Chapter 19: Cancer Medicine (Oncology)

Benign tumors of connective tissue origin are named by adding the suffix ___ to the type of tissue in which the tumor occurred

-oma

5-FU

5-fluorouracil

Approximately ___ of all malignancies are carcinomas

90%

Gene for polyposis coli syndrome

APC

Oncogene associated with chronic myeloid leukemia, or CML

Abl

Cancer cells produce almost continuously, and ___ proteins are made

Abnormal

Pertaining to a small sac

Alveolar

Tumor cells form patterns resembling small sacs

Alveolar

___ is a microscopic description commonly found in tumors of muscle, bone, fat, and cartilage

Alveolar

Lack of differentiation

Anaplasia

Loss of differentiation of cells; reversion to a more primitive cell type

Anaplasia

Malignant tumors are composed of cancerous cells that resemble primitive cells and lack the capacity to perform mature cell functions. This characteristic of malignant tumors is called ___

Anaplasia

___ indicates that the cancerous cells are dedifferentiated or undifferentiated (reverting to a less specialized state), in contrast with the normal, differentiated tissue of their origin

Anaplasia

Programmed cell death

Apoptosis

Tumor cells with damaged DNA undergo ___. This. means they have less capacity to repair their DNA, and in general, are less able to survive DNA damage caused by drugs and radiation

Apoptosis

Adjuvant

Assist

In ___ ___ ___, marrow previously obtained from the patient and stored, reinfused when needed

Autologous marrow transplantation

A neuroblastoma arises from immature tissues of the ___ ___ ___ or adrenal medulla

Autonomic nervous system

The CAR receptors are designed to bind to the CD19 protein found on the surface of all ___ ___ tumors

B cell

Gene(s) for breast and ovarian cancer

BRCA1 and BRCA2

Ana-

Backward

Chemotherapeutic agent: Antibiotics are produced by ___ or ___ and inhibit cell division by causing breaks in DNA strands

Bacteria, fungi

Cac/o

Bad

The middle, or mesodermal, layer of the embryo gives rise to the connective tissues of the body as well as to ___ and ___ ___

Blood and lymphatic vessels

In addition to the solid tumors of connective tissue origin, sarcomas include tumors arising from ___ ___ ___

Blood forming tissue

Any type of tumor can outgrow its ___ ___ with resulting cell death and necrosis of part or all of the tumor

Blood supply

Cels from malignant tumors can detach themselves from the primary tumor site, penetrate a ___ ___ or ___ ___, travel through the bloodstream or lymphatic system, and establish a new tumor site at a distant tissue, such as the lung, liver, or bone marrow

Blood vessel, lymphatic vessel

In addition to their local growth, cancerous cells spread throughout the body by way of the ___ or ___ ___

Bloodstream, lymphatic vessels

A condition of physical wasting away due to the loss of weight and muscle mass that occurs in patients with diseases such as advanced cancer or AIDS

Cachexia

General ill health and malnutrition (wasting muscle and emaciation) associated with chronic, severe disease

Cachexia

Agents from the environment, such as chemicals, drugs, tobacco smoke, radiation, and viruses, can cause damage to DNA and produce ___

Cancer

CA

Cancer

Protein marker tests diagnose ___ or detect its recurrence after treatment

Cancer

___ is a disease caused by abnormal and excessive growth of cells in the body

Cancer

Some ___ ___ have lost elements of apoptosis and can live indefinitely

Cancer cells

___ ___ is the treatment of cancer using chemicals

Cancer chemotherapy

Cancer may also be caused by transmission of DNA mutations that are associated with ___ ___

Cancer susceptibility

Carcin/o

Cancer, cancerous

Malignant tumors are composed of ___ ___ that resemble primitive cells and lack the capacity to perform mature cell functions. This characteristic of malignant tumors is called anaplasia

Cancerous cells

CEA

Carcinoembryonic antigen

Formation of cancer

Carcinogenesis

The causes of transformation from a normal cell to a cancerous cell (___) are only partly understood

Carcinogenesis

Agents from the environment, such as chemicals, drugs, tobacco smoke, radiation, and viruses, can cause damage to DNA and produce cancer. These environmental agents are called ___

Carcinogens

Agents that cause cancer; chemicals and drugs, radiation, and viruses

Carcinogens

Cancerous tumor made up of cells of epithelial origin

Carcinoma

Malignant tumors of epithelial origin are named by using the term ___ and adding the type of tissue in which the tumor occurs

Carcinoma

Localized cancer; confined to the site of origin

Carcinoma in situ

Referring to localized tumor cells that have not invaded adjacent structures

Carcinoma in situ

cGy

Centigray (one hundredth of a gray or rad)

Cancer of the ___ may begin as carcinoma in situ

Cervix

Abl is an oncogene associated with ___ ___ ___, or CML

Chronic myeloid leukemia

What are two examples of alkylating agents?

Cisplatin and cyclophosphamide

Research physicians measure drug levels and disappearance from the bloodstream and tissues. They use information from animal experiments and ___ ___ to design better routes and schedules of administration to achieve the greatest tumor kill with the least toxicity to normal cells

Clinical trials

Cry/o

Cold

Use of cold temperatures to destroy tissue

Cryosurgery

Use of subfreezing temperature to destroy tissue

Cryosurgery

Proton therapy is when small subatomic positively charged particles produced by a ___ deposit all the energy at a focused finite point

Cyclotron

Forming large open spaces filled with fluid

Cystic

Tumor sac of fluid

Cystic tumor

Subacute radiotherapy side effect: Inflammation of the urinary bladder

Cystitis

Chromosomes of normal or tumor cells are examined for breaks, translocations, or deletions of DNA

Cytogenetic analysis

RNA travels from the nucleus to the ___ of the cell, carrying the coded message that directs the formation of specific proteins

Cytoplasm

Excisional biopsy provides a specimen for ___ and may be curative for small noninvasive tumors

Diagnosis

Benign tumors are composed of organized and specialized (___) cells that closely resemble the normal, mature tissue from which they are derived

Differentiated

Grade I tumors are very well ___, so that they are closely resemble normal cells

Differentiated

In normal persons, these suppressor genes regulate growth, promote ___, and suppress oncogenes from causing cancer

Differentiation

Specialization of cells

Differentiation

Spreading evenly throughout the affected tissue

Diffuse

A CR is a ___ of all tumor

Disappearance

The M in TNM stands for metastasis, which is the spread of tumor cells to ___ ___

Distant sites

What is an example of a antibiotic?

Doxorubicin

Cancer may also be caused by transmission of DNA mutations that are associated with cancer susceptibility. These mutations are found in the DNA of the parents ___ or ___ cells and are passed from generation to generation

Egg, sperm

Using electricity to destroy tissue by burning it

Electrocauterization

-plasm

Formation, growth

A method of dividing radiation into small, repeated doses rather than fewer large doses

Fractionation

Giving radiation in small, repeated doses

Fractionation

Visual appearance of tumors to the naked eye: cystic, fungating, inflammatory, medullary, necrotic, polypoid, ulcerating, or verrucous

Gross description of tumors

-plasia

Growth

HER2

Growth factor gene

Monoclonal antibodies can kill tumors by blocking ___ ___ on their cell surface

Growth receptor

What is the abbreviation for gray?

Gy

Herceptin blocks ___ growth receptors on breast cancer cells. Thus, if a patient presents with a ___ breast cancer, the patient's tumor will respond to treatment with Herceptin

HER2

What is the abbreviation for human T cell leukemia virus?

