Chapter 12

Somatosensory association cortex

-Posterior to primary somatosensory cortex - Integrates sensory input from primary somatosensory cortex for *understanding of object* -Determines size, texture, and relationship of parts of objects being felt

3 regions of the Cerebral Hemispheres:

1. *Cerebral cortex* Gray matter superficially 2. *White matter* internally 3. *Basal nuclei* deep within white matter

4 Characteristics is cerebral cortex:

1. *Contains three types of functional areas:* a. Motor areas b. Sensory areas c. Association areas 2 Each hemisphere is conceited with *contralateral* (opposite) side of body 3. Lateralization *(specialization)* of cortical function can occur in only one hemisphere 4. *Conscious behavior involves entire cortex in one way or another*'

A number of brain structures are listed below. If an area is primarily gray matter, write (a); if mostly white matter, respond with (b) 1. cerebral cortex 2. corpus callosum and corona radiata 3. red nucleus 4. medial and lateral nuclear groups 5. medial lemniscus 6. cranial nerve nuclei 7. spinothalamic tract 8. fornix 9. cingulate and precentral gyri

1. a 2. b 3. a 4. a 5. b 6. a 7. b 8. b 9. a

2 parts of the auditory area:

1. primary auditory cortex and 2. auditory association area.

Main types of sensory areas:

1. primary somatosensory cortex 2. somatosensory association cortex 3. visual areas 4. auditory areas 5. vestibular cortex 6. olfactory cortex 7. gustatory cortex 8. visceral sensory area

The average weight of the adult brain is _____. a. 1 - 1.5 lbs b. 2 - 2.5 lbs c. 3 - 3.5 lbs d. over 5 lbs

3 - 3.5 lbs

The average weight of the adult brain is __________.

3 to 3.5 lbs.

Describe consciousness clinically.

Consciousness is described clinically on a continuum from alertness to drowsiness to stupor and finally to coma. Human consciousness is thought to involve holistic information processing, which is (1) not localizable, (2) superimposed on other types of neural activity, and (3) totally interconnected. Fainting (syncope) is a temporary loss of consciousness that usually reflects inadequate blood delivery to the brain. Coma is loss of consciousness in which the victim is unresponsive to stimuli.

Cerebellum and Cerebral Hemispheres pattern

Contains outer layer of gray matter called the cortex; and have scattered areas of gray matter nuclei amid white matter.

Midbrain function

Controls visual reflexes that coordinate head and eye movements when we follow a moving object

Frontal eye field

Controls voluntary eye movements

What is the function of convolutions of the brain?

Convolutions increase surface area of the cortex, which allows more neurons to occupy the limited space within the skull.

The __________ connects the cerebrum and cerebellum

Corpus Callosum

viseral sensory area location

Cortex of insula Posterior to gustatory cortex

Describe the dural septa and give the location of the falx cerebri

Cranial dural septa - Meningeal layer of the duramater that extends into the cranial cavity at 4 locations. Separate and stabilize the brain. Falx Cerebri - largest of the 4 septa, extends into the longitudinal fissure and attaches to the crista galli

What functional type of neuron is derived from the alar plate? From the basal plate??

Alar plate neuroblasts become interneurons, whereas basal plate neuroblasts become motor (efferent) neurons.

Which of the following statements about language is INCORRECT? a. Patients who have difficulty understanding language have a lesion in Wernicke's area. b. Patients who can speak but produce nonsense have a lesion in Wernicke's area. c. Patients who understand language but have difficulty speaking have lesions affecting Broca's area. d. All the associated areas on the right side of the cerebral cortex are involved in language.

All the associated areas on the right side of the cerebral cortex are involved in language.

Primary (somatic) motor cortex

Allows conscious control of precise, skilled, skeletal muscle movements; located in the precentral gurus of frontal lobe

Which of the following is a progressive degenerative disease of the brain that ultimately results in dementia? a. mad cow disease b. Parkinson's disease c. Alzheimer's disease d. Huntington's disease

Alzheimer's disease

Name the two regions of the limbic system involved in conversion of short-term memory to long-term memory.

Amygdala & Hippocampus - affected by high emotional stated, repetition, association of new information with old, or the automatic formation while concentrating on something else Hippocampus - needed for STM; LTM are stored in association areas

Describe the components that form the Blood Brain Barrier

Blood-Brain Barrier - Astrocytes wrap around capillaries in the brain and stimulate the generation of tight junctions. Although, alcohols, nicotine and anesthetics can diffuse across. There is little or no BBB present in choroid plexus, hypothalamus or pineal gland

Explain the effects of aging on the brain.

Brain growth ends in young adulthood. neurons die throughout life and most are not replaced; brain weight and volume decline with age. Healthy elders maintain nearly optimal intellectual functions. Disease -- particularly cardiovascular disease -- is the major cause of declining mental function with age.

Compare and contrast the involvement of two brain regions in the function of language.

Broca's Area - Left frontal lobe, Speaking ablility Werknicke's Area - left cortex at junction of the parietal, temporal and occipital lobes, comprehension, understanding spoken and written messages, word salad

Explain three functions of cerebrospinal fluid and discuss its formation

Buoyancy to the brain, Impact damage resistance and delivery medium for nutrients and chemical signals Formation of CSF - Region of specialized tissue with ependymal cells and blood capillaries that lie within the pia mater. Blood gets filtered and becomes CSF, like plasma w/o proteins. Each ventricle has part of choroid plexus.

gustatory cortex function

*Involved in perception of taste*

visual association area

*surrounds primary visual cortex* The visual association area uses past visual experiences to interpret visual stimuli (color, form, or movement) Example: ability to recognize faces *Complex processing involves entire posterior half of cerebral hemispheres*

Differentiate between commissures, association fibers, and projection fibers.

Fiber tracts of the cerebral white matter include commissures, association fibers, and projection fibers. Commissural fibers connect corresponding gray areas of the two hemispheres. Association fibers connect different parts of the same hemisphere. Projection fibers either enter the cerebral cortex from lower brain or cord centers or descending from the cortex to lower areas.

Ventricles

Fluid- filled chambers that are continuous to one another and to central canal of spinal cord filled with CSF and lined by ependymal cells (neuroglial cells)

Pyramidal cells (corticospinal) tracts

Formed from long axons that project down spinal cord; relay between spinal cord and cortex

Prosencephalon (forebrain)

Forms the Telencephalon (becomes cerebrum) and Diencephalon (epithalamus, thalamus, hypothalamus, and retina).

Sulci that divide each hemisphere into five lobes:

Frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, and insula.

Sulcus

Furrows

Compare and contrast the distribution of gray and white matter throughout the brain divisons

Gray Matter - surrounds the central cavity, in the cerebrum and cerebellum there is an outer gray matter layer, which is reduced to scattered gray matter nuclei in the spinal cord, Unmyelinated White Matter - found in the inner portion of the brain

White matter

Groups of axons in the CNS

Describe the structure and functions of the limbic system and the reticular formation, and explain the role of each of these functional systems.

Limbic System - Emotional brain. Amygdala: interface between limbic system, cerebrum and other sensory systems; FEAR, stores emotional memories. Hippocampus: Long term memory, can generate new brain cells. Olfactory Bulbs/tracts/cortex: odors and linkage with emotion/memories Reticular Formation - RAS (reticular activating system) controls alertness. Dampens repetitive and weak inputs.

motor areas of cerebral cortex

Located in Frontal lobe, motor areas act to *control voluntary movement* 1. Primary motor cortex 2. Premotor cortex 3. Broca's area 4. Frontal eye field

Primary somastosensory area:

Located in postcentral gyri of parietal lobe Receives general sensory information from skin and proprioceptors* of skeletal muscle, joints, and tendons Capable of spatial discrimination

primary visual (straite) cortex

Located on the extreme posterior tip of occipital lobe and mostly buried in the calcarine sulcus Function: Receives visual information from retinas

auditory association area location

Located posterior to primary auditory cortex

Describe the location of the diencephalon, and name its subdivisions and functions of each.

Location - in-between brain Thalamus - 80% of diencephalon, final relay station for nerve impulses except olfaction. Contributes to motor function. Acts as an information filter, screens out most of sensory information. Hypothalamus - SWEET HAT, sexual arousal Epithalamus - Pienal gland: secretes melatonin, highest levels are at night.

area of the spinal cord where damage would lead to paraplegia:

Lumbar enlargement (between T1 and L1)

Indicate several maternal factors that can impair development of the nervous system in an embryo.

Maternal and environmental factors may impair embryonic brain development, and oxygen deprivation destroys brain cells. Severe congenital brain disorders include cerebral palsy, anencephaly, hydrocephalus, and spina bifida. Premature babies have trouble regulating body temperature because the hypothalamus is one of the last brain areas to mature prenatally. Development of motor control indicate progressive myelination and maturation of a child's nervous system.

primary olfactory (smell) cortex:

Medial aspect of temporal lobes (in piriform lobes) Part of primitive rhinencephalon*, along with olfactory bulbs and tracts Remainder of rhinencephalon in humans becomes part of limbic system

Lateral ventricles are separated by____.

