in the problem d. spend less time analyzing a problem than novices do

b

43. In the generate-and-test problem solving strategy, you would be most likely to ______. a. systematically test all possible solutions until you arrive at the correct answer b. continue to randomly choose hypotheses to test until you finally arrived at the correct answer c. use intuitive or informed principles to guide your hypothesis choices d. try to take incremental steps to slowly work your way toward achieving the solution

b

52. Which of the following is a problem when studying incubation effects? a. It is difficult to create an experimental design where participants take a break. b. It is difficult to ensure that participants do not think about the problem during the incubation period. c. It is difficult to create a problem which may benefit from incubation. d. It is difficult to get participants to respond to a problem after an incubation period

b

59. Which of the following is true of "flashes of insight" that are part of the creative process? a. Only "creative people" experience flashes of insight. b. Flashes of insight may be part of a normal problem solving process. c. Noncreative people experience flashes of insight much slower than creative people. d. Flashes of insight always require the generation of new knowledge or strategies.

b

62. According to Wertheimer (1945), a learner would be most successful when taught through ______. a. mechanically repetitive means b. essential structures c. rote means d. metaphorical structures

b

66. Patient P.F. suffered from grand maul epileptic seizures which damaged his ______, resulting in an inability to apply his architectural expertise to ill-defined problems. a. amygdala b. prefrontal cortex c. cerebellum d. sensorimotor cortex

b

7. Which of the following is an example of an ill-defined problem? a. solving Rubik's Cube puzzle b. putting together your schedule of classes for next semester c. solving an algebra problem d. solving the Tower of Hanoi problem

b

71. The popular number game Sudoku involves using given information to make guesses about where certain numbers should fall within a large grid. As you begin to fill in numbers, you become more certain of which numbers can go in other cells. This demonstrates which problem-solving strategy? a. working backward b. backtracking c. means-end d. generate-and-test

b

75. Creativity is ideally both novel and ______. a. abstract b. appropriate c. accessible d. actualized

b

14. The strategy of working backward is most effective when ______. a. there are many possible paths to a solution b. the optimal path leads you temporarily away from your goal c. the backward path is unique d. there are clear sub-goals before the final goal

c

15. ______ is a very important technique for solving the Towers of Hanoi problem. a. Means-end analysis b. Generate-and-test c. Working backward d. Reasoning by analogy

c

44. If you are using heuristics to try to solve a problem, you would be most likely to ______. a. systematically test all possible solutions until you arrive at the correct answer b. continue to randomly choose hypotheses to test until you finally arrived at the correct answer c. use intuitive or informed principles to guide your hypothesis choices d. try to take incremental steps to slowly work your way toward achieving the solution

c

5. A(n) ______ problem has a clear goal, a small set of starting information, and rules about how to attain the goal. a. classic b. laboratory c. well-defined d. introspective

c

50. Inference rules normally take the form of ______. a. "If X is true, then only X is true." b. "If X is true, then all X's are true." c. "If X is true, then Y is true." d. "If X is true, then Y is false."

c

53. ______ remembering is the ability to call to mind information that is constrained by some parameter or goal. a. Goal-driven b. Multi-level c. Directed d. Informative

c

54. You are trying to recall all words you know that end in in -ink to complete a rhyme for a new poem. Searching through your memory for these words is an example of ______ remembering. a. goal-driven b. multi-level c. directed d. informative

c

57. When you look in the sky and see a cloud, you suddenly realize that it reminds you of a rabbit. You have just engaged in which creative process? a. directed remembering b. unintentional forgetting c. contrary recognition d. noticing

c

6. Which of the following is the best example of a well-defined problem? a. creating a guest list for a party b. finding a detour around a traffic problem c. constructing a proof in algebra d. writing a paper for your cognition class

c

63. According to Huber and Kuncel (2016), critical thinking ______ include willingness to engage in critical thinking while critical thinking ______ include being able to examine one's assumptions and conclusions. a. skills; dispositions b. motivation; incubation c. dispositions; skills d. incubation; motivation

c

68. A(n) ______ problem does not have a clear goal, adequate starting information, or accessible set of steps. a. classic b. well-defined c. ill-defined d. fixation

c

72. ______ involves being unable to swap problem solving strategies, while ______ refers to being unable to consider novel uses for objects. a. Analogical inconsistency; mental set b. Functional fixedness; analogical inconsistency c. Mental set; functional fixedness d. Analogical inconsistency; functional fixedness

c

1. ______ is defined as "going beyond the information given." a. Problem-solving b. Reasoning c. Decision making d. Thinking

d

16. You are attempting to find the home of a friend whom you have not visited in many years. When you arrive in her town, you remember to drive south on Main Street and turn left on Elm. Once on Elm, however, you become less certain. Driving farther, you reach the intersection of Elm and Sycamore. You remember this intersection, but you cannot remember whether you should turn here or go on a little farther. You temporarily assume that you should go on. However, about a block farther on, you reach a dead end. Retracing your route, you realize now that the correct option would have been to turn on Sycamore. You have used the technique of ______. a. generate-and-test b. means-end analysis c. reasoning by analogy d. backtracking

d

20. Gick and Holyoak's work on reasoning by analogy showed that ______. a. subjects were unable to reason from analogy, even if told to do so b. most subjects could use the "general" story to solve the tumor problem, but only if they were explicitly told to use it c. subjects could reason from analogy without being explicitly told to do so if they saw two analogous problems to the tumor problem d. subjects could reason from analogy after either (1) being explicitly told to do so, or (2) having seen two analogous problems, but otherwise they did not spontaneously reason from analogy

d

22. When you adopt a certain framework or strategy for solving a series of problems, you may fail to see other, more efficient ways of solving some of the problems. This is referred to as ______. a. functional fixedness b. procrastination c. a heuristic d. mental set

d

26. The domino and checkerboard problem is a good example of ______. a. an ill-defined problem b. functional fixedness c. mental set d. incomplete representation

d

30. Patient P.F., an architect who suffered stroke damage to his right prefrontal cortex, was later unable to ______. a. communicate through spoken language b. understand instructions c. access his knowledge base d. move from problem structuring to a developed and detailed design

d

34. Muckraker is an expert system designed to give advice to ______. a. psychiatrists b. surgeons c. computer programmers d. journalists

d

37. Research on the incubation effect has shown that ______. a. most empirical studies support the positive effects of incubation b. incubation effects are only found with very long incubation intervals c. incubation actually has a negative effect on performance d. participants who take physical and mental breaks rarely show increased ability to solve problems

d