HTLV1

Scirrh/o

Hard

Scirrhous

Hard

Tumors of ___ and ___ origins are radiosensitive

Hematopoietic and lymphatic

H&E

Hematoxylin and eosin

What is the abbreviation for intraoperative radiation therapy?

IRT

-blastoma

Immature tumor

Lymphomas, such as Hodgkin, Burkitt, and follicular types, are derived from ___ ___ of the lymphatic system

Immune cells

IO

Immuno-oncology

IORT

Intraoperative radiation therapy

___ ___ ___ is direct application of radiation during surgery using a linear accelerator in the operating room

Intraoperative radiation therapy

Chemotherapeutic drugs normally are delivered by ___ ___

Intravenous infusion

Having the ability to enter and destroy surrounding tissue

Invasive

Malignant tumors characteristically are ___ and ___, extending into neighboring normal tissue

Invasive and infiltrative

A radiocurable tumor is usually a ___ tumor with no evidence of metastasis

Localized

A PET-CT scan combination provides a more complete picture of a tumor's ___ and ___ or spread than either done independently

Location and growth

Almost one half of all cancer deaths are caused by malignancies that originate in ___, ___, or ___; however, in all there are more than 1000 distinct types of cancer, each having a unique set of symptoms and requiring a specific type of therapy

Lung, breast, colon

In an en bloc resection, the tumor is removed along with a large area of surrounding tissue containing ___ ___

Lymph nodes

Malignant lymphomas may display diffuse involvement of ___ ___

Lymph nodes

N in TNM stands for nodes and the number of regional ___ ___ invaded by tumor cells

Lymph nodes

Inflammatory changes result from tumor blockage of the ___ ___ of the skin, as in breast cancer

Lymphatic drainage

Myc is an oncogene associated with ___

Lymphoma

The goal of radiation therapy is to deliver a ___ dose of ionizing radiation to the tumor tissue and a minimal dose to the surrounding normal tissue

Maximal

Large, soft, fleshy tumors

Medullary

Large, soft, fleshy tumor

Medullary tumor

___ and ___ ___ are among the most radioresistant tumors

Melanoma and renal carcinoma

Embryonic connective tissue. This is the tissue from which connective tissue arise

Mesenchymal

When a cell becomes malignant, the processes of ___ and ___ ___ are disturbed

Mitosis and protein synthesis

___ ___ ___ are examples of pleomorphic cells

Mixed cell tumors

Tumors composed of different types of tissue (epithelial as well as connective tissue)

Mixed tissue tumors

___ ___ ___ are derived from tissue that is capable of differentiating into both epithelial and connective tissue

Mixed tissue tumors

Method of treatment, such as surgery, chemotherapy, or irradiation

Modality

___ targeted cancer therapy uses drugs to attack specific oncogenic mutations that drive cancer cell growth

Molecularly

Use of drugs to attack specific targets that drive cancer cell growth

Molecularly targeted therapy

Other immunotherapies depend on laboratory engineered antibodies called ___ ___

Monoclonal antibodies

mAb

Monoclonal antibody

Containing mucus

Mucinous

Tumor containing dead tissue

Necrotic tumor

New growth

Neoplasm

Unit of DNA composed of a sugar, phosphate, and a base. The sequence or arrangement on a gene is the genetic code

Nucleotide

Chemotherapeutic agent: Antimetabolites block synthesis of DNA components (___) and prevent cells from dividing

Nucleotides

DNA (as a string of coded ___) sends a molecular message outside the nucleus to the cytoplasm of the cell, directing the synthesis of specific protein (such as hormones and enzymes) essential for normal cell function and growth

Nucleotides

Genes are composed of an arrangement of units called ___ (containing a sugar, phosphate, and a base, such as adenine, guanine, thymine, or cytosine)

Nucleotides

Fleshy, malignant tumor of the bone

Osteosarcoma

All/o

Other

The most common site of cystic tumors is in ___

Ovaries

PET-CT uses a combination of two machines: one to examine chemical reactions (___ scan) and the other to examine physical structures (CT scan)

PET

Diagnostic procedure combining CT and PET

PET-CT scan

A ___ ___ ___ incorporates magnetic resonance imaging (especially good for soft tissues) and positron emission tomography to reveal how an organ functions

PET-MRI scan

What is an example of an antimitotic?

Paclitaxel

Relieving but not curing symptoms

Palliative

Molecularly targeted drugs often are mostly given in ___ form

Pill

Composed of a variety of types of cells

Pleomorphic

Microscopic description of tumors that are composed of a variety of cells

Pleomorphic

Subacute radiotherapy side effect: Inflammation of the lungs

Pneumonitis

Polyp/o

Polyp

Growth that form projections extending outward from a base

Polypoid

Tumor resembling a polyp

Polypoid tumor

Both benign and malignant tumors of the colon may grow as ___

Polyps

A written plan detailing the procedures to be followed in research or treatment

Protocol

Detailed plan for treatment of an illness

Protocol

Drugs are given according to a written ___, or plan, that details the route, schedule, and frequency of doses

Protocol

Tumor that survives large doses of radiation

Radioresistant tumor

Tumor in which radiation can cause the death of cells without serious damage to surrounding tissue

Radiosensitive tumor

Tumors in which irradiation can cause the death of cells without serious damage to surrounding tissue

Radiosensitive tumor

Drugs that increase the sensitivity of tumors to x-rays

Radiosensitizers

Treatment of tumors using doses of radiation

Radiotherapy

Malignant tumor cells multiply ___

Rapidly

Oncogene associated with colon cancer

Ras

Raadi/o

Rays

Proton therapy ___ the dose affecting normal surrounding tissues by at least 50%

Reduces

Recurrence of tumor after treatment

Relapse

___ tumors are filled with a thin, watery fluid resembling serum

Serous

Having no stem; characteristic of some polypoid tumors

Sessile

___ polypoid tumors extend from a broad base

Sessile

Morph/o

Shape

Brachy-

Short

SD

Stable disease

In grading and staging systems, doctors classify tumors on the basis of microscopic appearance (grade) and the extent of spread (___). These two properties influence the diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis for cancer patients

Stage

The ___ of cancerous tumors is based on the extent of spread of the tumor

Staging

System of evaluating the extent of spread of tumors

Staging of tumors

-hexia

State or condition

After undergoing chemotherapy, the patient gets a reinfusion of the ___ ___ to repopulate the bone marrow with blood cells

Stem cells

What is the abbreviation for tumor node metastasis international staging system?

TNM international staging system

Gene for Li-Fraumeni syndrome (multiple cancers)

TP53

Suppressor gene which leads to brain tumors or breast cancer

TP53 gene

An example of a hormonal agent is ___, which blocks an estrogen receptor on breast cancer cells

Tamoxifen

What is another name for external beam irradiation?