Membranous *septum pellucidum*

Compare and contrast the stages and categories of memory.

Memory is the storage and retrieval of information. It is essential for learning and is part of consciousness. Memory storage has two stages: short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM). transfer of information from STM to LTM takes minutes to hours, but more time is required for LTM consolidation.

Brain stem pattern

Same as the brain and spinal cord but with more gray matter nuclei scattered within white matter

Choose the true statement regarding second-order neurons. a. Second-order neuron cell bodies reside in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. b. Second-order neurons conduct impulses to the spinal cord or brain stem, where they synapse. c. Second-order neuron cell bodies reside in the thalamus. d. Second-order neuron cell bodies reside in a ganglion.

Second-order neuron cell bodies reside in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord.

second- order neuron

Second-order neuron cell bodies reside in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord.

Postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe functions

Sensory functions

Describe the development of the brain and spinal cord.

The CNS develops from the embryonic neural tube -- the brain from the rostral part and the spinal cord from the caudal part. The gray matter of the spinal cord forms from the alar and basal plates. Fiber tracts from the outer white matter. The neural crest forms the sensory (dorsal root) ganglia.

An interesting lesion in the brain results in a loss of the connection between the image one sees and the emotion that normally arises with that image. This syndrome, called Capgrass Syndrome, results in feelings that those close to the subject are imposters. What area of the brain might be affected in Capgrass Syndrome?

The amygdala and other components of the limbic system

Which functional areas of the cerebrum are involved in the formation of procedural (skill) memory, but not involved in declarative memory?

The basal nuclei and premotor cortex are involved in procedural (skill) memory, but not in declarative memory.

Name and locate the ventricles of the brain.

The brain contains four ventricles filled with cerebrospinal fluid. The lateral ventricles are in the cerebral hemispheres; the third ventricle is in the diencephalon; the fouth ventricle is between the brain stem and the cerebellum and connects with the central canal of the spinal cord.

Certain disorders seem to have in common the inability to filter out sensory information, resulting in sensory overload (autism, schizophrenia, and attention deficit disorder). While there is much still to know about these disorders, the inability to filter out information may implicate what brain structure?

The reticular activating system

Drugs that inhibit this particular region (alcohol, sleep-inducing drugs, and tranquilizers) are known to promote unconsciousness.

The reticular activating system

Differentiate among the 7 sensory areas.

Primary somatosensory Cortex - Post central gyrus of parietal lobes, Body position (Proprioceptors) Touch, pressure, pain and temperature. Primary visual cortex - Occipital lobe, processes incoming visual information. Primary auditory cortex - temporal lobe; receives and processes auditory information Primary Olfactory cortex - Temporal lobe; Awareness of smells Primary gustatory cortex - Insula; processing taste Visceral sensory area - Insula; conscious perception of visceral sensations Vestibular cortex - Equilibrium

Tracts

Processes mainly axon bundles into CNS.

Identify the stage of sleep best described by "indicated by movement of the eyes under the lids; dreaming occurs". a. stage 1 b. stage 2 c. stage 3 d. stage 4 e. REM

REM

Explain the interactions of the prefontal cortex and the limbic system in expression of emotions.

Rational brain (prefrontal cortex) uses dopamine and norepinephrine to interact with the limbic system (emotional brain)

Vestibular cortex function

Responsible for conscious awareness of balance (position of head in space) important for balance and growth

List several causes of reversible dementia in the elderly.

Reversible cause of dementia includes prescription drug effects, low blood pressure, poor nutrition, hormone imbalances, depression, and dehydration.

Gyri

Ridges

Gyrus

Ridges

Lateralization is an important concept in health as it allows us to predict how a particular injury (trauma, stroke, etc.) will affect behavior. For example, a stroke in the left hemisphere would be expected to impact language, math, and logic in most people. However, anatomical variabilities exist. Which of the following is a common example of an anatomical variability in lateralization?

Right-cerebral-dominant individuals tend to be left handed and male.

Describe the anatomy and location of the ventricles of the brain.

Ventricles - continuous cavities of the brain, lined with ependymal cells and filled with CSF Lateral Ventricles - There are two of them. Lie deep within each cerebral hemisphere, separated by the "septum pellucidum" (clear membrane) Third Ventricle - lies within the dicephalon and communicates with the lateral ventricles via two interventricular foramina Fourth Ventricle - Lies between the pons and cerebellum and communicates with the third ventricle via the cerebral aqueduct. Merges with central canal at inferior end.

Why is the thalamus called the "gateway to the cerebral cortex"?

Virtually all inputs ascending to the cerebral cortex synapse in the thalamus en route.

What is located in the lateral horn of the spinal cord gray matter?

Visceral motor soma

Occipital lobe function

Visual sensation

lateral aperture

Walls

If you are having a conversation with a person, excuse yourself for five minutes, and come back and the person no longer knows you, the person would be suffering from _____. a. retrograde amnesia b. epilepsy c. sleep apnea d. anterograde amnesia

anterograde amnesia

Which of the following is the central layer of the meninges? a. pia mater b. dural sinuses c. dura mater d. arachnoid mater

arachnoid mater

Which of the following meninges forms the loose, mid-layer brain covering? a. pia mater b. arachnoid mater c. dura mater d. casa mater

arachnoid mater

cerebellum movement

area responsible for precise timing and appropriate patterns of skeletal muscle contraction for smooth, coordinated movements and agility needed for our daily living—driving, typing, and for some of us, playing the tuba.

Fiber tracts that allow neurons within the same cerebral hemisphere to communicate are a. association fibers b. commissures c. projection fibers

association fibers

Which type of brain waves are seen when a person is concentrating on solving a problem? a. beta waves b. delta waves c. theta waves d. alpha waves e. gamma waves

beta waves

Which of the following is a protective mechanism that helps maintain a stable environment for the brain? a. dura mater b. blood-brain barrier c. pia mater d. cerebrospinal fluid

blood-brain barrier

Which of the following centers is NOT located in the hypothalamus? a. autonomic control center b. food intake regulation center c. body temperature regulation center d. center for central balance e. a center for regulation of sleep-wake cycles

center for central balance

Basic pattern found in CNS (spinal cord)

central cavity surrounded by gray matter, with outer white matter.

Which of the following is NOT one of the major regions of the brain stem? a. midbrain b. medulla oblongata c. cerebellum d. pons

cerebellum

Which term is best stated by "brain area most concerned with equilibrium, body posture, and coordination of motor activity"? a. cerebellum b. corpora quadrigemina c. corpus callosum d. striatum e. hypothalamus f. medulla g. midbrain h. pons i. thalamus

cerebellum

Cerebrospinal fluid is formed by a. arachnoid villi b. dura mater c. choroid plexuses d. all of these

choroid plexuses

Which of the following is a function of the pons? a. acts to regulate body temperature b. nucleus for the abducens nerve c. provides motor signals to the red nucleus d. controls vomiting and coughing e. contains nuclei that relay information from the cerebrum to cerebellum

contains nuclei that relay information from the cerebrum to cerebellum

Unlike motor cortex where the muscle is controlled by the _________ brain, cerebellar control is________.

contralateral; ipsilateral

In a paralyzed individuals muscle strength and ability to perform discrete individual movements is not impaired; ______ over __________ is lost

control; movements

Which term is best stated by "relay stations for visual and auditory stimuli input; found in midbrain"? a. cerebellum b. corpora quadrigemina c. corpus callosum d. striatum e. hypothalamus f. medulla g. midbrain h. pons i. thalamus

corpora quadrigemina

Which of the following is NOT one of the basal nuclei? a. corpus callosum b. globus pallidum c. caudate nucleus d. putamen

corpus callosum

Damage to areas of primary motor cortex can cause

damage to the primary motor cortex can be seen in a stroke as the muscle controlled by the premotor cortex are paralyzed. Such paralysis occurs on opposite side of the body from damage.