Teletherapy

___ and ___ tumors may be medullary

Thyroid and breast

___ gland cancer and ___ are examples of follicular microscopic cells

Thyroid, lymphomas

It is possible to divide types of cancer into three broad groups on the basis of histogenesis-that is, by identifying the particular type of ___ from which the tumor cells arise

Tissue

Malignant tumors of epithelial origin are named by using the term carcinoma and adding the type of ___ in which the tumor occurs

Tissue

-ptosis

To fall

Enchym/o

To pour

-suppression

To stop

An example of a staging system is the ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___. It has been applied to malignancies such as lung and breast cancer, as well as to many other tumors

Tumor node metastasis international staging system

TNM

Tumor-node-metastasis

___ are new growths that arise from normal tissue

Tumors

Characterized by an open, exposed surface resulting from the death of overlying tissue

Ulcerating

___ tumors are often found in the stomach, breast, colon, and skin

Ulcerating

___ ___ in sunlight can cause skin cancer, especially in persons with lightly pigmented, or fair skin

Ultraviolet radiation

Lacking any microscopic structures typical of normal mature cells

Undifferentiated

Epi-

Upon

Gene for renal cell carcinoma

VHL

VEGF

Vascular endothelial growth factor

Resembling a wart-like growth

Verrucous

Pieces of DNA from viruses that infect a normal cell and cause it to become malignant

Viral oncogenes

Infectious agents that reproduces by entering a host cell and using the host's genetic material to make copies of itself

Virus

Some ___ are carcinogenic. For example, the human T cell leukemia virus (HTLV1) causes a form of leukemia in adults

Viruses

Gene for Wilms tumor

WT1

In chronic myeloid leukemia, the gene abl is activated to become an oncogene when two different chromosomes switch locations. This mutation is called a translocation. What happens is that the gene abl on chromosome 9 moves to a new location next to a gene called ___ on chromosome 22

bcr

When ___ and ___ are near each other, they cause the production of an abnormal protein that makes the leukocyte divide and causes a malignancy

bcr and abl

Treatment using radiation

radiotherapy

Cancerous tissue of a gland

Adenocarcinoma

Benign tumors of epithelial origin are usually designated by the term ___, which indicates that the tumor is of epithelial or glandular origin

Adenoma

Although most cancers result from chance mutations in body cells during a person's lifetime, examples of known inherited cancers are retinoblastoma (tumor of the retina of the eye), ___ ___ ___ ___ (premalignant polyps that grow in the colon and rectum), and certain forms of colon, breast, and kidney cancer

Adenomatous polyposis coli syndrome

After removal of the primary tumor, the patient often receives ___ radiation therapy and/or chemotherapy to prevent recurrence at local and distant sites

Adjuvant

Drugs are given after primary therapy (surgery or radiation)

Adjuvant chemotherapy

___ ___ is the administration of drug treatment after surgery to kill any residual cancer cells

Adjuvant chemotherapy

A neuroblastoma arises from immature tissues of the autonomic nervous system or ___ ___

Adrenal medulla

Chemotherapeutic agent: These drugs cause crosslinks and breaks in DNA that interfere with cell division

Alkylating agents

Chemotherapeutic synthetic drugs that cause crosslinks and breaks in DNA to stop cells from dividing

Alkylating agents

In ___ ___ ___, marrow is obtained from a living donor other than the recipient

Allogenic marrow transplantation

Subacute radiotherapy side effect: Baldness (permanent or temporary)

Alopecia

AFP

Alpha fetoprotein

Grade IV tumors are so undifferentiated or ___ that even recognition of the tumor's tissue of origin may be difficult

Anaplastic

Malignant cells are ___; that is, their DNA stops making normal codes that allow the cells to carry on the function of differentiating mature cells. Instead, new signals lead to malignant growth and spread of tumor cells

Anaplastic

Chemotherapeutic agent: These drugs are produced by bacteria or fungi and inhibit cell division by causing breaks in DNA strands

Antibiotics

Chemotherapeutic drugs found in bacteria and fungi, which cause breaks in DNA strands to inhibit cell division

Antibiotics

Chemotherapeutic agent: These drugs block synthesis of DNA components (nucleotides) and prevent cells from dividing

Antimetabolites

Chemotherapeutic agents that block the synthesis of DNA components (nucleotides) and prevent cells from dividing

Antimetabolites

Chemotherapeutic agent: These chemicals block the function of a protein that is necessary for mitosis. They are derived from bacteria, fungi, or plants, or from small sea animals found on coral reefs

Antimitotics

Chemotherapeutic chemicals that block the function of a protein necessary for mitosis

Antimitotics

Normal cells undergo spontaneous disintegration by a process known as ___, or programmed cell death

Apoptosis

Neoadjuvant chemotherapy is administered ___ surgery to reduce the size of a tumor, such as breast or head and neck cancer

Before

___ tumors derived from epithelial cells that line the wall of the gastrointestinal tract look very much like their normal counterparts

Benign

___ tumors of epithelial origin are usually designated by the term adenoma, which indicates that the tumor is of epithelial or glandular origin

Benign

Noncancerous growth (neoplasm)

Benign tumor

Meta-

Beyond; change

bx

Biopsy

___ and ___ cancers are examples of papillary cells under a microscope

Bladder and thyroid

Research physicians measure drug levels and disappearance from the ___ and ___. They use information from animal experiments and clinical trials to design better routes and schedules of administration to achieve the greatest tumor kill with the least toxicity to normal cells

Bloodstream and tissues

Cels from malignant tumors can detach themselves from the primary tumor site, penetrate a blood vessel or lymphatic vessel, travel through the ___ or ___ ___, and establish a new tumor site at a distant tissue, such as the lung, liver, or bone marrow

Bloodstream, lymphatic system

Grading also is used in evaluating cells obtained from ___ ___ in preventative screening tests, such as Papanicolaou (Pap smears) of the uterine cervix

Bodily fluids

After undergoing chemotherapy, the patient gets a reinfusion of the stem cells to repopulate the ___ ___ with blood cells

Bone marrow

Rapidly dividing normal cells, such as in the ___ ___ and ___ ___ can suffer considerable damage from chemotherapeutic drugs

Bone marrow and GI lining

Aspiration of bone marrow tissue and examination under a microscope for evidence of malignant cells

Bone marrow biopsy

Bone marrow or stem cells are infused intravenously into a patient

Bone marrow or stem cell transplantation

BMT

Bone marrow transplantation

Implantation of small, sealed containers or seeds of radioactive material directly into the tumor (interstitial therapy); or in a cavity of the tumor (intracavitary therapy)

Brachytherapy

Radiation delivered to close range to tumor site

Brachytherapy

Radiotherapy that uses insertion of sealed containers into body cavities or radioactive seeds directly into the tumor

Brachytherapy

bcr

Breakpoint cluster region

An example of a hormonal agent is Tamoxifen, which blocks an estrogen receptor on ___ ___ cells

Breast cancer

Inflammatory changes result from tumor blockage of the lymphatic drainage of the skin, as in ___ ___

Breast cancer

One of the most effective monoclonal antibodies is Herceptin, which inhibits the growth of ___ ___ cells

Breast cancer

Scirrhous cells are often found in ___ or ___ cancers

Breast, stomach

Cauter/o

Burn, heat

The engineered ___ ___ ___ can be infused into the patient, where they attack and destroy the patient's B cell tumors. This therapy is effective against all B cell tumors, including acute lymphoid leukemia, chronic lymphoid leukemia, and lymphomas

CAR T cells

It is now possible to remove a patient's own T cell lymphocytes and in the lab, introduce new receptors, ___, on their cell surface

CARs

The CAR receptors are designed to bind to the ___ protein found on the surface of all B-cell tumors

CD19

PET-CT uses a combination of two machines: one to examine chemical reactions (PET scan) and the other to examine physical structures (___ scan)