What is the main role of the olfactory cortex? a. detection of odors b. sound interpretation c. spatial discrimination d. sight

detection of odors

cephalization

development of a head

cerebral cortex

executive suite of the brain; site of conscious mind: awareness, sensory perception, voluntary motor initiation, communication, memory storage, and understanding

primary visual (striate) cortex structure

extreme posterior tip of the occipital lobe, but most of it is buried deep in the calcarine sulcus in the medial aspect of the occipital lobe

In order for a chemicals like a pharmaceutical agent to penetrate the blood brain barrier, it can be made to be __________.

fat soluble

cerebral hemispheres

form the superior part of the brain; accounts for 83%

insula lobe

found deep beneath the lateral sulcus, associated with memory and interpretation of taste

The CNS starts differentiating from the neural tube in the developing embryo after week _____. a. two b. three c. four d. six

four

Cancer of ependymal cells (an ependymyoma) is most likely to occur in the fourth ventricle. Which area of the brain would you expect to be affected by an ependymyoma?

fourth ventricle

The primary motor cortex, Broca's area, and the premotor cortex are located in which lobe? a. frontal b. parietal c. temporal d. occipital

frontal

Acting as an excitotoxin, the main culprit in the damage caused by a cerebral vascular accident (CVA) is _____. a. serotonin b. low levels of calcium c. acetylcholine d. glutamate

glutamate

A patient has suffered a cerebral hemorrhage that has caused dysfunction of the precentral gyrus of his right cerebral cortex. As a result, a. he cannot voluntarily move his left arm or leg b. he feels no sensation on the left side of his body c. he feels no sensation on the right side of his body

he cannot voluntarily move his left arm or leg

Which of the following areas of the brain is most involved in maintaining the body's homeostasis? a. cerebral cortex b. hypothalamus c. medulla oblongata d. pons e. cerebellum

hypothalamus

Which of the following areas regulates body temperature, food intake, and endocrine functions? a. pineal body b. thalamus c. hypothalamus d. epithalamus

hypothalamus

Which of the following is the autonomic control center? a. diencephalon b. pons c. medulla oblongata d. midbrain e. hypothalamus

hypothalamus

Which part of the brain is involved in thirst sensations? a. temporal lobe b. hypothalamus c. cerebral cortex d. cerebellum e. pons

hypothalamus

Which term is best stated by "control of temperature, autonomic nervous system reflexes, hunger, and water balance"? a. cerebellum b. corpora quadrigemina c. corpus callosum d. striatum e. hypothalamus f. medulla g. midbrain h. pons i. thalamus

hypothalamus

spatial discrimination

identification of body region being stimulated

All of the following features can be seen in the brain tissue of patients suffering from Alzheimer's disease EXCEPT _____. a. increased levels of acetylcholine in the basal forebrain b. shrinkage of all the brain tissue c. toxic beta amyloid peptide d. tau

increased levels of acetylcholine in the basal forebrain

The _________ cerebellar peduncles carry information between the _________ and the cerebellum.

inferior; medulla

primary olfactory (smell) cortex function

involved in conscious awareness of odors

Working memory _____. a. stores memories immediately and permanently in the long-term memory b. has limitless capacity c. stores only 5% of sensory input d. is limited to seven or eight chunks of information

is limited to seven or eight chunks of information

prefrontal cortex (anterior association area) structure

is the most complicated cortical region.

Which of the following is NOT a feature of the cerebral cortex? a. it is composed of white matter b. it accounts for 40% of the brain mass c. it is arranged in six layers d. its convoluted surface triples its surface

it is composed of white matter

somatosensory association cortex structure

just posterior to the primary somatosensory cortex and has many connections with it.

pyramidal cells

large neurons that allow conscious control of precise, skilled, skeletal muscle movements

lateral ventricles

large, C-shaped chambers located deep in each hemisphere

_____ is a division of labor in which each cerebral hemisphere has unique abilities not shared by its partner. a. hemispherical association b. hemispherication c. cortical association d. lateralization

lateralization

Which of the following tracts convey vibration and other specific sensations that can be precisely localized? a. pyramidal tract b. medial lemniscus c. lateral spinothalamic tract d. reticulospinal tract

medial lemniscus

Which term is best stated by "houses vital centers for control of the heart, respiration, and blood pressure"? a. cerebellum b. corpora quadrigemina c. corpus callosum d. striatum e. hypothalamus f. medulla g. midbrain h. pons i. thalamus

medulla

Which term is best stated by "region where there is a gross crossover of fibers of descending pyramidal tracts"? a. cerebellum b. corpora quadrigemina c. corpus callosum d. striatum e. hypothalamus f. medulla g. midbrain h. pons i. thalamus

medulla

Which of the following regions acts as an autonomic reflex center of the brain? a. pons b. midbrain c. medulla oblongata d. cerebellum

medulla oblongata

Which term is best stated by "houses the substantia nigra and cerebral aqueduct"? a. cerebellum b. corpora quadrigemina c. corpus callosum d. striatum e. hypothalamus f. medulla g. midbrain h. pons i. thalamus

midbrain

The ______ cerebellar peduncles carry information from the ____ to the cerebellum.

middle cerebellar peduncles; pons

All of the structures of the CNS originate from the _____. a. cerebellum b. neural tube c. telencephalon d. hindbrain

neural tube

All of the structures of the CNS originate from the __________.

neural tube

Describe consciousness clinically

no question

median aperture

opening on the roof of the fourth ventricle

lateral sulcus

outlines temporal lobes

primary motor cortex damage leads to:

paralysis of voluntary muscle control on the opposite side of the body.

primary motor cortex where damage leads to

paralysis of voluntary muscle control on the opposite side of the body.

Transection of the spinal cord at T3 results in _____. a. paresthesias b. paraplegia c. quadriplegia d. spinal shock

paraplegia

postcentral gyrus

parietal lobe; primary sensory cortex; somatic sensory information

Which of the following is NOT a part of the diencephalon? a. thalamus b. epithalamus c. perithalamus d. hypothalamus

perithalamus

The innermost layer of the meninges, delicate and closely apposed to the brain tissue, is the a. dura mater b. corpus callosum c. arachnoid mater d. pia mater

pia mater

posterior association area function

plays a role in recognizing patterns and faces, localizing us and our surroundings in space, and binding different sensory inputs into a coherent whole. Attention to an area of space or an area of one's own body is also a function of this part of the brain. Many parts of the posterior association area (including Wernicke's area, Figure 12.7a) are also involved in understanding written and spoken language. may result in a feeling that a part of the body "doesn't belong to me."

Which of the following conditions results from viral destruction of ventral horn motor neurons? a. poliomyelitis b. meningitis c. paraplegia d. Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

poliomyelitis

parietal lobe

receives sensory input for touch and body position

All the following are attributed to the function of the amygdaloid body EXCEPT _____. a. recognition of fear b. assessment of danger c. resolving mental conflict d. eliciting the fear response

resolving mental conflict

proprioceptors

sensory receptors found in muscle and tendons that detect their degree of stretch & sense body position and movements

transverse cerebral fissure

separates cerebrum and cerebellum

central sulcus

separates frontal and parietal lobes

longitudinal fissure

separates the cerebral hemispheres

parieto-occipital sulcus

separates the parietal lobe from the occipital lobe

Sulci

shallow grooves

Gray matter

short, nonmyelinated neurons and cell bodies

_____ is a homeostatic brain imbalance that causes a temporary cessation of breathing during sleep. a. epilepsy b. sleep apnea c. narcolepsy d. syncope

sleep apnea

rhinencephalon

smell-brain

Identify the stage of sleep best described by "when the sleeper is very easily awakened; EEG shows alpha waves". a. stage 1 b. stage 2 c. stage 3 d. stage 4 e. REM

stage 1

Identify the stage of sleep best described by "when nightmares are likely to occur". a. stage 1 b. stage 2 c. stage 3 d. stage 4 e. REM

stage 3 and stage 4

Identify the stage of sleep best described by "the stage when blood pressure and heart rate reach their lowest levels". a. stage 1 b. stage 2 c. stage 3 d. stage 4 e. REM

stage 4

Which of the following is a function of the basal ganglia? a. starting, stopping, and monitoring arm swinging and gait b. regulation of body temperature c. processing of sensory information d. determining whether a person is left- or right-handed e. connecting corresponding areas of the cerebral cortex to enable them to function as a coordinated whole

starting, stopping, and monitoring arm swinging and gait

Which term is best stated by "basal nuclei involved in fine control of motor activities"? a. cerebellum b. corpora quadrigemina c. corpus callosum d. striatum e. hypothalamus f. medulla g. midbrain h. pons i. thalamus

striatum

Which part of the brain produces dopamine? a. pontine nuclei b. reticular formation c. substantia nigra d. pineal gland e. red nucleus

substantia nigra

A professor unexpectedly blew a loud horn in his anatomy and physiology class. The students looked up, startled. The reflexive movement of their eyes were mediated by the a. cerebral cortex b. inferior olives c. raphe nuclei d. superior colliculi e. nucleus gracilis

superior colliculi

Those with damage to vision due to lesions of visual cortex may still be able to reflexively follow a laser shined on a wall. This ability would be due to the _______________ of the brain.

superior colliculi

Which of the following areas is NOT involved in speech processing? a. Wernicke's area b. superior colliculi c. lateral prefrontal cortex d. Broca's area

superior colliculi

Which of the following coordinate head and eye movements when we visually follow a moving object? a. substantia nigra b. pneumotaxic center c. superior colliculi d. red nucleus e. inferior colliculi

superior colliculi

The __________ cerebellar peduncles carry information from the _____________ to the motor cortex.

superior; cerebellum

visual association area structure

surrounds the primary visual cortex and covers much of the occipital lobe

The visceral sensory area of the cerebral cortex is involved in the conscious perception of all the following EXCEPT _____. a. the feeling that your lungs will burst when you hold your breath b. upset stomach c. full bladder d. taste

taste

In which of the following areas does sorting and editing of sensory impulses take place? a. hypothalamus b. basal nuclei c. postcentral cortex d. prefrontal cortex e. thalamic nuclei

thalamic nuclei

Which term is best stated by "brain area through which all the sensory input is relayed to get to the cerebral cortex"? a. cerebellum b. corpora quadrigemina c. corpus callosum d. striatum e. hypothalamus f. medulla g. midbrain h. pons i. thalamus

thalamus

The sensory hallucinations experienced by epileptic patients are known as _____. a. a tonic-clonic seizure b. the aura c. a petit mal seizure d. an absence seizure

the aura

_____ is responsible for communication between cerebral areas and between the cerebral cortex and lower CNS centers. a. the thalamus b. the hypothalamus c. Broca's area d. the cerebral white matter

the cerebral white matter

Which of the following is NOT one of the three basic regions of the cerebral hemisphere? a. the internal white matter b. the superficial cortex of gray matter c. the basal nuclei d. the diencephalon

the diencephalon

Which part of the cerebellum is involved in planning, rather that executing, movement? a. the intermediate parts of each hemisphere b. the posterior lobe c. the anterior lobe d. the lateral part of each hemisphere

the lateral part of each hemisphere

Which of the following landmarks separates the cerebral hemispheres? a. the central sulcus b. the longitudinal fissure c. the transverse cerebral fissure d. septum pelllucidum

the longitudinal fissure

Mesencephalon

the midbrain

In which part of the cerebral cortex do sensations, emotions, and thoughts come together and make us who we are? a. the motor cortex b. the multimodal association areas c. the premotor cortex d. the primary sensory cortex

the multimodal association areas

primary visual (striate) cortex function

the primary visual cortex receives visual information that originates on the retina of the eye. There is a contralateral map of visual space on the primary visual cortex, analogous to the body map on the somatosensory cortex. results in functional blindness.

precentral gyrus

the strip of frontal cortex, just in front of the central sulcus, that is crucial for motor control

Aqueductal stenosis is a condition where the cerebral aquaduct is blocked. Aqueductal stenosis would prevent flow of cerebrospinal fluid between __________.

the third ventricle and fourth ventricle

third ventricle

the ventricle located in the center of the diencephalon

All of the following descriptions refer to dorsal column-medial lemniscal ascending pathways except one: a. they include the fasciculus gracilis and fasciculus cuntaeus b. they include a chain of three neurons c. their connections are diffuse and poorly localized d. they are concerned with precise transmission of one or a few related types of sensory input.

their connections are diffuse and poorly localized

visual area

there are two parts of this area the: 1. primary visual (striate) cortex and the 2. visual association area.

motor homunculi

upside-down caricatures represent contralateral motor innervation of body regions

What is located in the lateral horn of the spinal cord grey matter? a. interneurons that receive input from somatic sensory neurons b. visceral motor soma c. somatic motor soma d. interneurons that receive input from visceral sensory neurons

visceral motor soma

Destruction of the ventral horn cells of the spinal cord results in loss of a. integrating impulses b. sensory impulses c. voluntary motor impulses d. all of these

voluntary motor impulses

"damage to premotor area controlling movement of fingers would still allow fingers to move, but voluntary control needed to type would be lost" is an example of

what happens when the premotor cortex is damaged

What is a transient ischemic attack (TIA) and how is it different from a stroke?

A TIA is a temporary loss of blood supply to brain tissue, and it differs from a stroke in that the resultant impairment is fully reversible.

subarachnoid space

A fluid space surrounding the brain. Contains cerebrospinal fluid and largest blood vessels from the brain.

Roy was tackled while playing football. After hitting the ground, he was unable to move his lower limbs. What is a loss of motor function called? What level of his spinal cord do you think was injured (cervical, thoracic, lumbar, or sacral)?? Is this a permanent injury??? What diagnostic procedure might be helpful????

A loss of motor function is called paralysis. Lower limb paralysis could be caused by a spinal cord injury in the thoracic region (T1 and L1). If the spinal cord is transected, the result is paraplegia. If the cord is only bruised, he may regain function in the limbs. An MRI scan (or CT scan) of the spinal cord would be helpful.

temporal lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex responsible for hearing and language.

occipital lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information

Sensory areas:

Areas of cortex concerned with conscious awareness of sensation Occur in parietal, insular, temporal, and occipital lobes

Discuss the regulation of sleep

Arousal System - Group of neuron in the hypothalamus and RAS secretes neurotransmitter hypocretin (orexin) keeps you away by stimulating RAS Slow-Wave sleep Center - group of "sleep-on" neurons in hypothalamus. Induce Sleep, releases GABA which inhibits neurons Paradoxical sleep center - REM "sleep-on" neurons in brain stem

List the major spinal cord tracts, and classify each as a motor or sensory tract.

Ascending (sensory) tracts include the fasciculi gracilis and cuneatus, spinothalamic tracts, and spinocerebellar tracts. The dorsal column -- medial lemniscal pathway consists of the dorsal white column (fasciculus cuneatus, fasciculus gracilis) and the medial lemniscus, which are concerned with straight-through, precise transmission of one or a few related types pf sensory input. The spinothalamic pathways transmit pain, temperature, and course touch, and permits brain stem processing of ascending impulses. The spinocerebellar tracts, which terminate in the cerebellum, serve muscle sense, not conscious sensory perception. Descending tracts include the pyramidal tracts (ventral and lateral corticospinal tracts) and a number of motor tracts originating from subcortical motor nuclei. These descending fibers issue from the brain stem motor areas (indirect system) and cortical motor areas (direct pyramidal system).

area of the spinal cord where damage would lead to spastic paralysis:

Upper motor neurons

What is CSF? Where is it produced?? What are its functions???

CSF, formed by the choroid plexuses as a filtrate of blood plasma, is a watery "broth" similar in composition to plasma. It protects the brain and spinal cord from blows and other trauma, helps nourish the brain, and carries chemical signals from one part of the brain to another.

Describe three proposals for sleep function

Catch-up proposal - Restores biochemical or physiological processes of brain (removes adenosine build up) "Restoration and recovery" proposal - Time for brain to repair the damage caused by free radicals produced by metabolism of wake cycle "Shift Gears" proposal - allows time to accomplish long-term structural and chemical adjustments needed for learning & memory.

Sulci that divide lobes:

Central, parieto-occipital, and lateral sulcus

ID the 4 major regions of the adult brain.

Cerebral Hemispheres - Diencephalon - Brain Stem - Cerebellum -

Third ventricle is connected to the fourth ventricle via _______.

Cerebral aqueduct

Adult brain regions

Cerebral hemispheres, diencephalon, brain stem, cerebellum

Explain how cerebrospinal fluid is formed and describe its circulatory pathway.

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), formed by the choroid plexuses from blood plasma, circulates through the ventricles and into the subarachnoid space. It returns to the dural venous sinuses via the arachnoid villi.

Describe the Cause (if known) and major signs and symptoms of Cerebrovascular accidents, Alzhimer's, Parkinson's and Huntington's Disease.

Cerebrovascular accidents (CVA's) - Stroke, blood supply to brain blocked. Signs: Transient Ischmic Attacks (TIAs) temporary blood blockage Alzheimer's Disease - Results from progressive degenerative disease, leads to dementia. Destruction of ACh receptors & producers. Creates tangles of neurons. Parkinson's Disease - Results from deterioration of dopamine secreting neurons of Substania Negra. Loss of coordination and movement. Resting Tremor Huntington's Disease - Fatal Hereditary disorder that results from deterioration of basal nuclei and cerebral cortex, Cannot start/stop movement easily. Due to extra long sequence of CAG on chromasome 4. Signs are genetic, autosomal dominate.

Describe the cause (if known) and major signs and symptoms of cerebrovascular accidents, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and Huntington's disease.