CT

Approximately 90% of all malignancies are ___

Carcinomas

___, the largest group, are solid tumors that are derived from epithelial tissue that lines external and internal body surfaces, including skin, glands, and digestive, urinary, and reproductive organs

Carcinomas

It is possible to divide types of cancer into three broad groups on the basis of histogenesis-that is, by identifying the particular type of tissue from which the tumor cells arise. These major groups are ___, ___, and ___ ___ ___

Carcinomas, sarcomas, mixed tissue tumors

Mutagen/o

Causing genetic change

Destruction of tissue by burning

Cauterization

Brachytherapy is the implantation of small, sealed containers or seeds of radioactive material directly into the tumor (interstitial therapy); or in a ___ of the tumor (intracavitary therapy)

Cavity

Chemotherapeutic agent: Antibiotics are produced by bacteria or fungi and inhibit ___ ___ by causing breaks in DNA strands

Cell division

Chemotherapeutic agent: Alkylating agents are drugs that cause crosslinks and breaks in DNA that interfere with ___ ___

Cell division

DNA controls the production of new cells (___ ___)

Cell division

Loss of normal suppressor gene takes the brake off the process of ___ ___ and leads to cancer

Cell division

Mutations interfere with the accurate synthesis of new proteins and can be passed on to new cells during ___ ___

Cell division

Each chemotherapeutic agent works by disrupting ___ ___ so that cancer cells die

Cell function

Fine needle aspiration is placement of a very thin needle inside the tumor mass and extracting ___ for microscopic evaluation

Cells

Although most cancers result from ___ ___ in body cells during a person's lifetime, examples of known inherited cancers are retinoblastoma (tumor of the retina of the eye), adenomatous polyposis coli syndrome (premalignant polyps that grow in the colon and rectum), and certain forms of colon, breast, and kidney cancer

Chance mutations

Normal T cell lymphocytes are capable of recognizing and killing tumor cells, but in most cancer patients this response is ineffective due to a built-in brake called a ___ on the T cell surface

Checkpoint

Monoclonal antibodies can block this checkpoint brake and allow the normal T cell population to expand and destroy the tumor. These antibodies, called ___ ___, are used to treat melanoma, lymphoma, lung, kidney, bladder, and colon cancers

Checkpoint inhibitors

___ ___ are found in a variety of products and drugs, including hydrocarbons-in cigarette, cigar, and pipe smoke and automobile exhaust-insecticides, dyes, industrial chemicals, asbestos as in insulation, and hormones

Chemical carcinogens

PET-CT uses a combination of two machines: one to examine ___ ___ (PET scan) and the other to examine physical structures (CT scan)

Chemical reactions

Chem/o

Chemical, drug

After undergoing ___, the patient gets a reinfusion of the stem cells to repopulate the bone marrow with blood cells

Chemotherapy

Many cancer ___ drugs, especially 5-fluorouracil and cisplatin, sensitize tumors and normal tissue to radiation, thereby improving the outcome of treatment

Chemotherapy

The use of drugs to treat a disease

Chemotherapy

Treatment with drugs

Chemotherapy

___ is the standard treatment for many types of cancer, and is curative in a number of them, such as testicular cancer, acute lymphocytic leukemia (children), and Hodgkin lymphoma, and large cell lymphomas

Chemotherapy

chemo

Chemotherapy

After incisional biopsy, more extensive surgical procedures or other forms of treatment, such as ___ or ___, are then used to treat the bulk of the tumor

Chemotherapy, radiation

CAR T-cell

Chimeric antigen receptor T cell

CARs

Chimeric antigen receptors

In chronic myeloid leukemia, the gene abl is activated to become an oncogene when two different ___ switch locations. This mutation is called a translocation

Chromosomes

Strands of DNA in the cell nucleus form ___, which become readily visible under a microscope when a cell is preparing to divide into two cells

Chromosomes

___ ___ are research studies designed to find treatments that work better than the standard therapies for patients

Clinical trials

Tumors found in the ___ are often fungating

Colon

Although most cancers result from chance mutations in body cells during a person's lifetime, examples of known inherited cancers are retinoblastoma (tumor of the retina of the eye), adenomatous polyposis coli syndrome (premalignant polyps that grow in the ___ and ___), and certain forms of colon, breast, and kidney cancer

Colon and rectum

Ras is an oncogene associated with ___ ___

Colon cancer

CSF

Colony stimulating factor

Use of several chemotherapeutic agents together for the treatment of tumors

Combination chemotherapy

___ ___ is the use of two or more drugs together to kill tumors

Combination chemotherapy

CR

Complete response

Uses computer technology to create three-dimensional image of a tumor so that rotating beams can shape exactly to the contour of the tumor

Conformal radiation therapy

Sarcomas are also malignant tumors but are less common than carcinomas. They derive from ___ ___ in the body, such as bone, fat, muscle, cartilage, and bone marrow and from cells of the lymphatic system

Connective tissues

The middle, or mesodermal, layer of the embryo gives rise to the ___ ___ of the body as well as to blood and lymphatic vessels

Connective tissues

Insertion of a large-bore needle into tissue to remove a core of cells for microscopic examination

Core needle biopsy

Placement of a large-bore needle that extracts a core of tissue

Core needle biopsy

Chemotherapeutic agent: Alkylating agents are drugs that cause ___ and ___ in DNA that interfere with cell division

Crosslinks and breaks

DNA (as a string of coded nucleotides) sends a molecular message outside the nucleus to the ___ of the cell, directing the synthesis of specific protein (such as hormones and enzymes) essential for normal cell function and growth

Cytoplasm

Chemotherapeutic agent: Alkylating agents are drugs that cause crosslinks and breaks in ___ that interfere with cell division

DNA

Drugs cause tumor cells to die by damaging their ___

DNA

Genetic material within the nucleus of a cell; controls cell division and protein synthesis

DNA

Malignant cells are anaplastic; that is, their ___ stops making normal codes that allow the cells to carry on the function of differentiating mature cells. Instead, new signals lead to malignant growth and spread of tumor cells

DNA

Malignant transformation results from damage to the genetic material, or ___ of the cell

DNA

When a cell divides, the ___ material in each chromosomes copies itself so that exactly the same ___ is passed to the two new daughter cells that are formed

DNA

The specific DNA damage usually involves changes in the cell's ___ ___, creating abnormal genes with changes called mutations

DNA codes

Chemotherapeutic agent: Antibiotics are produced by bacteria or fungi and inhibit cell division by causing breaks in ___ ___

DNA strands

When a cell divides, the DNA material in each chromosomes copies itself so that exactly the same DNA is passed to the two new ___ ___ that are formed

Daughter cells

Necr/o

Death

A ___ ___ may be used to remove as much of the primary tumor mass as possible, even if the tumor is attached to a vital organ and cannot be completely removed

Debulking procedure

Anaplasia indicates that the cancerous cells are ___ or ___ (reverting to a less specialized state), in contrast with the normal, differentiated tissue of their origin

Dedifferentiated, undifferentiated

Loss of differentiation of cells; reversion to a more primitive cell type, embryonic cell type

Dedifferentiation

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid

Chemotherapeutic agent: Antimetabolites block synthesis of DNA components (nucleotides) and prevent cells from ___

Dividing

Tumor cells with damaged DNA undergo apoptosis. This. means they have less capacity to repair their DNA, and in general, are less able to survive DNA damage caused by ___ and ___

Drugs and radiation

Xer/o

Dry

Although most DNA changes, or mutations, lead to higher than normal rates of growth, some mutations found in cancer cells actually prevent the cells from ___

Dying

Containing abnormal-appearing cells that are not clearly cancerous

Dysplastic

Microscopic description of cells that are highly abnormal but not clearly cancerous

Dysplastic

___ ___ (moles on skin) are an example of dysplastic cells

Dysplastic nevi

A liquid biopsy may be used to detect cancer at an ___ stage or to find out how well treatment is working

Early

Low energy beams of radiation for treatment of skin or surface tumors

Electron beams

Low-energy beams for treatment of skin or surface tumors

Electron beams

The term mesenchymal tissue is used to describe ___ ___ ___ from which sarcomas are derived

Embryonic connective tissue

Tumor is removed along with a large area of surrounding tissue containing lymph nodes

En bloc resection

Benign tumors are often ___ (contained within a fibrous capsule or cover), so that the tumor cells do not invade the surrounding tissue

Encapsulated

Surrounded by a capsule

Encapsulated

EGFR

Epidermal growth factor receptor

Microscopic description of tumor cells that resemble epidermal tissue

Epidermoid

Resembling squamous epithelial cells (thin, plate-like)

Epidermoid

Benign tumors of ___ origin are usually designated by the term adenoma, which indicates that the tumor is of epithelial or glandular origin

Epithelial

Mixed tissue tumors are derived from tissue that is capable of differentiating into both ___ and ___ ___

Epithelial and connective tissue

Carcinomas, the largest group, are solid tumors that are derived from ___ ___ that lines external and internal body surfaces, including skin, glands, and digestive, urinary, and reproductive organs

Epithelial tissue

Benign tumors of epithelial origin are usually designated by the term adenoma, which indicates that the tumor is of ___ or ___ origin

Epithelial, glandular

EPO

Erythropoietin

Hormones such as ___ can cause cancer by stimulating growth of cells in the lining of the uterus or in milk glands of the breast

Estrogen

An example of a hormonal agent is Tamoxifen, which blocks an ___ ___ on breast cancer cells

Estrogen receptor

ER

Estrogen receptor

Removal of tumor and a margin of normal tissue

Excisional biopsy

Wide resection involving removal of the tumor, its organ of origin, and all surrounding tissue in the body space

Exenteration

Cells are scarped from the region of suspected disease and examined under a microscope

Exfoliative cytology

In grading and staging systems, doctors classify tumors on the basis of microscopic appearance (grade) and the ___ ___ ___ (stage). These two properties influence the diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis for cancer patients

Extent of spread

Carcinomas, the largest group, are solid tumors that are derived from epithelial tissue that lines ___ and ___ body surfaces, including skin, glands, and digestive, urinary, and reproductive organs

External and internal

Radiation therapy applied to a tumor from a distant source (linear accelerator)

External beam irradiation

Radiation is applied to a tumor from a source outside the body

External beam radiation

Tele-

Far

Visual examination of the colon using a fiberoptic instrument

Fiberoptic colonoscopy

Fibr/o

Fibers

___ are tumors of fibrous connective tissue

Fibromas

Malignant tumor composed of fiber

Fibrosarcoma

Late radiotherapy side effect: Increase of connective tissue (scarring of skin, lungs, kidneys)

Fibrosis

FNA

Fine needle aspiration

Placement of a very thin needle inside the tumor mass and extracting cells for microscopic evaluation

Fine needle aspiration

Prot/o

First

Sarc/o

Flesh

Sarc/o

Flesh, connective tissue

A microscopic description of cellular arrangement in glandular tissues

Follicular

Forming small glandular sacs

Follicular

-genesis

Formation

Plas/o

Formation

-plasia

Formation, growth

Destruction of tissue by electric sparks generated by a high-frequency current

Fulguration

Mushrooming pattern if growth in which tumor cells pile one on top of another and project from a tissue surface

Fungating

Fung/i

Fungus, mushroom

Ga

Gallium

A ___ ___ is a cancerous tumor arising from glandular cells lining the stomach

Gastric adenocarcinoma

A ___ ___ is a benign tumor of the glandular epithelial cells lining the stomach

Gastric adenoma

GIST

Gastrointestinal stromal tumor

Each DNA piece, or ___, contains the code for making a single protein

Gene

Mut/a

Genetic change

Because inherited changes can be detected by analyzing DNA in any tissue of the body, not simply cancerous cells, blood cells from a cancer patient or family members tested to determine whether a person has inherited the cancer-causing gene. This is known as ___ ___

Genetic screening

Patients and family members are tested to determine whether they have inherited a cancer causing gene

Genetic screening

Tumors of the ___ frequently are verrucous

Gingiva

Glial cells within the brain and other cells of the nervous system give rise to malignancies such as ___ and ___

Gliomas and neuroblastomas

-col

Glued page

In grading and staging systems, doctors classify tumors on the basis of microscopic appearance (___) and the extent of spread (stage). These two properties influence the diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis for cancer patients

Grade

___ ___ tumors are very well differentiated, so that they are closely resemble normal cells

Grade I

___ ___ tumors are so undifferentiated or anaplastic that even recognition of the tumor's tissue of origin may be difficult

Grade IV

___ ___ and ___ are intermediate in appearance, moderately or poorly differentiated, as opposed to well differentiated and undifferentiated

Grades II and III

Evaluating the degree of maturity of tumor cells or degree of differentiation

Grading

When ___ a tumor, the pathologist is concerned with the microscopic appearance of the tumor cells, specifically with their degree of maturity and differentiation

Grading

Gy

Gray

Unit of absorbed radiation dose

Gray

One of the most effective monoclonal antibodies is ___, which inhibits the growth of breast cancer cells

Herceptin

It is possible to divide types of cancer into three broad groups on the basis of ___-that is, by identifying the particular type of tissue from which the tumor cells arise

Histogenesis

Chemotherapeutic agents: These drugs block hormone receptors on cells so that growth is inhibited

Hormonal agents

Chemotherapeutic agents: Hormonal agents are drugs block ___ ___ on cells so that growth is inhibited

Hormone receptors

DNA (as a string of coded nucleotides) sends a molecular message outside the nucleus to the cytoplasm of the cell, directing the synthesis of specific protein (such as ___ and ___) essential for normal cell function and growth

Hormones and enzymes

Some viruses are carcinogenic. For example, the ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ (HTLV1) causes a form of leukemia in adults

Human T cell leukemia virus

Chemical carcinogens are found in a variety of products and drugs, including ___-in cigarette, cigar, and pipe smoke and automobile exhaust-insecticides, dyes, industrial chemicals, asbestos as in insulation, and hormones

Hydrocarbons

The nuclei in tumor cells are large and ___ (stain excessively with dyes that recognize genetic material, DNA)

Hyperchromatic

Excessive growth

Hyperplasia

What is the abbreviation for intensity modulated radiation therapy?