Cerebrovascular accidents (also known as a stroke) result when blood circulation to brain neurons is impaired and brain tissue dies. The result may be hemiplegia, sensory deficits, or speech impairment. The most common cause of CVA is a blood clot that blocks a cerebral artery. General symptoms of CVA include: - sudden numbness, tingling, weakness, or loss of movement in the face, arm, or leg, especially on only one side of the body - sudden vision changes - difficulty speaking - sudden confusion or difficulty understanding simple statements - sudden difficulties with balance or walking - a sudden, severe headache that is different from past headaches CVA Symptoms can vary depending on whether the stroke is caused by a blood clot (ischemic stroke) or bleeding (hemorrhagic stroke), where the stroke occurs in the brain, and how bad it is. Alzheimer's disease is a degenerative brain disorder in which beta-amyloid peptide deposits and neurofibrillary tangles appear. Its victims exhibit memory loss (particularly for recent events) shortened attention span, disorientation, and eventual language loss. Over a period of several years, formerly good-natured people may become irritable, moody, and confused. Hallucinations may ultimately occur. Alzheimer's disease also causes changes in thinking, behavior, and personality. Close family members and friends may first notice these symptoms, although the person may also realize that something is wrong. Mild symptoms of Alzheimer's include: - person may avoid new and unfamiliar situations - person may have delayed reactions and slowed learning ability - person may begin speaking more slowly than in the past - person may start using poor judgment and making inappropriate decisions - person may have mood swings and become depressed, irritable, or restless Moderate symptoms of Alzheimer's include: - has problems recognizing close friends and family - becomes more restless, especially in late afternoon and at night, this is called sundowning - has problems reading, writing, and dealing with numbers - has trouble dressing - cannot work simple appliances such as a microwave Severe symptoms pf Alzheimer's includes: - can no longer remember how to bathe, eat, dress, or go to the bathroom independently - no longer knows when to chew and swallow - has trouble with balance or walking and may fall frequently - becomes more confused in the evening (sundowning) and has trouble sleeping - cannot communicate using words - loses bowel or bladder control (incontinence) Parkinson's disease and Huntington's disease are neurodegenerative disorders of the basal nuclei. Both involve abnormalities of the neurotransmitter dopamine (too little or too much secreted) and are characterized by abnormal movements. Symptoms of Parkinson's disease differ from person to person. They also change as the disease progresses. Symptoms that one person gets in the early stages of the disease, another person may not get until later - or not at all. Symptoms typically begin appearing between the ages of 50 and 60. They develop slowly and often go unnoticed by family, friends, and even the person who has them. The disease causes motor symptoms and non-motor symptoms. Motor symptoms are those that have to do with how you move. The most common one is tremor. Other common symptoms of Parkinson's disease include: - stiff muscles (rigidity) and aching muscles - slow, limited movement - weakness of face and throat muscles - difficulty with walking and balance - freezing, a sudden, brief inability to move, it most often affects walking Huntington's disease is a genetic, progressive, neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the gradual development of involuntary muscle movements affecting the hands, feet, face, and trunk and progressive deterioration of cognitive processes and memory (dementia). Neurologic movement abnormalities may include uncontrolled, irregular, rapid, jerky movements (chorea) and athetosis, a condition characterized by relatively slow, writhing involuntary movements. Dementia is typically associated with progressive disorientation and confusion, personality disintegration, impairment of memory control, restlessness, agitation, and other symptoms and findings. In individuals with the disorder, disease duration may range from approximately 10 years up to 25 years or more. Life-threatening complications may result from pneumonia or other infections, injuries related to falls, or other associated developments. Some common early symptoms of Huntington's disease include: - slight changes in coordination, affecting balance or making you more clumsy - fidgety movements that you can't control - slowing or stiffness - trouble thinking through problems - depression or irritability Some common middle stage symptoms of Huntington's disease include: With time, symptoms begin to interfere more with your day-to-day life. For example, you might start to drop things or to fall. Or you may have trouble speaking or swallowing. Staying organized may be difficult and emotional changes may put pressure on relationships. Some common late stage symptoms of Huntington's disease include: In this stage, people with Huntington's must depend on others for their care. Walking and speaking are not possible, Most likely you will still be aware of loved ones around you. Fidgety movements may become severe, or may subside. In children or teens, Huntington's may progress more quickly and cause symptoms like: - stiff or awkward walking - increased clumsiness - changes in speech - trouble learning new information, or loss of previously learned skills

area of the spinal cord where damage would lead to quadriplegia:

Cervical enlargements

Which type of fiber allows the two cerebral hemispheres to "talk to each other"?

Commissural fibers (which form commissures) allow the cerebral hemispheres to "talk to each other".

Differentiate between Commissures, association fibers, and projection fibers.

Commissures Fibers - Connects one hemisphere with the other, largest bundle is the corpus callosum Association fibers - connectareas of the cortex within the same hemisphere. Arcuate (bowed) fibers: short association fibers Projection fibers - Connect the cerebrum to the other parts of the brain and spinal cord. Forms the internal capsule.

The cerebral cortex is composed of:

Composed of neuron cell bodies, dendrites, glial cells, and blood vessels, but no axons

Commissural fibers function

Connect corresponding gray areas of the two hemispheres, enabling them to function as a coordinated whole (includes the corpus callosum)

Association fibers function

Connect different parts of the same hemisphere

viseral sensory area function

Conscious perception of visceral sensations, such as upset stomach or full bladder

neural tube

an embryonic structure that gives rise to the central nervous system

Describe the roles of the major brain structures believed to be involved in declarative and procedural memories.

Declarative memory is the ability to learn and consciously remember information. Procedural memory id the learning of motor skills, which are then performed without conscious thought. Declarative memory appears to involve the medial temporal lobe (hippocampus and surrounding temporal cortical areas), thalamus, basal forebrain, and prefrontal cortex. Procedural memory ( a type of non-declarative memory) relies on the basal nuclei. The nature of memory formation at the molecular level is not fully known, but NMDA receptors (essentially calcium channels), activated by depolarization and glutamate binding, play a major role in long-term potentiation (LTP). The calcium influx that follows NMDA receptor activation mobilizes enzymes that mediate events necessary for memory formation.

Fissures

Deep grooves

Parkinson's disease

Degeneration of dopamine-producing cells in the basal nuclei

When would you see delta waves in an EEG?

Delta waves are typically seen in deep sleep in normal adults.

List and explain several techniques used to diagnose brain disorders.

Diagnostic procedures used to assess neurological condition and function range from routine reflex testing to sophisticated techniques such as cerebral angiography, CT scans, MRI scans, and PET scans.

Which two states of consciousness are between alertness and coma?

Drowsiness (or lethargy) and stupor are stages of consciousness between alertness and coma.

Define EEG and distinguish among alpha, beta, theta and delta brain waves.

EEG - electoencelphalogram, measures brain activity Alpha Waves - Awake, but relaxed Beta Waves - Awake, alert or focused Theta Waves - common in children Delta Waves - Deep Sleep

Projection fibers function

Enter the cerebral hemispheres from lower brain or cord centers; those that leave the cortex to travel to lower areas

Anencephaly is a result of incomplete formation of the vertebral arches, and can be caused by inadequate folic acid in the maternal diet. a. True b. False

False

Lateralization usually causes the left cerebral hemisphere to be dominant in most people, as it is mainly involved with visual-spatial skills. a. True b. False

False

REM sleep declines from infancy until death. a. True b. False

False

Regulation of temperature is a function of the thalamus. a. True b. False

False

The "heart" of the limbic system is the medulla oblongata. a. True b. False

False

The adult rhinencephalon is involved only in the processing of olfactory information. a. True b. False

False

The dura mater is the innermost layer of the meninges. a. True b. False

False

There are no significant gender differences in brain development. a. True b. False

False

Example of premotor cortex

Feeling for light in the dark

List the major lobes, fissures and functional areas of the cerebral cortex.

Gyri (Gyrus) - Ridges or folds in the brain Sluci (sulcus) - grooves in the brain Longitudinal Fissure - Midline that separates the cerebral hemispheres Transverse cerebral fissure - Separates the cerebellum with the cerebral hemispheres Central Sulcus - extends across the lateral surface of the cerebrum from superior to inferior (about midway along the length of the brain) Precentral gyrus - Primary motor cortex, anterior of the central sulcus Postcentral gyrus - Primary somatosensory cortex Frontal Lobe - Voluntary motor function, concentration verbal communication, decision making, motivation, aggression, sense of smell, planning, personality and mood Parietal Lobe - Major center for receiving and evaluating most sensory information (except olfaction, hearing and vision) Occipital lobe - receiving and integrating visual input and storing visual memories Temporal lobe - Receives and evaluates input for smell and hearing. Abstract thought and judgement Insula - Social emotions (lust, disgust, pride, humiliation, guilt & atonement) Lights up when people crave drugs, feel pain and processes taste (gustatory)

Explain what head trauma is.

Head trauma may cause brain injuries called concussions or, in severe cases, contusions (bruising). When the brain stem is affected, unconsciousness (temporary or permanent) occurs. Trauma-induced brain injuries may be aggravated by intracranial hemorrhage or cerebral edema, both of which compress brain tissue.

premotor cortex

Help plan movements Controls learned, repetitive or patterned sensory feedback; voluntary actions that downed on sensory feedback Coordinates simultaneous or sequential actions Acts as staging areas for skilled motor activities- building movements to lead to complete task:

Ventricle

Hollow space filled with fluid inside the CNS tissue

Name the major regions of the adult brain.