IMRT

IHC

Immunohistochemistry

Localization of antigens or proteins in tissues using labeled antibodies

Immunohistochemistry

Cancer treatment using immune cells and antibodies to kill tumor cells; CAR T-cell therapy and checkpoint inhibitors

Immunotherapy

___ is the use of immune cells or antibodies to kill tumors

Immunotherapy

Piece of tumor is removed for examination to establish a diagnosis

Incisional biopsy

Late radiotherapy side effect: Loss of reproductive function

Infertility

Extending beyond normal tissue boundaries into adjacent tissues

Infiltrative

Acute radiotherapy side effect: ___ and ___ of mucous membranes (mouth, pharynx, vagina, bladder, large or small intestine)

Inflammation and ulceration

Having features of inflammation-that is redness, swelling, and heat

Inflammatory

IGRT

Intensity modulated gated radiation therapy

An advanced mode of high-precision radiotherapy that uses computer controlled linear accelerators to deliver precise radiation doses to a malignant tumor

Intensity modulated radiation therapy

IMRT

Intensity modulated radiation therapy

Brachytherapy is the implantation of small, sealed containers or seeds of radioactive material directly into the tumor (___ therapy); or in a cavity of the tumor (intracavitary therapy)

Interstitial

Brachytherapy is the implantation of small, sealed containers or seeds of radioactive material directly into the tumor (interstitial therapy); or in a cavity of the tumor (___ therapy)

Intracavitary

The goal of radiation therapy is to deliver a maximal dose of ___ ___ to the tumor tissue and a minimal dose to the surrounding normal tissue

Ionizing radiation

Exposure to any form of radiant energy such as light, heat, or x-rays

Irradiation

High dose ___ (exposure of tissue to radiation) destroys tumor cells and produces damage to DNA

Irradiation

___ is exposure to any form of radiation

Irradiation

Malignant tumors are composed of cancerous cells that resemble primitive cells and ___ the capacity to perform mature cell functions. This characteristic of malignant tumors is called anaplasia

Lack

Visual examination of the abdominal cavity using small incisions and a laparoscope

Laparoscopy

Fractionation allows ___ total doses to be given while causing less damage to normal tissue

Larger

Some viruses are carcinogenic. For example, the human T cell leukemia virus (HTLV1) causes a form of ___ in adults

Leukemia

The results of a cytogenetic analysis can help confirm the diagnosis of a particular form of ___ or other cancer

Leukemia

___ used to be an occupational hazard of radiologists, who were routinely exposed to x-rays

Leukemia

___ and ___ ___ are tumors derived from bone marrow

Leukemia and multiple myeloma

External beam irradiation is radiation therapy applied to a tumor from a distant source (___ ___)

Linear accelerator

Large electronic device that produces high energy x-ray beams for treatment of deep-seated tumors

Linear accelerator

Large electronic device that produces high-energy x-ray beams for the treatment of deep-seated tumors

Linear accelerator

Test done on a sample of blood to look for cancer cells, or pieces of DNA from tumor cells

Liquid biopsy

Sarcomas are also malignant tumors but are less common than carcinomas. They derive from connective tissues in the body, such as bone, fat, muscle, cartilage, and bone marrow and from cells of the ___ ___

Lymphatic system

Malignant ___ may display diffuse involvement of lymph nodes

Lymphomas

___, such as Hodgkin, Burkitt, and follicular types, are derived from immune cells of the lymphatic system

Lymphomas

Various kinds of damage to DNA result in ___

Malignancy

Benign polyps of the colon have a significant risk of becoming ___ over time and should be removed to prevent cancer

Malignant

___ tumors of epithelial origin are named by using the term carcinoma and adding the type of tissue in which the tumor occurs

Malignant

A bone marrow biopsy is the aspiration of bone marrow tissue and examination under a microscope for evidence of ___ ___

Malignant cells

Malignant cells are anaplastic; that is, their DNA stops making normal codes that allow the cells to carry on the function of differentiating mature cells. Instead, new signals lead to ___ ___ and spread of tumor cells

Malignant growth

Tumor having the characteristics of continuous growth, invasiveness, and metastasis

Malignant tumor

Cancer cells accumulate as growths called ___ ___ that compress, invade, and ultimately destroy the surrounding normal tissue

Malignant tumors

Tumors may either be ___ (capable of invasion and spread to surrounding or more distant sites) or ___ (noninvasive and not spreading to other sites)

Malignant, benign

X-ray examination of the breast to detect breast cancer

Mammography

Pleo

Many

Ple/o

Many, more

-oma

Mass, tumor

Malignant cells are anaplastic; that is, their DNA stops making normal codes that allow the cells to carry on the function of differentiating ___ ___. Instead, new signals lead to malignant growth and spread of tumor cells

Mature cells

When grading a tumor, the pathologist is concerned with the microscopic appearance of the tumor cells, specifically with their degree of ___ and ___

Maturity and differentiation

The term ___ ___ is used to describe embryonic connective tissue from which sarcomas are derived

Mesenchymal tissue

Mets

Metastases

Spread of a malignant tumor to a secondary site

Metastasis

The secondary tumor growth is called a ___

Metastasis

What does the M stand for in TNM?

Metastasis

Cells from benign tumors do not spread or ___ to form secondary tumor masses in distant places in the body

Metastasize

Staging relies on careful definition of the size and possible ___ ___ of the tumor, using computed tomography, combination positron emission tomography (PET-CT), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans and radionuclide bone scans

Metastatic spread

What is an example of a antimetabolite?

Methotrexate

In grading and staging systems, doctors classify tumors on the basis of ___ ___ (grade) and the extent of spread (stage). These two properties influence the diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis for cancer patients

Microscopic appearance

When grading a tumor, the pathologist is concerned with the ___ ___ of the tumor cells, specifically with their degree of maturity and differentiation

Microscopic appearance

Appearance of tumors when viewed under a microscope: alveolar, carcinoma in situ, diffuse, dysplastic, epidermoid, follicular, papillary, pleomorphic, scirrhous, or undifferentiated

Microscopic description of tumors

Mes

Middle

The goal of radiation therapy is to deliver a maximal dose of ionizing radiation to the tumor tissue and a ___ dose to the surrounding normal tissue

Minimal

Chemotherapeutic agent: Antimitotics are chemicals block the function of a protein that is necessary for ___. They are derived from bacteria, fungi, or plants, or from small sea animals found on coral reefs

Mitosis

Replication of cells; a stage in a cell's life cycle involving the production of two identical cells from a parent cell

Mitosis

When a cell divides, the DNA material in each chromosomes copies itself so that exactly the same DNA is passed to the two new daughter cells that are formed. This process of cell division is called ___

Mitosis

What are the two functions of DNA?

Mitosis and protein synthesis

These are antibodies created in a laboratory by special reproductive techniques. They are designed to attack specific cancer cells directly, or to activate T cells to kill the tumor

Monoclonal antibodies

___ ___ can block this checkpoint brake and allow the normal T cell population to expand and destroy the tumor. These antibodies, called checkpoint inhibitors, are used to treat melanoma, lymphoma, lung, kidney, bladder, and colon cancers

Monoclonal antibodies

Condition of being unwell or deficient in normal function

Morbidity

___ tumors are filled with mucus

Mucinous

Acute radiotherapy side effect: Inflammation and ulceration of mucous membranes (mouth, pharynx, vagina, bladder, large or small intestine)

Mucositis

Inflammation of the mucous membrane

Mucositis

Mucos/o

Mucous membrane

Acute radiotherapy side effect: Inflammation and ulceration of ___ ___ (mouth, pharynx, vagina, bladder, large or small intestine)

Mucous membranes

Pertaining to causing genetic change

Mutagenic

Change in the genetic material (DNA) of a cell; may be caused by chemicals, radiation, or viruses or may occur spontaneously

Mutation

Oncogenes are pieces of normal DNA that, when activated by a ___, can concert a normal cell to a cancerous cell