In a widely used system, the adult brain is divided into the cerebral hemispheres, diencephelon, brain stem, and cerebellum. The cerebral hemispheres and cerebellum have gray matter nuclei surrounded by white matter and an outer cortex of gray matter. The diencephalon and brain stem lack a cortex.

Gustatory cortex location

In insula just deep to temporal lobe

Explain language function in the brain.

In most people, the left hemisphere controls language. The language implementation system, which include Broca's and Wernicke's areas and basal nuclei, analyzes incoming and produces outgoing language. The opposite hemisphere deals with the emotional content of language.

Where are the cell bodies of the first-, second-, and third-order sensory neurons in the spinothalamic pathway located?

In the spinothalamic pathway, the cell bodies of the first-order sensory neurons are outside the spinal cord in a ganglion, cell bodies of the second-order sensory neurons are in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord, and cell bodies of third-order sensory neurons are in the thalamus.

A leading hypothesis for the cause of psychosomatic illness is which of the following options?

Increased activity in the hypothalamus from stress may increase the activity of the hypothalamus in governing other functions like blood pressure.

Distinguish between flaccid and spastic paralysis, and between paralysis and paresthesia.

Injury to the ventral horn neurons or the ventral roots result in flaccid paralysis. (Injury to the upper motor neurons in the brain result in spastic paralysis.) If the dorsal roots or sensory tracts are damaged, paresthesia occurs. Poliomyelitis results from inflammation and destruction of the ventral horn neurons by the Polio virus. Paralysis and muscle atrophy ensue. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) results from the destruction of ventral horn neurons and the pyramidal tracts. The victim eventually loses the ability to swallow, speak, and bathe. Death generally occurs within five years.

primary auditory cortex function

Interprets information from inner ear as pitch, loudness, and location

Lateral ventricles are connected to the third ventricle via ______.

Interventricular Foramen

Which of the following is true of the multimodal association cortex? a. It allows us to tie information that we receive to previous experience and knowledge, and then helps us decide what action to take. b. It regulates our heart and other involuntary muscles in response to environmental stimuli. c. It permits the perception of sound stimuli and stores them for future reference. d. It integrates sensory input to produce understanding of an object being felt.

It allows us to tie information that we receive to previous experience and knowledge, and then helps us decide what action to take.

Which of the following statements concerning epilepsy is INCORRECT? a. It can have a genetic factor. b. It involves abnormal discharges from a group of brain neurons. c. Most cases are caused by brain injuries, such as blows to the head, stroke, or infections. d. It is associated with intellectual impairment. e. It affects < 5% of the population.

It is associated with intellectual impairment.

Which of the following is not a feature of the cerebral cortex?

It is composed of white matter.

prefrontal cortex (anterior association area) function

It is involved with intellect, complex learning abilities (called cognition), recall, and personality. It contains working memory, which is necessary for abstract ideas, judgment, reasoning, persistence, and planning. These abilities develop slowly in children, which implies that the prefrontal cortex matures slowly and depends heavily on feedback from our social environment.

visual association area function

It uses past visual experiences to interpret visual stimuli enabling us to recognize a flower or a person's face. Individuals with a damaged visual association area can see, but they do not comprehend what they are looking at.

Blockages of the interventricular foramen might lead to increased cerebrospinal fluid in which ventricle(s)?

Lateral ventricles

__________ is a division of labor in which each cerebral hemisphere has unique abilities not shared by its partner

Lateralization

__________ is a division of labor in which each cerebral hemisphere has unique abilities not shared by its partner.

Lateralization

Explain the phenomenon of cerebral lateralization and ID the functions of the left and right hemispheres in most individuals.

Lets the brain specialize for less redundancies and higher brain function Left- Math and reasoning Right- Shapes and art

fourth ventricle

Lies in the hindbrain and communicates with the third ventricle via the cerebral aqueduct.

When Taylor begins to feel drowsy while driving, she opens her window, turns up the volume of the car stereo, and sips ice-cold water. How do these actions keep her awake?

Taylor is increasing the amount of sensory stimuli she receives, which will relay to the reticular activating system, which, in turn, will increase activation in the cerebral cortex.

Compare and contrast the structure and locations of three meninges and list the spaces found between the meninges.

Meninges - three connective tissue membranes that cover and protect the CNS Dura Mater - Tough mother, outermost covering, Dense Irregular CT has two layers Periosteal Layer - Superficial layer forms the periosteum on internal surface of the cranial bones, may be separated from bone due to epidural space Meningeal Layer : immediately superficial to the arachnoid; fused to periosteal layer except in blood filled spaces called Dural venous sinuses Arachnoid Mater - web-like layer of collagen and elastic fibers Subdural space - potential space betwen the arachnoid and dura mater Subarachnoid space - immediately deep to the arachnoid, this space contains CSF, arteries and veins Pia Mater - innermost layer, areolar CT, cannot be removed without damaging the brain

things commonly associated with a coma?

Metabolic disturbances such as hypoglycemia Drug overdose Tumors of the brain stem Liver or kidney failure

Rhombencephalon (hindbrain)

Metencephalon (pons and cerebellum) and Myelencephalon (medulla oblongata)

ID the 3 major regions of the brain stem and note the functions of each area.

Midbrain (mesencephalon) - Cerebral Peduncles: motor tracts. Sustantia Nigra: produces dopamine, affects movement, emotion, pleasure & pain. Parkinson's is the result of degeneration of this area. RESTING TREMORS. Tegmentum: covering structure, houses the "Red Nuclei" and reticular formation. Integrates information from the cerebrum and cerebellum to issue voluntary motor commands. Tectum: roof. Corpora Quadrigemina. 2 Superior Colliculi: reflex of head, eyes and body toward visual, auditory or tactile stimuli. 2 Inferior Colliculi: Involved in hearing Pons - contains fiber tracts that complete conduction pathways between brain and spinal cord. Pontine sleep center: initiates REM. Pontine Respiratory center: controls breathing pattern. Medulla Oblongata - Pyramids: houses motor projections, which often cross to the opposite side (decussation). Cranial nerve nuclei. Part of reticular formation. Cardiac Center: regulates heart rate. Vasomotor center: regulates blood pressure. Medullary respiratory center : regulates respiratory rate. Nuclei involved with Coughing, sneezing, salivation, swallowing, gagging and vomiting.

Describe the molecular basis of memory and discuss long-term potentiation.

Molecular basis for memory - causes changes in neuronal, RNA, dendritic branching, deposition of unique proteins at LTM synapes

During which sleep stage are most skeletal muscles actively inhibited?

Most skeletal muscles are actively inhibited during REM sleep.

Precentral gyrus of the frontal lobe function

Motor functions

Mike, who is left-handed, decided to wear his favorite t-shirt to his anatomy class. On his t-shirt were the words "Only left-handed people are in their right minds." What does this statement mean?

Motor functions on the left side of the body are controlled by the right hemisphere of the brain because motor tracts from the right hemisphere cross over (in the medulla oblongata) to the left side of the spinal cord to go to the left side of the body.

Mrs. Lee, a neurology patient, seldom smiles, has a shuffling, stooped gait, and often spills her coffee. What degenerative brain disorder might she have?

Mrs. Lee might have Parkinson's disease.

White matter

Myelinated and nonmyelinated axons

Describe the two major types of sleep.

NREM - body relaxed, cerebral cortex minimum, BP, HR, repiration, and energy use go down 30% (4 different stages) REM - paradoxical sleep, change in BP and respiration rate, EEG resembles a wake state but you are even less receptive to stimuli. Strong inhibition to somatic motor neurons

Name some of the most common sleep disorders.

Narcolepsy is involuntary lapses into REM sleep that occur without warning during waking periods. Insomnia is a chronic inability to obtain the amount or quality of sleep needed to function adequately. A person with sleep apnea stops breathing temporarily during sleep, causing hypoxia.

corpus callosum

Nerves that enable communication between the right and left cerebral hemispheres.

Gray matter

Neuron cell bodies

primary somatosensory cortex function

Neurons in this gyrus receive information from the general (somatic) sensory receptors in the skin and from proprioceptors (position sense receptors) in skeletal muscles, joints, and tendons. The neurons then identify the body region being stimulated, an ability called spatial discrimination.

The insular lobe is buried under portions of ______, ____________, and _________ lobes.

Temporal, parietal, and frontal

Cerebral cortex function

The "executive suite" of the nervous system where our conscious mind is found

Because of the buoyancy provided by the ventricles and cerebrospinal fluid, a traumatic blow to one side of the head may cause the brain to "float" back and cause injury when the opposite side of the brain impacts the inside of the skull (a contrecoup injury). Thus, a blow to the frontal lobe may also cause damage to what other lobe?