Mutation

Process of genetic change

Mutation

The specific DNA damage usually involves changes in the cell's DNA codes, creating abnormal genes with changes called ___

Mutations

___ interfere with the accurate synthesis of new proteins and can be passed on to new cells during cell division

Mutations

Oncogene associated with lymphoma

Myc

Acute radiotherapy side effect: Bone marrow depression (anemia, leukopenia, and thrombocytopenia)

Myelosuppression

Bone marrow depression

Myelosuppression

Acute radiotherapy side effect: Uneasiness of the stomach and emptying of its contents-more common with irradiation of the brain and GI tract

Nausea and vomiting

Containing dead tissue

Necrotic

A ___ ___ is the insertion of a fine needle and aspiration of a sample from a fluid-filled cavity or solid mass of tumor

Needle biopsy

Drugs are given before primary therapy (surgery or radiation) to reduce the size of a tumor

Neoadjuvant chemotherapy

___ ___ is administered before surgery to reduce the size of a tumor, such as breast or head and neck cancer

Neoadjuvant chemotherapy

New growth; benign or malignant tumor

Neoplasm

What is another name for tumors?

Neoplasms

Neur/o

Nerve

A neuroblastoma is a sarcoma of the ___ ___ origin

Nervous system

Sarcoma of nervous system origin and affects infants and children up to the age of 10 years, usually arising in immature tissues of the autonomic nervous system or adrenal medulla

Neuroblastoma

Genetic disorder with multiple benign fibrous tumors that grow anywhere in the nervous system including the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves

Neurofibromatosis

NF

Neurofibromatosis

Tumors begin in supporting cells of nerves and the myelin sheath around nerve cells. Most tumors are benign but some may become cancerous. It is a genetic disorder

Neurofibromatosis

Neo-

New

Mutations interfere with the accurate synthesis of ___ ___ and can be passed on to new cells during cell division

New proteins

Papill/o

Nipple-like

NED

No evidence of disease

What does N stand for in TNM?

Nodes

NSCLC

Non small cell lung cancer

NHL

Non-Hodgkin lymphoma

Grade I tumors are very well differentiated, so that they are closely resemble ___ ___

Normal cells

The ideal is to administer drugs that kill large numbers of tumor cells without harming ___ ___

Normal cells

Malignant cells are anaplastic; that is, their DNA stops making ___ ___ that allow the cells to carry on the function of differentiating mature cells. Instead, new signals lead to malignant growth and spread of tumor cells

Normal codes

Oncogenes are pieces of normal DNA that, when activated by a mutation, can concert a ___ cell to a ___ cell

Normal, cancerous

Apo-

Off, away

Region of DNA in tumor cells or in viruses that cause cancer

Oncogene

In normal persons, these suppressor genes regulate growth, promote differentiation, and suppress ___ from causing cancer

Oncogenes

___ are pieces of normal DNA that, when activated by a mutation, can concert a normal cell to a cancerous cell

Oncogenes

Molecularly targeted cancer therapy uses drugs to attack specific ___ ___ that drive cancer cell growth

Oncogenic mutations

Study of tumors

Oncology

Anaplastic cells lack an ___ arrangement

Orderly

Benign tumors are composed of ___ and ___ (differentiated) cells that closely resemble the normal, mature tissue from which they are derived

Organized and specialized

A benign tumor of the bone is called an ___

Osteoma

A malignant tumor of bone

Osteosarcoma

Radiotherapy, although it may be either ___ (relieving symptoms) or curative, can produce undesirable side effects to any normal body tissues that are caught in the field of irradiation

Palliative

The ___ ___ to detect carcinoma of the cervix and vagina is an example of exfoliative cytology

Pap test

Forming small, finger-like or nipple-like projections of cells

Papillary

Pertaining to nipple-like

Papillary

PR

Partial response

Possessing a stem or stalk; characteristic of some polypoid tumors

Pedunculated

___ polypoid tumors extend from a stem or stalk

Pedunculated

___ ___ with removal of the uterus, ovaries, bladder, and segments of the large bowel may be performed to treat large primary tumors of the uterus

Pelvic exenteration

In ___ ___ ___ ___ ___, immature blood cells called stem cells are selected and harvested from the blood of a patient instead of from the bone marrow

Peripheral blood stem cell transplantation

PSCT

Peripheral stem cell transplantation

Laparoscopy is also known as ___

Peritoneoscopy

-tic

Pertaining to

___ ___ of clinical trials: The experimental drug or treatment is tested in a small group of people (20 to 80) for the first time to evaluate its safety. Also determines a safe dosage range and schedule of administration

Phase I

___ ___ of clinical trials: Experimental treatment is given to a larger group of subjects (100-200) with a specific type of cancer to identify tumor response rate and define safety risks

Phase II

___ ___ of clinical trials: A larger and more definitive trial is conducted in which hundreds or thousands of subjects take part. Patients are randomly assigned to the new treatment or to a standard, established treatment. The effectiveness and overall risk-versus-benefit ratio for the experimental treatment are compared with the results of those for standard treatment. A new drug may be approve by the FDA

Phase III

___ ___ of clinical trials: Large studies are conducted after the FDA has granted its initial approval of a new treatment for marketing. These trials are designed to monitor safety in large populations and identify new indications and new drug combinations beyond those already approved

Phase IV

The new chromosome formed from this translocation is called the ___ ___

Philadelphia chromosome

A linear accelerator produces ___ ___ to treat tumors

Photon beams

Radiation therapy using energy in the form of x-rays or gamma rays

Photon therapy

Radiation therapy using x-rays or gamma rays

Photon therapy

PET-CT uses a combination of two machines: one to examine chemical reactions (PET scan) and the other to examine ___ ___ (CT scan)

Physical structures

Although most cancers result from chance mutations in body cells during a person's lifetime, examples of known inherited cancers are retinoblastoma (tumor of the retina of the eye), adenomatous polyposis coli syndrome (___ ___ that grow in the colon and rectum), and certain forms of colon, breast, and kidney cancer

Premalignant polyps

Fiberoptic colonoscopy is an important screening procedure using an endoscope to detect cancer and remove ___ ___

Premalignant polyps

Cels from malignant tumors can detach themselves from the ___ ___ site, penetrate a blood vessel or lymphatic vessel, travel through the bloodstream or lymphatic system, and establish a new tumor site at a distant tissue, such as the lung, liver, or bone marrow

Primary tumor

In other patients who have metastases, surgical removal of the ___ ___ prevents local spread or complications, even in the presence of distant disease

Primary tumor

A debulking procedure may be used to remove as much of the ___ ___ ___ as possible, even if the tumor is attached to a vital organ and cannot be completely removed

Primary tumor mass

-tion

Process

Subacute radiotherapy side effect: Inflammation of the rectum and anus

Proctitis

Grading often is of value in determining the ___ for certain types of cancers, such as cancer of the urinary bladder, prostate gland, and ovary and brain tumors

Prognosis

PD

Progressive disease

PSA

Prostate specific antigen

Chemotherapeutic agent: Antimitotics are chemicals block the function of a ___ that is necessary for mitosis. They are derived from bacteria, fungi, or plants, or from small sea animals found on coral reefs

Protein

Each DNA piece, or gene, contains the code for making a single ___

Protein

Measure the level of proteins in the blood or on the surface of tumor cells

Protein marker tests

DNA controls the production of new proteins (___ ___) in the cell

Protein synthesis

RNA travels from the nucleus to the cytoplasm of the cell, carrying the coded message that directs the formation of specific ___

Proteins

prot.

Protocol

PSRS

Proton stereotactic radiosurgery

Small subatomic positively charged particles produced by a cyclotron deposit all the energy at a focused finite point

Proton therapy

Subatomic positively charged particles produced by a cyclotron deposit a dose of radiation at a tightly focused point in the body

Proton therapy

New techniques of irradiation use high-energy beams of ___ to improve the uniformity of dose and to limit damage to normal tissues

Protons

Gene for retinoblastoma

RB1

Cellular substance that represents a copy of DNA and directs the formation of new protein inside cells

RNA

In the nucleus, the coded message with instructions for making a specific protein is copied from DNA onto another molecule called ___

RNA

Energy carried by a stream of particles

Radiation

Use of radioactive substances in the diagnosis and treatment of disease

Radiation

___, whatever its source-sunlight, x-rays, radioactive substances-consists of waves of energy. This energy causes DNA damage and mutations that lead to cancer

Radiation

Dimensions of the area of the body undergoing irradiation

Radiation fields

Dimensions of the size of radiation area used to treat a tumor from a specific angle

Radiation fields

RT

Radiation therapy

RT, XRT

Radiation therapy

The goal of ___ ___ is to deliver a maximal dose of ionizing radiation to the tumor tissue and a minimal dose to the surrounding normal tissue

Radiation therapy

Treatment of tumors using doses of radiation; radiation oncology; radiation therapy

Radiation therapy

Brachytherapy is the implantation of small, sealed containers or seeds of ___ material directly into the tumor (interstitial therapy); or in a cavity of the tumor (intracavitary therapy)

Radioactive

Tumor that can be completely eradicated by radiation therapy

Radiocurable tumor

Tumor that is completely destroying by radiation therapy. Early Hodgkin lymphoma is an example

Radiocurable tumor

Radioactive substances (radionuclides) are injected intravenously and scans of organs are obtained

Radionuclide scans

Tumor that requires large doses of radiation to produce death of cells

Radioresistant tumor

Partial or complete disappearance of symptoms of disease

Remission

Usually, drug therapy is continued until the patient achieves a complete ___ (absence of all signs of disease)

Remission

-oid

Resembling

Epidermoid cells often occur in the ___ ___

Respiratory tract

Although most cancers result from chance mutations in body cells during a person's lifetime, examples of known inherited cancers are ___ (tumor of the retina of the eye), adenomatous polyposis coli syndrome (premalignant polyps that grow in the colon and rectum), and certain forms of colon, breast, and kidney cancer

Retinoblastoma

Childhood cancer arising from immature cells in the retina

Retinoblastoma

RNA

Ribonucleic acid

Cyst/o

Sac of fluid

Cancerous tumor derived from connective or flesh tissue

Sarcoma

Malignant tumors of connective tissue origin are frequently named using the term ___

Sarcoma

The term mesenchymal tissue is used to describe embryonic connective tissue from which ___ are derived

Sarcomas

___ are also malignant tumors but are less common than carcinomas. They derive from connective tissues in the body, such as bone, fat, muscle, cartilage, and bone marrow and from cells of the lymphatic system

Sarcomas

Densely packed tumors, due to dense bands of fibrous tissue

Scirrhous

Microscopic description of densely packed, fibrous tumor cell composition

Scirrhous

Late radiotherapy side effect: New types of tumors in separate sites (leukemias and solid tumors such as carcinomas and sarcomas)

Secondary tumors

An imaging study performed before radiation therapy using CT scan and/or MRI to map the area to receive treatment

Simulation

Study using CT scan or MRI to map the area to receive treatment before radiotherapy is given

Simulation

___ is required for all patients undergoing radiotherapy

Simulation

Neoadjuvant chemotherapy is administered before surgery to reduce the ___ of a tumor, such as breast or head and neck cancer

Size

Staging relies on careful definition of the ___ and possible metastatic spread of the tumor, using computed tomography, combination positron emission tomography (PET-CT), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans and radionuclide bone scans

Size

T in TNM stands for tumor and the ___ and ___ of local extension

Size and degree

Tumor cells vary in ___ and ___ and are piled one on top of the other in a disorganized fashion

Size and shape

Inflammatory changes result from tumor blockage of the lymphatic drainage of the ___, as in breast cancer

Skin

Dysplastic nevi are often forerunners of ___ ___

Skin cancers

Electron beams are low-energy beams for treatment of ___ or ___ tumors

Skin, surface

Benign tumors grow very ___

Slowly

Follicul/o

Small glandular sacs

Alveol/o

Small sac

Fractionation is a method of dividing radiation into ___, ___ doses rather than fewer large doses

Small, repeated

Medull/o

Soft, inner part

Tumor composed of a mass of cells

Solid tumor

Immunohistochemistry allows for evaluation of the presence and amount of ___ ___ in normal and tumor cells

Specific molecules

The staging of cancerous tumors is based on the extent of ___ of the tumor

Spread

Single large dose of radiation is delivered under precise three-dimensional guidance from multiple angles to destroy vascular abnormalities and small brain tumors

Stereotactic radiosurgery

Technique in which a single large dose of radiation is delivered under precise 3D guidance to destroy vascular abnormalities and small brain tumors

Stereotactic radiosurgery

In many cases, it is believed that these tumors arise because of inherited or acquired abnormalities in certain genes called ___ ___

Suppressor genes

Adjuvant chemotherapy is the administration of drug treatment after ___ to kill any residual cancer cells

Surgery

Neoadjuvant drug treatment allows for a lesser ___ and improvement of outcome

Surgery

Chemotherapy may be used alone or in combination with ___ and ___ to improve cure rates

Surgery and irradiation

In many patients with cancer, the tumor is discovered before it has spread, and it may be cured by ___ ___

Surgical excision

Methods of removing cancerous tissue; cyrosurgery, cauterization, en bloc resection, excisional biopsy, exenteration, fulguration, incisional biopsy

Surgical procedures to treat cancer

In another example of immunotherapy, monoclonal antibodies are used to activate ___ ___ ___

T cell lymphocytes

In chronic myeloid leukemia, the gene abl is activated to become an oncogene when two different chromosomes switch locations. This mutation is called a ___

Translocation

-therapy

Treatment

Brachytherapy is the implantation of small, sealed containers or seeds of radioactive material directly into the ___ (interstitial therapy); or in a cavity of the tumor (intracavitary therapy)

Tumor

Malignant cells are anaplastic; that is, their DNA stops making normal codes that allow the cells to carry on the function of differentiating mature cells. Instead, new signals lead to malignant growth and spread of ___ cells

Tumor

Onc/o

Tumor

The goal of radiation therapy is to deliver a maximal dose of ionizing radiation to the ___ tissue and a minimal dose to the surrounding normal tissue

Tumor

What does the T in TNM stand for?

Tumor

Radionuclide scans detect ___ and ___

Tumor and metastases

Inflammatory changes result from ___ ___ of the lymphatic drainage of the skin, as in breast cancer

Tumor blockage

Fine needle aspiration is placement of a very thin needle inside the ___ ___ and extracting cells for microscopic evaluation

Tumor mass

Acute radiotherapy side effect: Dryness of the mouth-with salivary gland irradiation

Xerostomia

Dry mouth

Xerostomia