Occipital lobe

Damage to the pyramidal tracts can cause________.

Paralysis, tremors, and muscle weakness

Deep brain stimulation via implanted electrodes has been used to treat some of the symptoms of _____. a. aphasia b. Alzheimer's disease c. anterograde amnesia d. Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease

Define EEG and distinguish between alpha, beta, theta, and delta brain waves.

Patterns of electrical activity of the brain are called brain waves; a record of this activity is and electroencephalogram (EEG). Brain wave patterns, identified by their frequencies, include alpha, beta, theta, and delta waves. Alpha waves (8 - 13 Hz) are relatively regular and rhythmic, low-amplitude, synchronous waves. In most cases, they indicate a brain that is "idling" -- a calm, relaxed state of wakefulness. Beta waves (14 - 30 Hz) are also rhythmic, but less regular than alpha waves and with a high frequency. Beta waves occur when we are mentally alert , as when concentrating on some problem or visual stimulus. Theta waves (4 - 7 Hz) are still more irregular. Though common in children, theta waves are uncommon in awake adults but may appear when concentrating. Delta waves (4 Hz or less) are high-amplitude waves seen during deep sleep and when the reticular activating system is damped, such as during anesthesia. In awake adults, they indicate brain damage. Epilepsy results from abnormal electrical activity of brain neurons. Involuntary muscle contractions and sensory auras are typical during some epileptic seizures.

Premature babies have problems controlling their body temperature. Why?

Premature babies have trouble regulating body temperature because the hypothalamus is immature.

Compare and contrast the actions of the main association areas.

Premotor Cortex - learned skilled motor activities Somatosensory Association Area - ID things based on texture, temperature, pressure and shape Visual association area - recognize by analyzing color, movement, and form Auditory Association Area - Interprets Charateristics

Broca's area

Present in one hemisphere (usually the left) Motor speech area that directs muscles of speech production Active in planning speech and voluntary motor activities

Locate and list the functions of the 3 main motor areas

Primary motor cortex (somatic motor area) - Precentral gyrus of frontal lobe. Skilled and precise voluntary movement. (project collaterally - to opposite side) Broca's (motor speech) area - regulation of breathing and controlling muscular movements necessary for vocalization. Aphasia - damage to language area of the broca area.

The limbic system functions as our emotional brain. a. True b. False

True

The relay stations for the olfactory pathways are located in the hypothalamus. a. True b. False

True

Compare and contrast the stages and categories of memory, and describe parts of the brain involved with each.

Sensory memory - when we form important associations based on sensory input from the environment, sights, sounds, smells. ONLY LASTS for SECONDS Short-Term Memory - "working memory" memorization of a few units of information for a short period of time (electrical activity) Long-Term Memory - allows for memorization of potentially limitless amounts of information for very long periods (structural changes) Declarative Memory - facts, learning information, numbers, names etc, related to ability to manipulate symbols Nondeclarative memory - Involves motor skills, often stored without details, reinforced via performance. Procedural memory - Skills, Prefrontal cortex Motor memory - Cerebellum Emotional Memory - Amygdala

Compare and contrast the events and importance of slow-wave and REM sleep, and indicate how their patterns change through life.

Sleep is a state of partial consciousness from which a person can be aroused by stimulation. The two major types of sleep are non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. During stages 1 - 4 of NREM sleep, brain wave frequency decreases and amplitude increases until delta wave sleep (stage 4) is achieved. REM sleep is indicated by a return to alpha waves on the EEG. During REM, they eye moves rapidly under the lids. NREM and REM sleep alternate throughout the night. Slow-wave sleep (stages 3 and 4 of NREM) appears to be restorative. REM sleep is important for emotional stability. REM occurs half of an infant's sleep time and then declines to about 25% of sleep time by age 10. Time spent in slow-wave sleep declines steadily throughout life.

What is the importance of sleep, why do we sleep?

Slow-wave and REM sleep seem to be important in different ways. Slow-wave sleep is presumed to be restorative, the time when most neural activity can wind down to basal levels. When deprived of sleep, we spend more time than usual in slow-wave sleep during the next sleep episode. People who are persistently deprived of REM sleep become moody and depressed, and exhibits various personality disorders. REM sleep may give the brain an opportunity to analyze the day's events and work through emotional problems in dream imagery. Another idea is that REM sleep is reverse learning. According to this hypothesis, accidental, repetitious, and meaningless communications continually occur. Dreaming eliminates them from our neural networks so the cortex remains a well-behaved and efficient thinking system. In other words, we dream to forget.

Thalamus

Sorts and "edits" information from sensory areas ascending to the cerebral cortex

Fourth ventricle is continuous with the central canal of ____________________.

Spinal cord

auditory association area function

Stores memories of sounds and permits perception of sound stimulus

In what ways are the cerebellum and the cerebrum similar? In what ways are they different??

Structurally, the cerebellum and cerebrum are similar in that they both have a thin outer cortex of gray matter, internal white matter, and deep gray matter nuclei. Also, both have body maps (homunculi) and large fiber tracts connecting them to the brain stem. Both receive sensory input and influence motor output. A major difference is that the cerebellum is almost entirely concerned with motor output, whereas the cerebrum has much broader responsibilities. Also, while a cerebral hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body, the cerebellar hemisphere controls the same side of the body.

Describe the structures and functions of the cerebellum

Structures of Cerebellum - Folia: leaf/folds of cerebellar cortex. Cerebellar Hemispheres. Vermis: worm/band of cortex between the hemispheres, torso position and balance. Arbor Vitae: tree of life/white matter distribution. Cerebellar peduncles: nerve tracts that link cerebellum with brain stem for "fine-tuned" movements. Functions of Cerebellum - Fine tuned movements, "comparator" which means it makes sure the planned movements and the executed movements are the same and corrects them otherwise. Muscle memory. Equilibrium. Proprioceptive Cerebellar disease - Intentional tremors, cannot stop and start skeletal actions quickly

3 openings (mark the walls of the fourth ventricles lateral apertures and median aperture) connect fourth ventricle to the _____________.

Subarachnoid space

Describe the general function of the basal (cerebral) nuclei.

Substantia Nigra - part of basal nuclei and midbrain. Produces dopamine: control movement, pleasure and pain. Degeneration causes Parkinson's (Resting Tremors) Major function - regulate initiation and termination of movements. regulates muscle tone required for specific body movements as well as subconscious contractions (arm swinging while walking). Also inhibits unwanted movements.

Describe how space constraints affect brain development.

The brain provides for voluntary movements, interpretation and integration of sensation, consciousness, and cognitive function. Early brain development yields the primary brain vesicles: the prosencephalon (cerebral hemispheres and diencephalon), mesencephalon (midbrain), and rhombencephelon (pons, medulla oblongata, and cerebellum). As a result of cephalization, the diencephelon and superior brain stem are developed by the cerebral hemispheres. Because the brain grows more rapidly than the membranous skull that contains it, it folds up to occupy the available space.

Identify the three major regions of the brain stem, and not the functions of each area.

The brain stem includes the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata. The midbrain contains the corpora quadrigemina (visual and auditory reflex centers), the red nucleus (subcortical motor centers), and the substantia nigra. The periaqueductal gray matter is involved in pain suppression and contains the motor nuclei of cranial nerves III and IV. The cerebral peduncles on its ventral face house the pyramidal fiber tracts. The midbrain surrounds the cerebral aqueduct. The pons is mainly a conduction area. Its nuclei contribute to regulating respiration and cranial nerves V - VII. The pyramids (descending corticospinal tracts) form the ventral face of the medulla oblongata. These fibers cross over (decussation of the pyramids) before entering the spinal cord. Important nuclei in the medulla regulate respiratory rhythm, heart rate, and blood pressure and serve cranial nerves VIII - XII. The olivary nuclei and cough, sneezing, swallowing, and vomiting centers are also in the medulla.

Name the components of the basal nuclei.

The caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus together form the basal neclei.

What anatomical landmark of the cerebral cortex separates primary motor areas from somatosensory areas?

The central sulcus separates primary motor areas from somatosensory areas.

Describe the structure and function of the cerebellum.

The cerebellum consists of two hemispheres, marked by convolutions and separated by the vermis. It is connected to the brain stem by superior, middle, and inferior peduncles. The cerebellum processes and interprets impulses from the motor cortex and sensory pathways and coordinates motor activity so that smooth, well-timed movements occur. It also plays a poorly understood role in cognition.

Which two areas of the adult brain have an outside layer of gray matter in addition to central gray matter and surrounding white matter?

The cerebral hemispheres and the cerebellum have an outside layer of gray matter in addition to central gray matter and its surrounding white matter.

Explain lateralization of hemisphere function.

The cerebral hemispheres show lateralization of cortical function. In most people, the left hemisphere is dominant (i.e., specialized language and mathematical skills); the right hemisphere is is more concerned with visual-spatial skills and creative endeavors.

Which region of the brain stem is associated with the cerebral peduncles and the superior and inferior colliculi?

The cerebral peduncles and the colliculi are associated with the midbrain.

__________ is responsible for communication between cerebral areas and between the cerebral cortex and lower CNS centers

The cerebral white matter

__________ is responsible for communication between cerebral areas and between the cerebral cortex and lower CNS centers.

The cerebral white matter

Describe how meninges, cerebrospinal fluid, and the blood brain barrier protect the CNS.

The delicate brain is protected by bone, meninges, cerebrospinal fluid, and the blood brain barrier. The meninges from superficial to deep are the dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater. They enclose the brain and spinal cord and their blood vessels. Inward folds of the inner layer of the dura mater secure the brain to the skull. The cerebrospinal fluid supports and cushions the brain and cord and helps to nourish them. The blood brain barrier reflects the relative impermeability of the epithelium of capillaries of the brain. It allows watery, respiratory gasses, essential nutrients, and fat-soluble molecules to enter the neural tissue, but blocks other, water-soluble, potentially harmful substances.

Describe the location of the diencephalon, and name its subdivisions and functions.

The diencephelon includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus ans encloses the third ventricle. The thalamus is the major relay station for (1) sensory impulses ascending to the sensory cortex, (2) inputs from subcortical motor nuclei and the cerebellum traveling to the cerebral motor cortex, and (3) impulses traveling to association cortices from lower centers. The hypothalamus is an important control center of the autonomic nervous system and a pivotal part of the limbic system. It maintains water balance and regulates thirst, eating behavior, gastrointestinal activity, body temperature, and the activity of the anterior pituitary gland. The epithalamus includes the pineal gland, which secretes the hormone melatonin.

The limbic system is sometimes called the emotional-visceral brain. Which part of the limbic system is responsible for the visceral connection?

The hypothalamus is part of the limbic system and also an autonomic (visceral) control center.

The hypothalamus oversees a branch of the peripheral nervous system. Which branch?

The hypothalamus oversees the autonomic nervous system.

Locate the limbic system and the reticular formation, and explain the role of each functional system.

The limbic system consists of numerous structures that encircle the brain stem. It is the "emotional-visceral brain." It also plays a role in memory. The reticular formation is a diffuse network of neurons and nuclei spanning the length of the brain stem. It maintains the alert state of the cerebral cortex (RAS), and its motor nuclei serve both somatic and visceral motor activities.

frontal lobe

The lobe at the front of the brain associated with movement, speech, and impulsive behavior.

Which landmark separates the cerebral hemispheres?

The longitudinal fissure

somatosensory association cortex function

The major function of this area is to integrate sensory inputs (temperature, pressure, and so forth) relayed to it via the primary somatosensory cortex to produce an understanding of an object being felt: its size, texture, and the relationship of its parts. For example, when you reach into your pocket, your somatosensory association cortex draws upon stored memories of past sensory experiences to perceive the objects you feel as coins or keys. Someone with damage to this area could not recognize these objects without looking at them.

What is the explanation for the cervical and lumbar enlargements of the spinal cord?

The nerves serving the limbs arise in the cervical and lumbar enlargements of the spinal cord.

Describe the general function of the basal nuclei (basal ganglia).

The paired basal nuclei (also called basal ganglia) include the globus pallidus, putamen, and caudate nucleus. Functionally, they are closely associated with the substantia nigra of the midbrain. The basal nuclei recieve input from the entire cerebral cortex as well as other subcortical nuclei and each other. The basal neclei are subcortical nuclei that help control movements.

primary auditory cortex location

The primary auditory cortex is located in the superior margin of temporal lobes.

primary somatosensory cortex structure

The primary somatosensory cortex resides in the postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe, just posterior to the primary motor cortex.

What are the pyramids of the medulla? What is the result of decussation of the pyramids??

The pyramids of the medulla are the corticospinal (pyramidal) tracts, the large voluntary motor tracts descending from the motor cortex. The result of decussation (crossing over) is that each side of the motor cortex controls the opposite side of the body.

The somatosensory and visual primary sensory areas in the brain have association areas where integration takes place. a. True b. False

True

Describe the gross and microscopic structure of the spinal cord.

The spinal cord, a two-way impulse conduction pathway and a reflex center, resides within the vertebral column and is protected by meninges and cerebrospinal fluid. It extends from the foramen magnum to the end of the first lumbar vertebra. Thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves issue from the cord. The cord is enlarged in the cervical and lumbar regions, where spinal nerves serving the limbs arise. The central gray matter of the cord is H-shaped. Ventral horns mainly contain somatic motor neurons. Lateral horns contain visceral (autonomic) motor neurons. Dorsal horns contain internuerons. Axons of neurons of the lateral and ventral horns emerge in common from the cord via the ventral roots. Axons of sensory neurons (with cell bodies located in the dorsal root ganglion) from the dorsal roots and enter the dorsal aspect of the cord. The ventral and dorsal roots combine to form the spinal nerves. Each side of the white matter of the cord has dorsal, lateral, and ventral columns (funiculi), and each funiculus contains a number of ascending and descending tracts. All tracts are paired and most decussate.

Which ventricle is surrounded by the diencephalon?

The third ventricle is surrounded by the diencephalon.

List the major lobes, fissures, and functional areas of the cerebral cortex.

The two cerebral hemispheres exhibit gyri, sulci, and fissures. The longitudinal fissure partially separates the hemispheres; other fissures or sulci subdivide each hemisphere into lobes. Each cerebral hemisphere consists of the cerebral cortex, the cerebral white matter, and basal nuclei (ganglia). Each cerebral hemisphere receives sensory impulses from, and dispatches motor impulses to, the opposite side of the body. The body is represented in an upside-down fashion in the sensory and motor cortices. Functional areas of the cerebral cortex include: (1) motor areas: primary motor and premotor cortices of the frontal lobe, the frontal eye field, and Broca's area in the frontal lobe of one hemisphere (usually the left); (2) sensory areas: primary somatosensory cortex and somatosensory association cortex in the parietal lobe; visual areas of the occipital lobe; olfactory and auditory areas in the temporal lobe; gustatory, visceral, and vestibular areas in the insula; and (3) association areas: anterior association area in the frontal lobe, and posterior and limbic association areas spanning several lobes.

Vestibular cortex location

The vestibular cortex is located in the posterior part of insula and adjacent parietal cortex

Choose the true statement regarding pyramidal cells. a. They integrate sensory input to produce an understanding of an object being felt. b. They provide for control of our involuntary muscles. c. They are found within the cerebral sulci. d. They allow us to control our skeletal muscles.

They allow us to control our skeletal muscles.

pyramidal cells.

They allow us to control our skeletal muscles.

Name the three factors that can enhance transfer of information from STM to LTM.

Transfer of memory from STM to LTM is enhanced by (1) rehearsal, (2) association (trying "new" information to "old" information), and (3) a heightened emotional state (for example, alert, motivated, surprised, or aroused).

Cerebral palsy may be caused by a temporary lack of oxygen during birth. a. True b. False

True

Non-rapid eye movement (NREM) and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep alternate through most of the sleep cycle. During REM, most of the body's skeletal muscles are inactive. a. True b. False

True

Regulation of food intake is a function of the hypothalamus. a. True b. False

True

Spatial discrimination is the ability to identify the specific region of the body being stimulated. a. True b. False

True

The CSF is produced in the choroid plexus. a. True b. False

True

The amygdaloid body is functionally part of the limbic system. a. True b. False

True

The basic pattern of the CNS in the spinal cord is a central cavity surrounded by a gray matter core and a white matter layer lying outside of that. a. True b. False

True

The creases and folds on the surface of the cerebral hemispheres allow more neurons to occupy a limited amount of space. a. True b. False

True

The entire body is represented by somatotopy in the primary motor cortex of each hemisphere. a. True b. False

True

The growth and shape of the brain is influenced by the limited space and slower growth of the membranous skull that contains it. a. True b. False

True

Can other promotor neurons be reprogrammed to take over skill of damaged neurons?

Yes, it would require practice though, like the initial learning process

corpus callosum

a broad band of nerve fibers joining the two hemispheres of the brain.

posterior association area structure

a large region encompassing parts of the temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes.

ventral horn

a longitudinal subdivision of gray matter in the anterior part of each lateral half of the spinal cord that contains neurons giving rise to motor fibers of the ventral roots of the spinal nerves

Which of the following neurotransmitters is thought to prime the prefrontal cortex and the medial temporal lobes to form memories? a. serotonin b. norepinephrine c. acetylcholine d. dopamine

acetylcholine

somatotopy

all muscles of body can be mapped to area on primary motor cortex